FUNDAMENTALS OF GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS

Course Description
INTRODUCTION TO GIS (Definitions, Functions of GIS); COMPONENTS OF GIS ((1) Liveware: People and
Procedures, (2) Hardware, (3) Software - Open Source Software, Commercial or Proprietary GIS
Software, GIS Software Case Study: ArcGIS, (4) GIS Data, GIS Data types - Vector Data, Raster data,
Tabular/Attribute data & Meta data, GIS Data Sources and capture); REALMS OF GIS APPLICATION;
FUTURE OF GIS (Components, Applications etc);GIS HANDS-ON PRACTICALS

Course Textbooks
 Concepts and Techniques of Geographic Information Systems CP Lo Albert K W Yeung, 2005
Prentice Hall of India.
 Longley, P. (2014). Geographic information systems and science (1st ed.). [S.l.]: John Wiley.
 Geographic Information Systems – An introduction by Tor Bernhardsen, John Wiley and Sons, Inc,
New York, 2002.
 ITC. (2001).Principles of Geographic Information Systems. ITC Educational Textbook Series 1.
 Chang, K. (2009). Introduction to Geographical Information Systems. 5th Edition. McGraw Hill.
Boston.
 Burrough P A and McDonnel R A .(1998). Principles of GIS, Oxford University Press
 Longley P.A., Goodchild M.F., Maguire D.J., Rhind D.W. (2005). Geographic Information Systems
and Science, 2nd Edition. New York: John Wiley

Reference Textbooks
 GIS – A computing Perspective by Micheal F. Worboys, Taylor & Francis, 2012.
 Remote Sensing and Image Interpretation by Thomas M. Lillesand and Ralph W. Kiefer, John Wiley
and Sons Inc., New York, 2008.
 Geographical Information Systems – Principles and Applications, Volume I edited by David J.
Maguire, Micheal F Goodchild and David W Rhind, John Wiley Sons. Inc., New York 2010.

Course journals
 Journal of Geographic Information System
 International Journal on Advances of Computer Science for Geographic Information Systems

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 FUNDAMENTALS OF GIS: ABRIDGED COURSE NOTES

1. INTRODUCTION TO GIS

A Geographic Information System (GIS) is a system designed to capture, store, manipulate, analyze,
manage, and present spatial or geographic data. The acronym GIS is sometimes used for geographic
information science (GIScience) to refer to the academic discipline that studies geographic information
systems and is a large domain within the broader academic discipline of geoinformatics. What goes
beyond a GIS is a spatial data infrastructure, a concept that has no such restrictive boundaries.

In general, the term describes any information system that integrates stores, edits, analyzes, shares, and
displays geographic information. GIS applications are tools that allow users to create interactive queries
(user-created searches), analyze spatial information, edit data in maps, and present the results of all
these operations. Geographic information science is the science underlying geographic concepts,
applications, and systems.

GIS is a broad term that can refer to a number of different technologies, processes, and methods. It is
attached to many operations and has many applications related to engineering, planning, management,
transport/logistics, insurance, telecommunications, and business. For that reason, GIS and location
intelligence applications can be the foundation for many location-enabled services that rely on analysis
and visualization.

GIS can relate unrelated information by using location as the key index variable. Locations or extents in
the Earth space–time may be recorded as dates/times of occurrence, and x, y, and z coordinates
representing, longitude, latitude, and elevation, respectively. All Earth-based spatial–temporal location
and extent references should be relatable to one another and ultimately to a "real" physical location or
extent. This key characteristic of GIS has begun to open new avenues of scientific inquiry.

A GIS is a computer-based tool for mapping and analyzing things that exist and events that happen on
earth. GIS technology integrates common database operations such as query and statistical analysis with
the unique visualization and geographic analysis benefits offered by maps. These abilities distinguish GIS
from other information systems and make it valuable to a wide range of public and private enterprises
for explaining events, predicting outcomes, and planning strategies.

In short, a GIS is an instrument for:

 Collection,
 Visualization,
 Analysis,
 Presentation, and
 Management of spatial data

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It is a database that links information to location. A GIS stores information about the world as a collection
of thematic layers that can be linked together by geography. This simple but extremely powerful and
versatile concept has proven invaluable for solving many real-world problems.

Various scholars and organizations define GIS differently. Two organizations are cited.
The ITC in the Netherlands summarizes the definition of GIS as follows:
“In a nutshell, we can define a GIS as a computerized system that facilitates the phases of
data entry, data analysis and data presentation especially in cases when we are dealing with
geo-referenced data. This means that a GIS user will expect support from the system to enter
(geo-referenced) data, to analyse it in various ways, and to produce presentations (maps and
other) from the data.” (ITC, 2001).

ESRI defines GIS as follows:

“An organised collection of computer hardware, software, geographic data and
personnel designed to efficiently capture, store, update, manipulate, analyse, and
display all forms of geographically referenced information,” ESRI.

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1.1 History of Development

The first known use of the term "geographic information system" was by Roger Tomlinson in the year
1968 in his paper "A GIS for Regional Planning".Tomlinson is also acknowledged as the "father of GIS".
Previously, one of the first applications of spatial analysis in epidemiology is the 1832. The French
geographer Charles Picquet represented the 48 districts of the city of Paris by halftone color gradient
according to the number of deaths by cholera per 1,000 inhabitants. In 1854 John Snow determined the
source of a cholera outbreak in London by marking points on a map depicting where the cholera victims
lived, and connecting the cluster that he found with a nearby water source. This was one of the earliest
successful uses of a geographic methodology in epidemiology. While the basic elements
of topography and theme existed previously in cartography, the John Snow map was unique, using
cartographic methods not only to depict but also to analyze clusters of geographically dependent
phenomena.

The early 20th century saw the development of photozincography, which allowed maps to be split into
layers, for example one layer for vegetation and another for water. This was particularly used for
printing contours – drawing these was a labour-intensive task but having them on a separate layer
meant they could be worked on without the other layers to confuse the draughtsman. This work was
originally drawn on glass plates but later plastic film was introduced, with the advantages of being
lighter, using less storage space and being less brittle, among others. When all the layers were finished,
they were combined into one image using a large process camera. Once color printing came in, the layers
idea was also used for creating separate printing plates for each color. While the use of layers much later
became one of the main typical features of a contemporary GIS, the photographic process just described
is not considered to be a GIS in itself – as the maps were just images with no database to link them to.

Computer hardware development spurred by nuclear weapon research led to general-purpose computer
"mapping" applications by the early 1960s. The year 1960 saw the development of the world's first true
operational GIS in Ottawa, Ontario, Canada by the federal Department of Forestry and Rural
Development. Developed by Dr. Roger Tomlinson, it was called the Canada Geographic Information
System (CGIS) and was used to store, analyze, and manipulate data collected for the Canada Land
Inventory – an effort to determine the land capability for rural Canada by mapping information
about soils, agriculture, recreation, wildlife, waterfowl, forestry and land use at a scale of 1:50,000. A
rating classification factor was also added to permit analysis. CGIS was an improvement over "computer
mapping" applications as it provided capabilities for overlay, measurement, and digitizing/scanning. It
supported a national coordinate system that spanned the continent, coded lines as arcs having a true
embedded topology and it stored the attribute and locational information in separate files. As a result of
this, Tomlinson has become known as the "father of GIS", particularly for his use of overlays in
promoting the spatial analysis of convergent geographic data.

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CGIS lasted into the 1990s and built a large digital land resource database in Canada. It was developed as
a mainframe-based system in support of federal and provincial resource planning and management. Its
strength was continent-wide analysis of complex datasets. The CGIS was never available commercially.
In 1964 Howard T. Fisher formed the Laboratory for Computer Graphics and Spatial Analysis at
the Harvard Graduate School of Design (LCGSA 1965–1991), where a number of important theoretical
concepts in spatial data handling were developed, and which by the 1970s had distributed seminal
software code & systems, such as SYMAP, GRID, and ODYSSEY – that served as sources for subsequent
commercial development to universities, research centers and corporations worldwide.

By the late 1970s two public domain GIS systems (MOSS and GRASS GIS) were in development, and by
the early 1980s, M&S Computing (later Intergraph) along with Bentley Systems Incorporated for
the CAD platform, Environmental Systems Research Institute (ESRI), CARIS (Computer Aided Resource
Information System), MapInfo Corporation and ERDAS (Earth Resource Data Analysis System) emerged
as commercial vendors of GIS software, successfully incorporating many of the CGIS features, combining
the first generation approach to separation of spatial and attribute information with a second generation
approach to organizing attribute data into database structures.

In 1986, Mapping Display and Analysis System (MIDAS), the first desktop GIS product was released for
the DOS operating system. This was renamed in 1990 to MapInfo for Windows when it was ported to
the Microsoft Windows platform. This began the process of moving GIS from the research department
into the business environment. By the end of the 20th century, the rapid growth in various systems had
been consolidated and standardized on relatively few platforms and users were beginning to explore
viewing GIS data over the Internet, requiring data format and transfer standards. More recently, a
growing number of free, open-source GIS packages run on a range of operating systems and can be
customized to perform specific tasks. Increasingly geospatial data and mapping applications are being
made available via the World Wide Web.

1.2 Functions OF GIS

GIS are in use in a wide variety of professional disciplines. Basically, all activities and decision making
processes relying on spatial information can to various degrees make use of GIS. Among those activities
and decision making processes one can mention (in disorder): real time traffic monitoring and route
optimisation, urban planning and development, land use planning and sustainable management of
natural resources, target consumer marketing, agricultural production, hydrologic modelling, evacuation
and other emergency plans, geo-information education and teaching, etc.

Research and the understanding of spatial processes also have a wide range of areas of interest in which
GIS are used to analyse and model real-world data.

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All these disciplines, whether applied, or academic in nature, use GIS and other spatial analysis and
decision support systems along five important lines:
 Mapping
 Measuring
 Monitoring
 Modelling
 Managing

These activity lines above have been called (LONGLEY et al., 2001) as the 5 “M’s” of GIS.

When focusing on the data, general purpose geographic information systems essentially perform
five processes or tasks:

1. Input: Before geographic data can be used in a GIS, the data must be converted into a suitable digital
format. The process of converting data from paper maps into computer files is called digitizing.
Modern GIS technology can automate this process fully for large projects using scanning
technology; smaller jobs may require some manual digitizing (using a digitizing table, or on-
screen). In conjunction with GPS technology, that allows measuring the coordinates of a
punctual or linear feature, GIS can also integrate locational information gathered during field
work in a simple and efficient manner.

2. Management: For small GIS projects it may be sufficient to store geographic information as simple
files. However, when data volumes become large and the number of data users becomes more
than a few, it is often best to use a database management system (DBMS) to help store, organize,
and manage data. A DBMS is nothing more than computer software for managing a database.
There are many different designs of DBMS‘s, but in GIS the relational design has been the most
useful. In the relational design, data are stored conceptually as a collection of tables. Common
fields in different tables are used to link them together. This surprisingly simple design has
been so widely used primarily because of its flexibility and very wide deployment in
applications both within and without GIS.

3. Manipulation: It is likely that data types required for a particular GIS project will need to be
transformed or manipulated in some way to make them compatible with your system. For
example, geographic information is available at different scales. Before this information can be
integrated, it must be transformed to the same scale (degree of detail or accuracy). This could
be a temporary transformation for display purposes or a permanent one required for analysis.
GIS technology offers many tools for manipulating spatial data and for weeding out unnecessary
data.

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4. Visualization: For many types of geographic operation the end result is best visualized as a map or
graph. Maps are very efficient at storing and communicating geographic information. While
cartographers have created maps for millennia, GIS provides new and exciting tools to extend
the art and science of cartography. Map displays can be integrated with reports, three-
dimensional views, photographic images, and other output such as multimedia.
5. Query and Analysis: GIS provides both simple point-and-click query capabilities and sophisticated
analysis tools to provide timely information to managers and analysts alike. GIS technology
really comes into its own when used to analyze geographic data to look for patterns and trends
and to undertake "what if" scenarios.
Modern GIS‘s have many powerful analytical tools, but two are especially important:
a) Proximity Analysis: How many houses lie within 100 m of this water main? To answer
such a question, GIS technology uses a process called buffering to determine the
proximity relationship between features.
b) Overlay Analysis: The integration of different data layers involves a process called
overlay. At its simplest, this could be a visual operation, but analytical operations require
one or more data layers to be joined physically. This overlay, or spatial join, can integrate
data on soils, slope, and vegetation, or land ownership with tax assessment.

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2. COMPONENTS OF GIS

A working GIS integrates five key components: hardware, software, data, people, and methods.
Possibly the most important component of a GIS is the data. Geographic data and related tabular data
can be collected in-house or purchased from a
commercial data provider.

A GIS will integrate spatial data with other data

resources and can even use a DBMS, used by most
organizations to organize and maintain their data, to
manage spatial data. GIS technology is of limited value
without the people who manage the system and
develop plans for applying it to real-world problems.
GIS users range from technical specialists, who design
and maintain the system to those who use it to help
them perform their daily work. A successful GIS
operates according to a well-designed plan and
business rules, which are the models and operating practices unique to each organization.

2.1 Hardware

Computer hardware is the collection of physical components that constitute a computer system.
Computer hardware is the physical parts or components of a computer, such as monitor, keyboard,
computer data storage, hard disk drive (HDD), graphic card, sound card, memory (RAM), motherboard,
and so on, all of which are tangible physical objects.

By contrast, software is instructions that can be stored and run by hardware. Hardware is directed by the
software to execute any command or instruction. A combination of hardware and software forms a
usable computing system

In terms of GIS, Hardware is the computer on which a GIS operates. Today, GIS software runs on a wide
range of hardware types, from centralized server workstations to desktop computers used in stand-
alone or networked configurations. Apart from the processing unit (the computer) GIS also often
requires a range of peripheral hardware: Printers or plotters are used for the production of hardcopies;
CD-ROM drives, or DVD-ROM drives and the adequate media are used to issue digital data to project
partners, or clients; GPS receivers can be used to reference aerial photos, or satellite images and to
measure spatial features in the field; etc.

In summary GIS hardware comprise of four components as summarized in table 1 below.

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Table 1: GIS Hardware Components
Component Example
1 computers Desktops, laptops, handhelds
2 Data storage Local hand disks, network storage, CDs, tapes, portable discs
3 Data input Digitizing tablet, scanners, computer keyboards and mouse, GPS, digital
cameras
4 Data output Printers, plotters, web, etc

2.2 Software

GIS software provides the functions and tools needed to store, analyze, and display geographic
information.

Key software components are:

 Tools for the input and manipulation of geographic information
 A database management system (DBMS)
 Tools that support geographic query, analysis, and visualization
 A graphical user interface (GUI) for easy access to tools

GIS software encompasses a broad range of applications which involve the use of a combination of digital
maps and georeferenced data. GIS software can be sorted into two main categories: Open source and
commercial software products.

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2.2.1 Open Source Software

The Open Geospatial Consortium Standards

The Open Geospatial Consortium (OGC) is an international industry consortium of 384 companies,
government agencies, universities, and individuals participating in a consensus process to develop
publicly available geoprocessing specifications. Open interfaces and protocols defined by Open GIS
Specifications support interoperable solutions that "geo-enable" the Web, wireless and location-based
services, and mainstream IT, and empower technology developers to make complex spatial information
and services accessible and useful with all kinds of applications. Open Geospatial Consortium protocols
include Web Map Service, and Web Feature Service.

GIS products are broken down by the OGC into two categories, based on how completely and accurately
the software follows the OGC specifications.

Compliant Products are software products that comply to OGC's OpenGIS Specifications. When a product
has been tested and certified as compliant through the OGC Testing Program, the product is
automatically registered as "compliant" on this site.

Implementing Products are software products that implement OpenGIS Specifications but have not yet
passed a compliance test. Compliance tests are not available for all specifications. Developers can
register their products as implementing draft or approved specifications, though OGC reserves the right
to review and verify each entry.

The development of open source GIS software has - in terms of software history - a long tradition with
the appearance of a first system in 1978. Numerous systems are available which cover all sectors of
geospatial data handling.

The Open Source software are generally divided into seven categories namely:
1) Desktop GIS
2) Web map servers
3) Spatial database management systems
4) Software development frameworks and libraries (for web applications)
5) Software development frameworks and libraries (non-web)
6) Cataloging application for spatially referenced resources
7) Other open-source tools

Table 2 (next page) summarizes the most common open-source desktop GIS tools

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Table 2: Open-Source GIS Tools
Name Of Open Source Software Description
A Desktop GIS
1 GRASS GIS Originally developed by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers: a
complete GIS.
2 gvSIG Written in Java. Runs on Linux, Unix, Mac OS X and Windows
3 ILWIS (Integrated Land and Integrates image, vector and thematic data.
Water Information System)
4 JUMP GIS / OpenJUMP Java Unified Mapping Platform) – The desktop GISs OpenJUMP,
((Open) SkyJUMP, deeJUMP and Kosmoall emerged from JUMP.

5 MapWindow GIS Free desktop application and programming component.

6 QGIS (previously known as Runs on Linux, Unix, Mac OS X and Windows.
Quantum GIS)
7 SAGA GIS (System for A hybrid GIS software. Has a unique Application Programming
Automated Geoscientific
Interface (API) and a fast-growing set of geoscientific methods,
Analysis) bundled in exchangeable Module Libraries.
8 uDig API and source code (Java) available.
9 Capaware A C++ 3D GIS Framework with a multiple plugin architecture for
geographic graphical analysis and visualization.
10 FalconView A mapping system created by the Georgia Tech Research Institute
for the Windows family of operating systems. A free, open source
version is available.
11 Kalypso Uses Java and GML3. Focuses mainly on numerical simulations in
water management.
12 TerraView Handles vector and raster data stored in a relational or geo-
relational database, i.e. a frontend forTerraLib.
13 Whitebox GAT Cross-platform, free and open-source GIS software.
B Open-Source Web Map Servers
1 GeoServer Written in Java and relies on GeoTools. Allows users to share and
edit geospatial data.
2 MapGuide Open Source Runs on Linux or Windows, supports Apache and IIS web servers,
and has APIs (PHP, .NET, Java, and JavaScript) for application
development.
3 Mapnik. C++/Python library for rendering - used by OpenStreetMap
4 MapServer Written in C. Developed by the University of Minnesota.
C Open-Source Spatial Database Management Systems
1 PostGIS Spatial extensions for the open source PostgreSQL database,
allowing geospatial queries.
2 SpatiaLite Spatial extensions for the open source SQLite database, allowing
geospatial queries.
3 TerraLib Provides advanced functions for GIS analysis.

D Open-Source Software Development Frameworks And Libraries (For Web Applications)

1 GeoBase (Telogis GIS Geospatial mapping software available as a software development
software) kit, which performs various functions including address lookup,
mapping, routing, reverse geocoding, and navigation. Suited for
high transaction enterprise environments.
2 OpenLayers Open source AJAX library for accessing geographic data layers of
all kinds, originally developed and sponsored by MetaCarta.
3 Leafletjs Open source JavaScript Library for Mobile-Friendly Interactive

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 Maps
4 Cesium An open-source JavaScript library for world-class 3D globes and
maps
E open-source Software development frameworks and libraries (non-web)
1 GeoTools Open source GIS toolkit written in Java, using Open Geospatial
Consortium specifications.
2 GDAL / OGR
3 Orfeo toolbox
F Open-Source Cataloging Application For Spatially Referenced Resources
1 GeoNetworkopensource A catalog application to manage spatially referenced resources
2 pycsw pycsw is an OGC CSW server implementation written in Python
G Other Open-Source Tools
1 Chameleon Environments for building applications with MapServer
2 MapPoint A technology ("MapPoint Web Service", previously known as
MapPoint .NET) and a specific computer program created by
Microsoft that allows users to view, edit and integrate maps.
MapPoint was discontinued on 12/31/2014.

2.2.2 Commercial or Proprietary GIS Software

Note: Almost all of the below companies offer Desktop GIS and WebMap Server products.

Table 3: Companies with High Market Share in Desktop GIS and WebMap Server products.
Name of Company Product Description
1 Autodesk Products that interface with its flagship AutoCAD software package
include Map 3D, Topobase, and MapGuide.
2 Bentley Systems Products that interface with its flagship MicroStation software
package include Bentley Map and Bentley Map View.
3 ENVI Utilized for image analysis, exploitation, and hyperspectral
analysis.
4 ERDAS IMAGINE by Products include Leica Photogrammetry Suite, ERDAS ER Mapper,
ERDAS Inc ERDAS ECW/JP2 SDK (ECW (file format)) are used throughout the
entire mapping community (GIS, Remote Sensing,
Photogrammetry, and image compression) and ERDAS APOLLO.
5 ESRI Products include ArcMap, ArcGIS, ArcSDE, ArcIMS, ArcWeb
services and ArcGIS Server.
6 Intergraph Products include G/Technology, GeoMedia, GeoMedia Professional,
GeoMediaWebMap, and add-on products for industry sectors, as
well as photogrammetry.
7 MapInfo by Pitney Powerful desktop GIS MapInfo Professional is enhanced with many
Bowes Software plug-ins including MapInfo Drivetime for route analysis, MapInfo
Engage 3D for 3D and statistical analysis, MapInfo MapMarker for
Geocoding.
8 Smallworld Developed in Cambridge, England (Smallworld, Inc.) and
purchased by General Electric. Used primarily by public utilities.

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Table 4: Companies with Minor But Notable Market Share
Name of Company Product Description
1 Cadcorp – Products include Cadcorp SIS, GeognoSIS, mSIS and developer
kits.
2 Caliper – Products include Maptitude, TransModeler and TransCAD.
3 Conform by GameSim – Software for fusing and visualizing elevation, imagery, vectors,
and LiDAR. The fused environment can be exported into 3D
formats for gaming, simulation, and urban planning.
4 Dragon/ips – Remote sensing software with GIS capabilities.
5 Geosoft – GIS and data processing software used in natural
resource exploration.
6 GeoTime – Software for 3D visual analysis and reporting of location data
over time; an ArcGIS extension is also available.
7 Global Mapper – GIS software package currently developed by Blue Marble
Geographics; originally based on USGS dlgv32 source code.
8 Golden Software – GIS and scientific software for a wide variety of professional
geological applications. Products include Surfer for gridding and
contouring, MapViewer for thematic mapping and spatial
analysis, Strater for well or borehole logging and cross
sections, Voxler for true 3D well and component
mapping, Didger for digitizing and coordinate conversion,
and Grapher for 2D and 3D graphing.
9 IDRISI – GIS and Image Processing product developed by Clark Labs
at Clark University. Affordable and robust, it is used for both
operations and education.
10 Kongsberg Gallium Products include InterMAPhics and InterView. High
Ltd. – performance GIS visualization and analytics toolkits supporting
multiple platforms, including flavors of Unix, Windows and
Android. Primarily intended for mission critical visualizations
11 MapDotNet – Framework written in C#/.NET for building WPF, Silverlight,
and HTML5 applications.
12 Manifold System – GIS software package.
13 CitySurf Globe – Server based 3D GIS software, developed by PiriReis.
14 Netcad – Desktop and web based GIS products developed by Ulusal CAD
ve GIS Çözümleri A.Ş.
15 RegioGraph by GfKGeo GIS software for business planning and analyses; company also
Marketing – provides compatible maps and market data.
16 RemoteView by RemoteView is one of the most widely used imagery analysis
Overwatch – tools within the US government to collect geospatial
intelligence.
17 SuperMap Inc. – A professional GIS software provider that offers Desktop,
Component, Web, and Mobile GIS for global markets.
18 TNTmips by A professional system integrating desktop GIS, advanced image
MicroImages – processing, 2D-3D-stereo visualization, desktop cartography,
geospatial database management, and webmap publishing.

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GIS as a Service

Many suppliers are now starting to offer Internet based services as well as or instead of downloadable
software and/or data. These can be free, funded by advertising or paid for on subscription; they split into
three areas in terms of provision of software, platform and data services:

1 SAAS – Software as a Service: Software available as a service on the Internet

 ArcGIS Online]
 CartoDB
 Mapbox – provider of custom online maps for websites

2 PAAS – Platform as a Service: Geocoding or analysis/processing services

 ArcGIS Online
 Google Maps Javascript API version 3
 Microsoft Bing Geocode Dataflow API
 US Census Geocoder

3 DAAS – Data as a Service: data or content services

 ArcGIS Online
 Apple Maps
 Google Maps
 OpenStreetMap
 Microsoft Bing Maps
Companies with high market share
o ArcGIS Online ; ESRI's cloud based version of ArcGIS
o CartoDB ; Online mapping platform who offers an open source, cloud based SAAS model.

2.2.3 GIS Software Case Study: ArcGIS

ArcGIS is a Geographic Information System (GIS) for

working with maps and geographic information. It is used
for: creating and using maps; compiling geographic data;
analyzing mapped information; sharing and discovering
geographic information; using maps and geographic
information in a range of applications; and managing
geographic information in a database.

The system provides an infrastructure for making maps

and geographic information available throughout an
organization, across a community, and openly on the Web.

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ArcGIS Product Levels and Components

ArcGIS consists of Desktop GIS products, as well as GIS products that run on a server, or on a mobile
device.

ArcGIS for Desktop

Product Levels
ArcGIS for Desktop is available at different product levels, with increasing functionality. i.e ArcGIS for
Desktop is licensed under three functionality levels:

1 ArcReader
ArcReader (freeware, viewer) is a basic data viewer for maps and GIS data published in the proprietary
ESRI format using ArcGIS Publisher. The software also provides some basic tools for map viewing,
printing and querying of spatial data. ArcReader is included with any of the ArcGIS suite of products, and
is also available for free to download. ArcReader only works with preauthored published map files,
created with ArcGIS Publisher. ArcReader allows one to view and query maps created with the other
ArcGIS products.

2 ArcGIS for Desktop Basic

Formerly known as ArcView, is the entry level of ArcGIS licensing offered. With ArcView, one is able to
view and edit GIS data held in flat files, or view data stored in a relational database management
system by accessing it through ArcSDE. ArcGIS for Desktop Basic allows one to view spatial data, create
layered maps, and perform basic spatial analysis.

3 ArcGIS for Desktop Standard

Formerly known as ArcEditor, is the midlevel software suite designed for advanced editing of spatial
data published in the proprietary ESRI format. It provides tools for the creation of map and spatial data
used in GIS, including the ability of editing geodatabase files and data, multiuser geodatabase editing,
versioning, raster data editing and vectorization, advanced vector data editing, managing coverages,
coordinate geometry (COGO), and editing geometric networks. ArcEditor is not intended for advanced
spatial analysis.

In addition to the functionality of ArcView, ArcGIS for Desktop Standard includes more advanced tools
for manipulation of shapefiles and geodatabases.

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ArcGIS for Desktop Advanced

Formerly known as ArcInfo, allows users the most flexibility and control in "all aspects of data building,
modeling, analysis, and map display." ArcInfo includes increased capability in the areas of spatial
analysis, geoprocessing, data management, and others. ArcGIS for Desktop Advanced includes
capabilities for data manipulation, editing, and analysis.

NOTE: There are also server-based ArcGIS products, as well as ArcGIS products for PDAs. Extensions can
be purchased separately to increase the functionality of ArcGIS.
Other desktop GIS software include ArcGIS Explorer and ArcGIS Engine. ArcGIS Explorer is a GIS viewer
which can work as a client for ArcGIS Server, ArcIMS, ArcWeb Services and Web Map Service(WMS).

ArcGIS Onlineis a web application allowing sharing and search of geographic information, as well as
content published by ESRI, ArcGIS users, and other authoritative data providers. It allows users to create
and join groups, and control access to items shared publicly or within groups.

ArcGIS Web Mapping APIs are APIs for several languages, allowing users to build and deploy
applications that include GIS functionality and Web services from ArcGIS Online and ArcGIS
Server. Adobe Flex, JavaScript and Microsoft Silverlight are supported for applications that can be
embedded in web pages or launched as stand-alone Web applications. Flex, Adobe Air and Windows
Presentation Foundation (WPF) are supported for desktop applications.

ArcGIS Extensions

Apart from the three main modules, ArcGIS also relies on a series of extensions that provide specific
activities. The Spatial Analyst extension, for example, allows carrying out analysis on raster data sets,
while the PublisherExtension is used to package data into a format that can be read by the ArcReader
standalone application. The 3D Analyst extension provides tools for surface modelling and 3D
visualisation. The ArcPress extension provides tools for the generation of high-quality vector cum raster
printouts, while the Tracking Analyst extension provides tools for real-time visualisation of spatial
elements and temporal analysis. Yet other extensions offer additional functionalities, depending on the
users’ requirements. Extensions are not delivered in the basic package of ArcGIS and have to be
purchased separately.

Numerous extensions have also been developed by third parties, such as the MapSpeller spell-
checker, ST-Links PgMap XTools and MAP2PDF for creating georeferenced pdfs (GeoPDF), ERDAS' Image
Analysis and Stereo Analyst for ArcGIS, and ISM's PurVIEW, which converts Arc- desktops into precise
stereo-viewing windows to work with geo-referenced stereoscopic image models for accurate
geodatabase-direct editing or feature digitizing.

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ArcGIS Desktop Interface Components/Modules
ArcGIS for Desktop consists of several integrated applications, including ArcMap, ArcCatalog,
ArcToolbox, ArcScene, ArcGlobe, and ArcGIS Pro

1 ArcMap.
The main module, in which data is viewed and analysed and maps are composed is called
ArcMap.ArcMap is the application used to view, edit and query geospatial data, and create maps. The
ArcMap interface has two main sections, including a table of contents on the left and the data frame(s)
which display the map. Items in the table of contents correspond with layers on the map.

Its interface is consisting of the table of contents on the left and the map area on the right, as well as of
different toolbars and menus for working with the data and map. The hierarchical order of layers in the
table of contents is important, since the layers on top of the table of contents will be displayed on top of
the layers below them. Therefore, any layers forming the background of the map should be put at the
bottom of the table of contents. Generally there are two different views for working with data in ArcMap
- the layout view and data view. The data view is meant to explore, edit, query, analyze, and symbolize
data. The layout view enables the arrangement of data frames and other map elements, such as scale
bars, titles, and legends, to create a map layout that can be print or exported. In data view, only one data
frame can be viewed. Not so in layout view, where multiple data frames can be viewed at the same time.
Using the yellow diskette symbol in the standard toolbar, any work in ArcMap will be stored in the map
document file which has the .mxd file extension.

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Figure1: The left part and its buttons, tabs and object

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Figure2: Right part of the ArcMap

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2 ArcCatalog

The second main component of ArcGIS is the ArcCatalog, which has an appearance that is similar to the
one of Microsoft’s Windows Explorer. The ArcCatalog interface consists of the Catalog tree on the left and
a preview pane on the right. ArcCatalog is the ArcGIS application designed for browsing, managing, and
documenting geographic data. New layers can be created in ArcCatalog and existing layers can be
manipulated, for example by defining their projection and reference. This component also offers the
possibility to document each data layer by storing its metadata in a comprehensive metadatabase. To
access the data a connection to its location has to be established (e.g. a folder on C: drive).

ArcCatalog is the data management application, used to browse datasets and files on one's computer,
database, or other sources. In addition to showing what data is available, ArcCatalog also allows users to
preview the data on a map. ArcCatalog also provides the ability to view and manage metadata for spatial
datasets.

Figure 3: ArcCatalog view with table of contents and preview pane

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3 ArcToolbox,

A third component is the ArcToolbox, which contains a collection of GIS analysis, cartography,
conversion, data management, geo-coding, statistical and transformation tools. ArcToolbox contains
geoprocessing, data conversion, and analysis tools, along with much of the functionality in ArcInfo. It is
also possible to use batch processing with ArcToolbox, for frequently repeated tasks.

ArcToolbox can be accessed from ArcMap or ArcCatalog. The number of tools available for use depends
on the ArcGIS license. ArcView only supports a core set of tools; ArcEditor adds some more while ArcInfo
provides the complete set of GIS tools.

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 Figure 4: ArcToolbox view with toolsets

4 ArcScene

ArcScene is a 3D viewer that is well suited to generating perspective scenes that allow you to navigate
and interact with your 3D feature and raster data. Based on OpenGL, ArcScene supports complex 3D line
symbology and texture mapping as well as surface creation and display of TINs. All data is loaded into
memory, which allows for relatively fast navigation, pan, and zoom functionality. Vector features are
rendered as vectors, and raster data is either downsampled or configured into a fixed number of
rows/columns you set.

5 ArcGlobe
ArcGlobe is part of the ArcGIS 3D Analyst extension. This application is generally designed to be used
with very large datasets and allows for seamless visualization of both raster and feature data. It is based
on a global view, with all data projected into a global Cube projection and displayed at varying levels of
detail (LODs), organized into tiles. For maximum performance, cache your data, which will organize and
copy the source data into tiled LODs. Vector features are generally rasterized and displayed according to
their associated LOD, which assists in very fast navigation and display.

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6 ArcGIS Pro

The ArcGIS Pro application was added to ArcGIS for Desktop in 2015. It had the combined capabilities of
the other integrated applications and was built as a fully 64-bit software application.

ArcGIS Desktop Help

A major criterion when working with software programs is getting help when needed. ArcGIS Desktop
Help provides comprehensive explanations of GIS procedures, tools, buttons, and commands. The help is
accessible from multiple locations within ArcMap and ArcCatalog.

2.3 GIS Data

Elements on the Earth’s surface are positioned in certain locations, processes spread over a certain area
and different elements interact with each other. Climatic components interact with the topography; there
are correlations between the occurrence of accidents and the status of roads; the distribution of police
posts may have an influence on crime rates; etc. As was mentioned above, GIS stores information about
the world as a collection of thematic layers that can be linked together by geography. Spatial data is
organized thematically into different layers, or themes. There is one theme for each set of geographic
features or phenomena for which information will be recorded. For example, streams, landuse, elevation,
and buildings will each be stored as a separate spatial data sources, rather than trying to store them all
together in one. This makes it easier to manage and manipulate the data, especially as much of the power
of working geographically comes from being able to analyze the spatial relationships between different
geographic themes.
A GIS links sets of features and their attributes and manages them together in units called themes. A
theme is a collection of geographic features, such as cities, roads, rivers, parcels or soil classes, together
with the attributes for those features. GIS work with two fundamentally different types of geographic
models: The "vector" model and the "raster" model.

GIS DATA

Vector Data or Raster Data or Tabular Data

Feature DATA Image Data or Attribute Meta Data
Data

Figure 5: Types and formats of GIS data,

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2.3.1 Vector Data

A vector representation organizes geographic information using the Cartesian coordinate system.
Information about points, lines, and polygons (see below) is encoded and stored as a collection of x,y
coordinates. Points are stored as single pairs of XY coordinates, whereas lines are stored as a collection
of point coordinates. For example, a line representing a road may be described as a series of X and Y
coordinates points: one point for the start of the line, one point for the end of the line, and as many points
in-between as are required to define the line’s shape. Polygonal features, such as river catchments, can
be stored as a closed loop of coordinates. Vector representations are often used for representing data
with exactly known locations, such as streets, light poles, or the legal boundaries of lots.

Vector data is designed to enable specific geographic features and phenomena to be managed,
manipulated and analyzed easily and flexibly to meet a wide range of needs. In vector data or feature
data there is an explicit relationship between the geometric and attribute (tabular) information, so
that both are always available when you work with the data. For example, if you select particular
features displayed on a view, ArcGIS will automatically highlight the records containing the attributes of
these features when the attribute table is displayed.

Real world objects, whether natural or man-made, are called features when they are represented on a
map. Each map feature has a location, shape, and symbol that represent one or more of its
characteristics. Features are points, lines, or polygons:

Points are depicted as a single pair of x, y-coordinates. Points represent objects that have
discrete locations and are too small to be depicted as areas. Towns, schools, and petrol
stations are examples of point features.

Lines are a set of ordered, connected x, y- coordinates. Lines represent objects that have
length but are too narrow to be depicted as areas. Rivers, streets, and pipelines are examples
of line features.

Polygons are enclosed homogeneous areas of regions. They represent a series of line
segments connected with the same starting and ending point. Polygons represent objects too
large to be depicted as points or lines. Countries, subdivisions, forest, and parks, are
examples of polygon features.

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In GIS, features are stored in a database along with information describing them. The descriptive
information stored with a feature is called the feature's attributes. Attributes of a street might include
its name, street type, length, street code, and pavement type. The attributes of a park may be its name,
area, hours of operation, and maintenance schedule, etc.

Vector formats
The Shapefile format is used for storing vector data. It is the most commonly used format in ArcGIS. This
format is also supported by, or can be imported into most other GIS software packages.

Shapefiles are non-topological, which means that limited information is kept in the shapefile regarding
the relationship of features to one another, such as what specific line shapes are used to define a specific
polygon shape. The lack of topology means that shapefiles are less appropriate for sophisticated spatial
analysis than other formats. However, it also provides some advantages, such as improved drawing time.
The shapefile specification is openly published; therefore, shapefiles can be created by anyone. The
shapefile format consists of at least three elements: shape, index, and attribute. Each of these elements is
stored as a separate file on disk; therefore, a shapefile actually consists of three or more disk files (one
for each element). Other, optional files can be included by a shapefile, such as the projection file (.prj) or
the legend file (.avl).

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 Geometric
Shapes
(.shp)
Spatial
Index
(.shx) Attribute
data
(.dbf)

Figure 7: The three basic components of a Shapefile: Shape, Index and Attribute Data.

The shape elementis the portion of the shapefile describing the geometric shapes that represent the
geographic features. These shapes are described by their X and Y coordinate locations. The disk file
containing the shape element has a file name extension of SHP. The index element of the shapefile
provides an optimized means of accessing the geometric shapes described in the shape element. The
element contains a sequential index of offsets into the shape data. This spatial indexing, as it is called,
provides for faster drawing times and faster queries of geographic features represented by geometric
shapes. The disk file containing the index element has a file name extension of SHX. The attribute
element contains tabular data associated with geographic features. For example a road may have
associated information regarding its condition, the year it was constructed, and its width. This
information can be stored in the attribute element of the shapefile and associated by the key value with
the specific road shape to which it pertains. The attribute element of the shapefile is stored as a standard
dBASE file with one record per shape. The disk file containing the attribute element has a file name
extension of DBF.

Coverages are another format for storing vector data. This was the first vector data format used by ESRI
on its PC ArcInfo and UNIX ArcInfo software packages. It seems that in its current development strategy
ESRI intentionally reduces the support for the coverage format. Some functions like editing can not be
performed on a default basis in ArcGIS.

There are several differences between coverages and shapefiles: In contrast to shapefiles, coverages have
a topological data structure. This means that the format is much more sophisticated in its ability to track
the relationship between features, such as what specific line shapes are used to define a specific polygon
shape. Because of their more sophisticated data structure and the inclusion of topological information,
coverages are better suited for larger data sets and for applications requiring complex spatial analysis.
Coverages are represented by subdirectories existing within a Workspace. The workspace is a directory
that serves as a work area and storage area for the coverages. The coverage subdirectories each
represent a single coverage and are named with the coverage names. These subdirectories contain the
geographic data stored in file names such as TIC, BND, and ARC. This data can be created and maintained
using ArcInfo or the Arc Catalogue tool.

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A separate subdirectory within the workspace contains the attribute data associated with the geographic
features of all coverages stored in that workspace. This single subdirectory, named info, stores the
attributes in database tables that can be accessed using the INFO module of ArcInfo. Figure A.2 shows an
example of a coverage storage structure.

Geodatabase: The Geodatabase data model supported by ArcGIS works in a different manner than the
shapefile or coverage models, in that it tries to integrate the different layers of a database in order to
allow for permanent relational and spatial analysis between these layers.

Geodatabases organize geographic data into a hierarchy of data objects. These data objects are stored in
feature classes, object classes, and feature datasets. An object class is a table in the geodatabase that
stores non-spatial data. A feature class is a collection of features with the same type of geometry and the
same attributes. A feature dataset is a collection of feature classes that share the same spatial reference.
Feature classes that store simple features can be organized either inside or outside a feature dataset.
Simple feature classes that are outside a feature dataset are called standalone feature classes. Feature
classes that store topological features must be contained within a feature dataset to ensure a common
spatial reference. (ArcGIS desktop help).

CAD drawings are a format for storing vector data. They are produced by computer-aided design (CAD)
applications and can be used in ArcGIS with use of the “Import CAD” geoprocessing tool found in the
ToolBox. Basically all CAD formats can be converted to shapefile format.

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Page 28 of 56
2.3.2 Raster data

In its simplest form, a raster consists of a matrix of cells (or pixels) organized into rows and columns (or
a grid) where each cell contains a value representing information, such as temperature. Rasters are
digital aerial photographs, imagery from satellites, digital pictures, or even scanned maps.

In raster datasets, each cell (which is also known as a pixel) has a value. The cell values represent the
phenomenon portrayed by the raster dataset such as a category, magnitude, height, or spectral value.
The category could be a land-use class such as grassland, forest, or road. A magnitude might represent
gravity, noise pollution, or percent rainfall. Height (distance) could represent surface elevation above
mean sea level, which can be used to derive slope, aspect, and watershed properties. Spectral values are
used in satellite imagery and aerial photography to represent light reflectance and color.

Cell values can be either positive or negative, integer, or floating point. Integer values are best used to
represent categorical (discrete) data and floating-point values to represent continuous surfaces. For
additional information on discrete and continuous data, see Discrete and continuous data. Cells can also
have a NoData value to represent the absence of data. For information on NoData, see NoData in raster
datasets.

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A raster representation organizes geographic data using cells arranged in rows and columns. Each cell
has a row number and a column number. The exact location of each cell is not stored, just the origin, cell
size, and number of cells from the origin. Values associated with each cell describe the geographic
attributes in the region of space covered by the cell. Each cell stores a numeric value representing a
geographic feature. Raster representations are often used for geographic data with less discrete
locational boundaries. This is often the case with environmental data, such as climatic, or topographic
parameters (rainfall, temperature, slope gradient, etc.), where the mapped features may not have sharply
definable boundaries. The raster model has evolved to model such continuous features.

A raster image comprises a collection of grid cells rather like a scanned map or picture. An image is the
simplest form of raster; it stores a single value for each location. A grid is a special type of raster where
the value stored is a record in a table that stores additional descriptive information for the cells. Raster
data (or image data) can come from photographs, remotely sensed data (aerial photographs, or satellite
images), scanned data, satellite data, and graphics.

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Raster data can also be interpolated from vector data. For example elevation contours stored as vector
lines can be used to interpolate a Digital Terrain Model that will provide distinct calculated elevation
information for each cell of the analysed area.

Sometimes you don't have the choice of storing your data as a raster; for example, imagery is only
available as a raster. However, there are many other features (such as points) and measurements (such
as rainfall) that could be stored as either a raster or a feature (vector) data type.

The advantages of storing your data as a raster are as follows:

 A simple data structure - A matrix of cells with values representing a coordinate and sometimes
linked to an attribute table
 A powerful format for advanced spatial and statistical analysis
 The ability to represent continuous surfaces and perform surface analysis
 The ability to uniformly store points, lines, polygons, and surfaces
 The ability to perform fast overlays with complex datasets

There are other considerations for storing your data as a raster that may convince you to use a vector-
based storage option. For example:
 There can be spatial inaccuracies due to the limits imposed by the raster dataset cell dimensions.
 Raster datasets are potentially very large. Resolution increases as the size of the cell decreases;
however, normally cost also increases in both disk space and processing speeds. For a given area,
changing cells to one-half the current size requires as much as four times the storage space,
depending on the type of data and storage techniques used.
 There is also a loss of precision that accompanies restructuring data to a regularly spaced raster-
cell boundary.

Raster Formats

ArcInfo Grids are a format for storing raster data. Grids are especially suited to representing geographic
phenomena that vary continuously over space, and for performing spatial modelling and analysis of
flows, trends, and surfaces such as hydrology. Grid themes use a matrix of cells to represent geographic
features or phenomena. The size of the cells used is important to any analysis. The cell size is the smallest
unit you are interested in mapping, and defines the limit of your spatial accuracy. The smaller the cell
size the more accurate the representation. Higher accuracy will lead to larger data sets and to slower
processing speed. Feature and grid themes have some similarities, but they are different in the way they
model or represent spatial data. Grid themes are always stored in the ArcInfo data storage structure (see
Figure A.2 above). That means grid themes are always stored in a workspace, in which you should never
move, rename or delete files with the Windows Explorer.

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Grids are stored either as integer or floating-point data. An integer grid has an associated value
attribute table, short VAT. This table stores a single record for each unique value in the grid, as well as
the number of cells taking that value, and one additional attribute you wish to attach. A floating-point
grid has no VAT. Generally speaking, integer grids are smaller and faster to operate on than floating-
point grids.

Every image data format is a format for storing raster data. Image data can be used as background for
feature based themes. Features that appear on an image can be digitized to create a new vector database.
Image data can be organized in a number of ways depending upon the particular image format. Typically,
the image data file contains a header record that stores information about the image such as the number
of rows and columns in the image, the number of bits per pixel, the colour requirements and the geo-
referencing information. Following the image header is the actual pixel data for the image. The internal
organization of the image data is dependent upon the image format. Some formats contain only a single
band of data, while others contain multiple bands. ArcGIS can display and print black and white,
greyscale, pseudo-colour and true colour images. The most important image formats that can be used in
ArcGIS are TIFF, ERDAS, JPEG.

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Types of Raster Data

1. Satellite Imagery: Imagery acquired from satellites such as Landsat and Spot.
2. Digital Elevation Models (DEMs): The representation of continuous elevation values over a
topographic surface by a regular array of z-values referenced to a common datum.
3. Digital Orthophotos Quadrangles (DOQ): The scanned photographic images that have been
corrected for distortions due to camera tilt, terrain displacement, and other factors.
4. Bi-Level Scanned Files: The scanned images containing values of 1 and 0, they are usually
scanned from paper maps.
5. Digital Raster Graphics (DRGs): The scanned images of USGS topographic maps.
6. Graphic Files: Maps, photographs, and images can be stored as raster graphic files such as TIFF
(tagged image file format), GIDF( graphics interchange format), and JPEG( joint photographic
expert group).
7. GIS Software-Specific Raster Data: GIS packages use raster data that are imported from DEMs,
satellite images, scanned images, graphic files, and ASCII files or are converted from vector data.
The GIS software packages store raster data in different formats, for example, ArcGIS stores
raster data in the ESRI Grid format.

Advantages of Raster Data

 Mathematical modelling
 Speed of analysis
 Simple data structure
 Compatible with Remote Sensing
 Easy overlay
 Various kinds of spatial analysis
 Uniform size and shape
 Cheaper technology

Disadvantages of Raster Data

 Large data volumes-more storage
 Boundary inaccuracies-blocky appearance
 Inadequate spatial resolution
 Difficult to rep topology
 Projection transformation is difficult
 Different scales between layers can be a nightmare
 May lose information due to generalization

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Raster data models review exercise
1. Examine a digital photo you have taken recently. Can you estimate its spatial resolution?
2. If you were to create a raster data file showing the major land-use types in your county, which
encoding method would you use? What method would you use if you were to encode a map of the
major waterways in your county? Why?

2.3.3 Tabular/Attribute data

A tabular representation organizes geographic data using a table. A tabular representation is mostly
used together with a raster or vector representation. As such it forms the geometry’s so-called attribute
information. Tabular data can include almost any data set, whether or not it contains geographic data.

In the geodatabase, attributes are managed in tables based on a series of simple, yet essential, relational
data concepts:

Tables contain rows.

 All rows in a table have the same columns.
 Each column has a data type, such as integer, decimal number, character, and date.
 A series of relational functions and operators (such as SQL) is available to operate on the tables
and their data elements.

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Tables and relationships play a key role in ArcGIS, just as they do in traditional database applications.
Rows in tables can be used to store all the properties of geographic objects. This includes holding and
managing feature geometry in a Shape column.

Table 6: Attribute Data Types in The Geodatabase

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There are a number of supported column types used to hold and manage attributes in the geodatabase.
The available column types include a variety of number types, text, date, binary large objects (BLOBs),
and globally unique identifiers (GUIDs).

The supported attribute column types in the geodatabase include

a) Numbers: Can be one of four numeric data types: short integers, long integers, single-precision
floating-point numbers (often referred to as floats), and double-precision floating-point numbers
(commonly called doubles).
b) Text: Any set of alphanumeric characters of a certain length.
c) Date: Holds date and time data.
d) BLOBs: Binary large objects are used to store and manage binary information such as symbols and
CAD geometries.
e) Global identifiers: GlobalID and GUID data types store registry style strings consisting of 36
characters enclosed in curly brackets. These strings uniquely identify a feature or table row within
a geodatabase and across geodatabases. These are heavily used to manage relationships especially
for data management, versioning, change-only updates, and replication.

Sources of GIS data; data capture, input and management, querying data and introduction to digitizing,
geoprocessing and spatial analysis).

2.3.4 Meta data

Information that describes items in ArcGIS is called metadata. When care is taken to provide good
descriptions, you can find appropriate items with a search and evaluate which of the items in your search
results is the correct one to use.

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Figure 16: Metadata Interface nested in ArcCatalog

In an item's metadata you can record whatever information is important for your organization to know
about that item. This might include information about how accurate and recent the item is, restrictions
associated with using and sharing the item, important processes in its life cycle such as generalizing
features, and so on.

GIS DATA CAPTURE

Data capture—entering information into the system—consumes much of the time of GIS practitioners.
There are a variety of methods used to enter data into a GIS where it is stored in a digital format.
Existing data printed on paper or PET film maps can be digitized or scanned to produce digital data. A
digitizer produces vector data as an operator traces points, lines, and polygon boundaries from a map.
Scanning a map results in raster data that could be further processed to produce vector data.

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Figure 17: Digitizing table & PC workstation, On-Screen digitizing and Scanning

Survey data can be directly entered into a GIS from digital data collection systems on survey instruments
using a technique called coordinate geometry (COGO). Positions from a global navigation satellite system
(GNSS) like Global Positioning System can also be collected and then imported into a GIS. A current trend
in data collection gives users the ability to utilize field computers with the ability to edit live data using
wireless connections or disconnected editing sessions. This has been enhanced by the availability of low-
cost mapping-grade GPS units with decimeter accuracy in real time. This eliminates the need to post
process, import, and update the data in the office after fieldwork has been collected. This includes the
ability to incorporate positions collected using a laser rangefinder. New technologies also allow users to
create maps as well as analysis directly in the field, making projects more efficient and mapping more
accurate.

Remotely sensed data also plays an important role in data collection and consist of sensors attached to a
platform. Sensors include cameras, digital scanners and lidar, while platforms usually consist of aircraft
and satellites. In England in the mid 1990s, hybrid kite/balloons called Helikites first pioneered the use
of compact airborne digital cameras as airborne Geo-Information Systems. Aircraft measurement
software, accurate to 0.4 mm was used to link the photographs and measure the ground. Helikites are
inexpensive and gather more accurate data than aircraft. Helikites can be used over roads, railways and
towns where UAVs are banned.

Recently with the development of miniature UAVs, aerial data collection is becoming possible with them.
For example, the Aeryon Scout was used to map a 50-acre area with a Ground sample distance of 1 inch
(2.54 cm) in only 12 minutes. The majority of digital data currently comes from photo interpretation of
aerial photographs. Soft-copy workstations are used to digitize features directly from stereo pairs of
digital photographs. These systems allow data to be captured in two and three dimensions, with
elevations measured directly from a stereo pair using principles of photogrammetry. Analog aerial
photos must be scanned before being entered into a soft-copy system, for high-quality digital cameras
this step is skipped.

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Satellite remote sensing provides another important source of spatial data. Here satellites use different
sensor packages to passively measure the reflectance from parts of the electromagnetic spectrum or
radio waves that were sent out from an active sensor such as radar. Remote sensing collects raster data
that can be further processed using different bands to identify objects and classes of interest, such as
land cover.

When data is captured, the user should consider if the data should be captured with either a relative
accuracy or absolute accuracy, since this could not only influence how information will be interpreted
but also the cost of data capture.

Some GIS data sources

Figure 18: Data Capture and Data Collection Techniques

After entering data into a GIS, the data usually requires editing, to remove errors, or further processing.
For vector data it must be made "topologically correct" before it can be used for some advanced analysis.

For example, in a road network, lines must connect with nodes at an intersection. Errors such as
undershoots and overshoots must also be removed. For scanned maps, blemishes on the source map may
need to be removed from the resulting raster. For example, a fleck of dirt might connect two lines that
should not be connected.

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Institutional Sources of GIS Data (Some, not exhaustive)

ESRI
http://www.ESRI.com/data/find-data.html: With ArcGIS you get large amounts of up-to-date, ready-to-use content
covering the entire world. This content comes from commercial providers and the GIS community.

Data.gov
http://www.data.gov/home: High value datasets generated by the Executive Branch of the Federal Government.

Geospatial Data Gateway (GDG)

http://datagateway.nrcs.usda.gov/: One-stop-source for environmental and natural resources data anytime, from
anywhere, to anyone. Includes many links to other GIS data sites.

USGS – The National Map

http://nationalmap.gov/: Current US topo map layers are in http://nationalmap.gov/ustopo/index.html.
Orthoimage base, transportation, geographic names, topographic contours, boundaries, hydrography, woodlands,
the Public Land Survey System (PLSS) and the US National Grid (USNG).

USGS – National Hydrography Dataset (NHD)

http://nhd.usgs.gov/data.html: Vector dataset containing features such as lakes, ponds, streams, rivers, canals,
dams and stream gages. For use in general mapping and analysis of surface water systems.

USGS – National Map Viewer

http://viewer.nationalmap.gov/viewer/: Visualize, inspect download current topographic base map data and
products for free.

US Census Bureau
http://www.census.gov/: Online interactive maps, tools and products to display and work with demographic data.

Internet Archive
http://archive.org/details/maps_usgs: Download USGS DRG maps of the 50 states; Includes many links to other
related sites.

GIS Data Depot

http://data.geocomm.com/: Users should be GIS-proficient and may require access to GIS software; Includes some
international data and US State data bundles on CD-ROM, for a fee.

TerraServer
http://www.terraserver.com/view.asp: Online satellite imagery downloads in a variety of pixel sizes, for an
additional fee can include a georeferencedworldfile with metadata.

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2.4 Liveware: People and Procedures

People are the most important part of a GIS. This is due to the fact that people can define and develop the
procedures used by a GIS. They can also overcome shortcoming of the other 4 elements (data, software,
hardware, procedure), but not vice-versa.

Well-trained GIS professionals knowledgeable in spatial analysis and skilled in using GIS software are
essential to the GIS process. There are three factors to the people component: education, career path, and
networking. The right education is key; taking the right combination of classes. Selecting the right type
of GIS job is important. A person highly skilled in GIS analysis should not seek a job as a GIS developer if
they haven’t taken the necessary programming classes. Finally, continuous networking with other GIS
professionals is essential for the exchange of ideas as well as a support community.

Training takes different forms and duration. There are short courses offered in a few days to degree
programs that span over several years. Training may be undertaken also online or instructor led.
TraingInstutions include universities (e.g. UON, JKUAT), colleges, private organizations e.g. Oakar
Services, ESRI East Africa both in Nairobi; ESRI USA.

Above: Instructor –Led GIS Training

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2.4.1 Case Study 1: GIS Certification with ESRI East Africa, Nairobi

The professional GIS courses that we offer are either instructor-led or self-paced and normally take
between two to five days to complete. The combined offering of instructor-led and self-paced courses
allows us to cater for the common needs of knowledge workers and GIS professionals, while meeting the
specialized requirements of the more advanced users.

Table 7: GIS Offerings with ESRI East Africa (2017)

Courses Details

ArcGIS Desktop Foundation Courses

ArcGIS 1: Introduction to GIS 3 Days | USD 600 | Instructor-led

ArcGIS 1: Introduction to GIS 3 Days | USD 300 | Self-Paced

ArcGIS 2: Essential Workflows 4 Days | USD 800 | Instructor-led

ArcGIS 2: Essential Workflows 4 Days | USD 400 | Self-Paced

Introduction to ArcGIS Pro for GIS Professionals 3 Days | USD 600 | Instructor-led

Geoprocessing and Analysis

ArcGIS 3: Performing Analysis 3 Days | USD 600 | Instructor-led

ArcGIS 3: Performing Analysis 3 Days | USD 300 | Self-Paced

Working with 3D GIS using ArcGIS 3 Days | USD 600 | Instructor-led

Introduction to Geo processing Scripts using Python 4 Days | USD 800 | Instructor-led

Geo-data Production and Editing

Building Geodatabases 4 Days | USD 800 | Instructor-led

Mobile Mapping using ArcGIS 2 Days | USD 400 | Instructor-led

Configuring and Managing the Multi-user Geodatabase 4 Days | USD 800 | Instructor-led

Implementing Versioned Workflows in a Multi-User 4 Days | USD 800 | Instructor-led

Geodatabase

Distributing data using a Geodatabase Replication 3 Days | USD 600 | Instructor-led

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Cartography and Map Production

Designing maps using ArcGIS 3 Days | USD 600 | Instructor-led

Server/Web Development

ArcGIS 4: Sharing GIS Content on the Web 3 Days | USD 600 | Instructor-led

ArcGIS 4: Sharing GIS Content on the Web 3 Days | USD 300 | Self-Paced

Working with ArcGIS Online 2 Days | USD 400 | Instructor-led

ArcGIS for Server: Site Configuration and Administration 4 Days | USD 800 | Instructor-led

ESRI Certification

Certification: Skills Review for ArcGIS Desktop Associate 3 Days | USD 750 | Instructor-led

2.4.2 Case Study 2: GIS Certification with Oakar Services, Nairobi (2017)

Oakar Services offers a wide range of training on GIS, these range from introductory courses to
specialized courses focusing on specific industries. Their strategy is to help participants to develop the
best possible route to acquiring GIS knowledge & skills for own benefit & their organizations.
The courses on offer include:
 Introduction to GIS (2 days)
 Fundamentals of GeoMedia (4 days)
 Managing Utilities Using GIS (3 days)
 GIS for Natural Resource Management (3 days)
 GIS for Resource Planning & Management (3 days)
 Fundamentals of Web Mapping (3 days)
 Fundamentals of GeoMedia Smart Client (4 days)

2.4.3 Case Study 3: GIS Certification with ESRI, USA

Course title: ArcGIS 1: Introduction to GIS

Course type: Instructor led
Cost: $1,130 USDGI
Duration: 2 Days (16 Hours)

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Basics: This course introduces GIS concepts & ArcGIS tools used to visualize real-world features,
discover patterns, & communicate information. Using ArcMap & ArcGIS Online, learners work with GIS
maps, explore data, & analyze maps & data they learn fundamental concepts that underlie GIS
technology.

Software for Use: ArcGIS 10.5 software provided by ESRI. (concepts apply to ArcGIS 10.3, 10.4, & 10.5).

Who is this course for?

 New Users
 Data Editors
 GIS Database Designers
 GIS Managers

Goals
 Find and organize geographic data and other content for a mapping project.
 Display features on a GIS map and access information about them.
 Perform spatial analysis to answer questions.
 Share GIS maps and analysis results.

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Page 45 of 56
3. REALMS OF GIS APPLICATION AND FUTURE OF GIS

Introduction: Why GIS Interst is rising

 Applications via Internet
 Price reductions
 Greater awareness
 Improved ease of use
 Better technology
 Proliferation of data
 Commercial software packages
 Real applications
 Non-tangible benefits e.g. better decisions, happy staff and customers
 Getting wholly new (and valued) products e.g. those too costly or time-consuming previously
 Proven cost-benefit cases (see Figure 14)

Figure 14: GIS Cost-Benefit Analysis

3.1 GIS Applications and Uses (Selected)

1. GIS in Mapping: Mapping is a central function of Geographic Information System, which provides a visual
interpretation of data. GIS store data in database and then represent it visually in a mapped format. People from
different professions use map to communicate. It is not necessary to be a skilled cartographer to create maps.
Google map, Bing map, Yahoo map are the best example for web based GIS mapping solution.

2. Telecom and Network services: GIS can be a great planning and decision making tool for telecom industries.
GDi GISDATA enables wireless telecommunication organizations to incorporate geographic data in to the complex
network design, planning, optimization, maintenance and activities. This technology allows telecom to enhance a
variety of application like engineering application, customer relationship mgt location based services.

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3. Accident Analysis and Hot Spot Analysis: GIS can be used as a key tool to minimize accident hazard on roads,
the existing road network has to be optimized and also the road safety measures have to be improved. This can be
achieved by proper traffic management. By identifying the accident locations, remedial measures can be planned by
the district administrations to minimize the accidents in different parts of the world. Rerouting design is also very
convenient using GIS.

4. Urban Planning: GIS technology is used to analyze the urban growth and its direction of expansion, and to find
suitable sites for further urban development. In order to identify the sites suitable for the urban growth, certain
factors have to consider which is: land should have proper accessibility, land should be more or less flat, land
should be vacant or having low usage value presently and it should have good supply of water.

5. Transportation Planning: GIS can be used in managing transportation and logistical problems. If transport
department is planning for a new railway or a road route then this can be performed by adding environmental and
topographical data into the GIS platform. This will easily output the best route for the transportation based on the
criteria like flattest route, least damage to habitats and least disturbance from local people. GIS can also help in
monitoring rail systems and road conditions.

6. Environmental Impact Analysis: EIA is an important policy initiative to conserve natural resources and
environment. Many human activities produce potential adverse environmental effects which include the
construction and operation of highways, rail roads, pipelines, airports, radioactive waste disposal and more.
Environmental impact statements are usually required to contain specific information on the magnitude and
characteristics of environmental impact. The EIA can be carried out efficiently by the help of GIS, by integrating
various GIS layers, assessment of natural features can be performed.

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7. Agricultural Applications: GIS can be used to create more effective and efficient farming techniques. It can also
analyze soil data and to determine: what are the best crop to plant?, where they should go? how to maintain
nutrition levels to best benefit crop to plant?. It is fully integrated and widely accepted for helping government
agencies to manage programs that support farmers and protect the environment. This could increase food
production in different parts of the world so the world food crisis could be avoided.

8. Disaster Management and Mitigation: Today a well-developed GIS systems are used to protect the
environment. It has become an integrated, well developed and successful tool in disaster management and
mitigation. GIS can help with risk management and analysis by displaying which areas are likely to be prone to
natural or man-made disasters. When such disasters are identified, preventive measures can be developed.

9. Landslide Hazard Zonation using GIS: Landslide hazard zonation is the process of ranking different parts of
an area according to the degrees of actual or potential hazard from landslides. The evaluation of landslide hazard is
a complex task. It has become possible to efficiently collect, manipulate and integrate a variety of spatial data such
as geological, structural, surface cover and slope characteristics of an area, which can be used for hazard zonation.
The entire above said layer can well integrate using GIS and weighted analysis is also helpful to find Landslide
prone area. By the help of GIS we can do risk assessment and can reduce the losses of life and property.

10. Determine land use/land cover changes: Land cover means the feature that is covering the barren surface
.Land use means the area in the surface utilized for particular use. The role of GIS technology in land use and land
cover applications is that we can determine land use/land cover changes in the different areas. Also it can detect
and estimate the changes in the land use/ land cover pattern within time. It enables to find out sudden changes in
land use and land cover either by natural forces or by other activities like deforestation.

11. Navigation (routing and scheduling): Web-based navigation maps encourage safe navigation in waterway.
Ferry paths and shipping routes are identified for the better routing. ArcGIS supports safe navigation system and
provides accurate topographic and hydrographic data. Recently DNR, s Coastal Resources Division began the task of
locating, documenting, and cataloging these no historic wrecks with GIS. This division is providing public
information that makes citizens awareness of these vessel locations through web map. The web map will be
regularly updated to keep the boating public informed of these coastal hazards to minimize risk of collision and
injury.

12. Flood damage estimation: GIS helps to document the need for federal disaster relief funds, when appropriate
and can be utilized by insurance agencies to assist in assessing monetary value of property loss. A local government
need to map flooding risk areas for evaluate the flood potential level in the surrounding area. The damage can be
well estimate and can be shown using digital maps.

13. Natural Resources Management: By the help of GIS technology the agricultural, water and forest resources
can be well maintain and manage. Foresters can easily monitor forest condition. Agricultural land includes
managing crop yield, monitoring crop rotation, and more. Water is one of the most essential constituents of the
environment. GIS is used to analyze geographic distribution of water resources. They are interrelated, i.e. forest
cover reduces the storm water runoff and tree canopy stores approximately 215,000 tons carbon. GIS is also used
in afforestation.

14. GIS Solutions in Banking Sector: Today rapid development occurs in the banking sector. So it has become
more market driven and market responsive. The success of this sector largely depends on the ability of a bank to
provide customer and market driven services. GIS plays an important role providing planning, organizing and
decision making.

15. Soil Mapping: Soil mapping provides resource information about an area. It helps in understanding soil
suitability for various land use activities. It is essential for preventing environmental deterioration associated with
misuse of land. GIS Helps to identify soil types in an area and to delineate soil boundaries. It is used for the
identification and classification of soil. Soil map is widely used by the farmers in developed countries to retain soil
nutrients and earn maximum yield.

16. GIS based Digital Taxation: In Local Governments, GIS is used to solve taxation problems. It is used to
maximize the government income. For example, for engineering, building permits, city development and other

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municipal needs, GIS is used. Often the data collected and used by one agency or department can be used by
another. Example Orhitec ltd can supply you with a system to manage property tax on a geographic basis that can
work interactively with the municipal tax collection department. Using GIS we can develop a digital taxation
system.

17. Land Information System: GIS based land acquisition management system will provide complete information
about the land. Land acquisition managements is being used for the past 3 or 4 years only. It would help in
assessment, payments for private land with owner details, tracking of land allotments and possessions
identification and timely resolution of land acquisition related issues.

18. Surveying: Surveying is the measurement of location of objects on the earth’s surfaces. Land survey is
measuring the distance and angles between different points on the earth surface. An increasing number of national
and governments and regional organizations are using GNSS measurements. GNSS is used for topographic surveys
where a centimeter level accuracy is provided. These data can be incorporated in the GIS system. GIS tools can be
used to estimate area and also, digital maps can be prepared.

19. Wetland Mapping: Wetlands contribute to a healthy environment and retain water during dry periods, thus
keeping the water table high and relatively stable. During the flooding they act to reduce flood levels and to trap
suspended solids and attached nutrients. GIS provide options for wetland mapping and design projects for wetland
conservation quickly with the help of GIS. Integration with Remote Sensing data helps to complete wetland
mapping on various scale. We can create a wetland digital data bank with spices information using GIS.

20. GIS Applications in Geology: Geologists use GIS in a various applications. The GIS is used to study geologic
features, analyze soils and strata, assess seismic information, and or create three dimensional (3D) displays of
geographic features. GIS can be also used to analyze rock information characteristics and identifying the best dam
site location.

21. Detection of Coal Mine Fires: GIS technology is applied in the area of safe production of coal mine. Coal mine
have developed an information management system, the administrators can monitor the safe production of coal
mine and at the same time improve the abilities to make decisions. Fire happens frequently in coal mines. So it can
assessed spontaneous combustion risk using GIS tools.

22. Assets Management and Maintenance: GIS helps organizations to gain efficiency even in the face of finite
resources and the need to hold down the cost. Knowing the population at risk enables planners to determine where
to allocate and locate resources more effectively. Operations and maintenance staff can deploy enterprise and
mobile workforce. GIS build mobile applications that provide timely information in the field faster and more
accurate work order processing.

23. GIS for Planning and Community Development: GIS helps us to better understand our world so we can meet
global challenges. Today GIS technology is advancing rapidly, providing many new capabilities and innovations in
planning. By applying known part of science and GIS to solve unknown part, that helps to enhance the quality of life
and achieve a better future. Creating and applying GIS tools and knowledge allow us integrating geographic
intelligence into how we think and behave.

24. GIS in Dairy Industry: GISis used in a various application in the dairy industry, such as distribution of
products, production rate, location of shops and their selling rate. These can be monitored by using GIS system. It
can be also possible to understand the demand of milk and milk products in different region. GIS can prove to be
effective tool for planning and decision making for any dairy industry. These advantages has added new vistas in
the field of dairy farm and management.

25. Tourism Information System: GIS provides a valuable toolbox of techniques and technologies of wide
applicability to the achievement of sustainable tourism development. This provide an ideal platform tools required
to generate a better understanding, and can serve the needs of tourists. They will get all the information on click,
measure distance, find hotels, restaurant and even navigate to their respective links. Information plays a vital role
to tourists in planning their travel from one place to another, and success of tourism industry. This can bring many
advantages for both tourist and tourism department.

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26. Irrigation water management: Water availability for irrigation purposes for any area is vital for crop
production in that region. It needs to be properly and efficiently managed for the proper utilization of water. To
evaluate the irrigation performance, integrated use of satellite remote sensing and GIS assisted by ground
information has been found to be efficient technique in spatial and time domain for identification of major crops
and their conditions, and determination of their areal extent and yield. Irrigation requirements of crop were
determined by considering the factors such as evapotranspiration, Net Irrigation Requirement, Field irrigation
Requirement, Gross Irrigation Requirement, and month total volume of water required, by organizing them in GIS
environment. (A. M. Chandra, S. K. Ghosh, Remote Sensing and Geographical Information System).

27. Fire equipment response distance analysis: GIS can be used to evaluate how far (as measured as via the
street network) each portion of the street network is from a firehouse. This can be useful in evaluating the best
location for a new firehouse or in determining how well the fire services cover particular areas for insurance
ratings. (Himachal Pradesh, Development Report).

28. Worldwide Earthquake Information System: One of the most frightening and destructive phenomena of
nature is the occurrence of an earthquake. There is a need to have knowledge regarding the trends in earthquake
occurrence worldwide. A GIS based user interface system for querying on earthquake catalogue will be of great
help to the earthquake engineers and seismologists in understanding the behavior pattern of earthquake in spatial
and temporal domain. (A. M. Chandra, S. K. Ghosh Remote Sensing and Geographical Information System).

29. Volcanic Hazard Identification: Volcanic hazard to human life and environment include hot avalanches, hot
particles gas clouds, lava flows and flooding. Potential volcanic hazard zone can be recognized by the characteristic
historical records of volcanic activities, it can incorporate with GIS. Thus an impact assessment study on volcanic
hazards deals with economic loss and loss of lives and property in densely populated areas. The GIS based
platforms enables us to find out the damage and rapid response against volcanic activities may helps to reduce the
effect in terms of wealth and health of people.

30. Energy Use Tracking and Planning: GIS is a valuable tool that helps in the planning organizing and
subsequent growth in the energy and utilities industries. The effective management of energy systems is a complex
challenge. GIS has enormous potential for planning, design and maintenance of facility. Also it provide improved
services and that too cost effectively.

31. GIS for Fisheries and Ocean Industries: GIS tools add value and the capability to ocean data. ArcGis is used to
determine the spatial data for a fisheries assessment and management system. It is extensively used in the ocean
industry area and we get accurate information regarding various commercial activities. To enhance minimizing cost
for the fishing industry. Also it can determine the location of illegal fishing operations.

32. Monitor Rangeland Resources: GIS is a valuable tool used to monitor the changes of rangeland resource and
for evaluating its impact on environment, livestock and wild life. Accurate observation and measurements are to be
made to find out the changes in the rangeland conditions. GIS is also used to monitoring ecological and seasonal
rangeland conditions.

33. Reservoir Site Selection: GIS is used to find a suitable site for the dam. GIS tries to find best location that
respect to natural hazards like earthquake and volcanic eruption. For the finding of dam site selection the factors
include economic factors, social considerations, engineering factors and environmental problems. This all
information are layered in the GIS.

34. Forest Fire Hazard Zone Mapping: Forest is one of the important element of the nature. It plays an important
role in the local climate. Forest fires caused extensive damage to our communities and environmental resource
base. GIS can effectively use for the forest fire hazard zone mapping and also for the loss estimation. GIS also help to
capture real time monitoring of fire prone areas. This is achieved by the help of GNSS and satellite Remote Sensing.

35. Pest Control and Management: Pest control helps in the agricultural production. Increasing in the rate of pest
and weeds can lead to decrease in the crop production. Therefore GIS plays an important role to map out infested
areas. This leads in the development of weed and pest management plan.

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36. Traffic Density Studies: GIS can effectively use for the management of traffic problems. Today’s population
along with the road traffic is increasing exponentially. The advantage of GIS make it an attractive option to be used
to face the emerging traffic problems. By creating an extensive database that has all the traffic information such as
speed data, road geometry, traffic flow and other spatial data and processing this information will provide us the
graphical bigger picture for the traffic management.

37. Deforestation: Nowadays forest area is decreasing every year, due to different activities. GIS is used to indicate
the degree of deforestation and vital causes for the deforestation process. GIS is used to monitor deforestation.

38. Space Utilization: GIS helps managers to organize and spatially visualize space and how it can best be used.
Operational costs can be decreased by more efficiently using space including managing the moves of personal and
assets as well as the storage materials. The 3D visualization in GIS platforms helps planers to create a feeling of
experience like virtual walk inside the building and rooms before construction.

39. Desertification: Desertification is the land degradation due to climatic variations or human activities. GIS can
provide the information of degraded land which can be managed by governmental agencies or by the communities
themselves. GIS plays a vital role to reduce the desertification, the local governments are now widely depends on
GIS for reducing desertification. With location based GIS analysis we can find where or which area is suitable for
planting new vegetation and which area for the pipeline construction.

40. Disaster and Business Continuity Planning: Viewing building and locations assets along with emergency
information such as weather patterns, and disaster zones, can provide organizations the required information to
make better decision. GIS provide holistic understanding of facility status and performance, and brings together
department, business systems, and data source for a comprehensive view into and throughout the organization.
(Faisal I. Al-Shukri, GIS Utilization in Facility Management).

41. GIS for Business: GIS is also used for managing business information based on its location. GIS can keep a track
of where the customers are located, site business, target marketing campaigns, and optimize sales territories and
model retail spending patterns. Such an added advantage is provided by the GIS to enhance in making companies
more competitive and successful. (Sita Mishra, GIS in Indian Retail Industry-A Strategic Tool).

42. Utilities: The GIS is used for different type of utilities like electricity, telecom and cooking gas on a daily basis
and utilities to help them in mapping, in inventory systems, track maintenance, monitor regulatory compliance or
model distribution analysis, transformer analysis and load analysis.( GulzaraMamazhakypova).

43. Lease Property and Management: Revenue can be increased, operations and maintenance cost can be
reduced when GIS is used to help manage space. Real estate and property managers can see and make queries
about space including its availability, size and special constraints for the most cost effective use.

44. Development of Public Infrastructure Facilities: GIS has many uses and advantages in the field of facility
management. GIS can be used by facility managers for space management, visualization and planning, emergency
and disaster planning and response. It can be used throughout the life cycle of a facility from deciding where to
build to space planning. Also it provides facilitate better planning and analysis.(GulzaraMamazhakypova).

45. GIS for Drainage Problems in Tea Plantation Areas: Drainage problem in tea plantation differ widely
because of its varied nature of physical conditions. Tea crop requires moisture at adequate levels all times of its
growth. Any variation either excess or lack has a direct impact on the tea yield. This become greatly influenced the
productivity of tea. Required some hydraulic design to solve this problem such as design of drains, checking the
adequacy of the river and classification of water logged areas etc. GIS helps to reduce the water logging by
establishing well developed plans.

46. Collection of Information about Geographic Features: GIS is not simply a computer system used for making
maps. A map is simply the most common way of reporting information from a GIS database. So these systems are
not only for creating maps but also most importantly the collection of information about the geographic features
such as building, roads, pipes, streams, ponds and many more that are located in your community.

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47. GIS for Public Health: GIS provides the cost effective tool for evaluating interventions and policies potentially
affecting health outcomes. GIS analysis, environmental health data is also helpful in explaining disease patterns of
relationships with social, institutional, technological and natural environment. It can be understand the complex
spatial temporal relationship between environmental pollution and disease, and identifying exposures to
environmental hazards. GIS can significantly add value to environmental and public health data.

48. Location Identification: This technique is used to find a location for a new retail outlet. It helps to find out
what exists at a particular location. A location can be described in many ways, using, for instance, name of place,
post code, or geographic reference such as longitude or latitude or X/Y.

49. Knowledge Based System for Defense Purpose: Regular analysis of terrain is essential for today’s fast paced
battlefield. Conventional method of studying paper topographical maps is being replaced by use of maps in digital
form to get terrain information. It is increasingly being used to derive terrain information from digital images.
Which help to the selection of suitable sites for various military uses more accurate and faster. The uses of GIS
provide information regarding the terrain features which can be useful for planning today’s war strategies.

50. Pipeline Route Selection: Pipeline route planning and selection is usually a complex task. GIS technology is
faster, better and more efficient in this complex task. Accurate pipeline route selection brings about risk and cost
reduction as well as better decision making process. GIS least cost path analysis have been effectively used to
determine suitable oil and gas pipeline routes. An optimal route will minimize reduce economic loss and negative
socio-environmental impacts.

51. Producing Mailing Labels for abutter Notification: Zoning board of appeals hearings or proposed action by a
town or city require notifying abutting property owners. A GIS application for producing abutter mailing labels
enables you to identify abutting property owners are in different ways. Once the properties are identified this kind
of GIS applications can produce mailing labels and be integrated with a word processing “mail merge
“capabilities.(http://www.mass.gov/).

52. Site Suitability for Waste Treatment Plant: There is an increasing amount of waste due to the over
population growth. This has negative impact on the environment. With the help of GIS we can integrate various
aspect layers in GIS and can identify which place is suitable for waste treatment plant. This process will reduce the
time and it is cost effective. Also it enhances the accuracy. It provides a GIS analyst to identify a list of suitable
dumping sites for further investigations. It also provides a digital bank for future monitoring program of the site.

53. Geologic Mapping: GIS is an effective tool in geological mapping. It becomes easy for surveyors to create 3D
maps of any area with precise and desired scaling. The results provide accurate measurements, which helps in
several field where geological map is required. This is cost effective and offers more accurate data, there by easing
the scaling process when studying geologic mapping.

54. Environment: The GIS is used every day to help protect the environment. The environmental professional uses
GIS to produce maps, inventory species, measure environmental impact, or trace pollutants. The environmental
applications for GIS are almost endless. It can be used to monitor the environment and analyze changes (by S
FarogMostafa).

55. Infrastructure Development: Advancement and availability of technology has set a new mark for
professionals in the infrastructure development area. Now more and more professionals are seeking help of these
technologically smart and improved information systems like GIS for infrastructure development. Each and every
phase of infrastructure life cycle is greatly affected and enhanced by the enrollment of GIS.

56. Coastal Development and Management: The coastal zone represents varied and highly productive ecosystem
such as mangrove, coral reefs, see grasses and sand dunes. GIS could be generating data required for macro and
micro level planning of coastal zone mgt. GIS could be used in creating baseline inventory of mapping and
monitoring coastal resources, selecting sites for brackish water aquaculture, studying coastal land forms.

57. Crime Analysis: GIS is a necessary tool for crime mapping in law enforcement agencies worldwide. Crime
mapping is a key component of crime analysis. Satellite images can display important information about criminal
activities. The efficiency and the speed of the GIS analysis will increase the capabilities of crime fighting.

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58. River Crossing Site Selection for Bridges: The important geotechnical consideration is the stability of slope
leading down to and up from the water crossing. It is advisable to collect historical data on erosion and
sedimentation. On the basis of these information asses the amount of river channel contraction, degree of curvature
of river bend, nature of bed and bank materials including the flood flow and the flow depth, all these can be done in
GIS within estimated time and accurately. This information has been often used for river crossing site selection for
bridges.

59. Land Use Changes Associated with Open Cast Strip Mining: Mining is the back bone of the developing
economy of any country. Mapping, monitoring and controlling the impact caused by the mining activities is
necessary so as to understand the character and magnitude of these hazardous events in an area. The data required
to understand the impact of mining from the environment is coming from different discipline, which need
integration in order to arrive at hazard map zonation.

60. Economic Development: GIS technology is a valuable tool used for the economic development. It helps in site
selection, suitability analysis, and for finding the right sites to locate new business and grow existing ones. Within
economic development, GIS is used to support the emerging trend of economic gardening, a new way to foster local
and regional economic growth by existing small business in the community.( By Ahmed Abukhater, GIS for Planning
and Community Development: Solving Global Challenges).

61. School Student Walking Distance Analysis: If your community buses students to school, but only if they lived
beyond a certain distance from their school, this can be used to determine what addresses are eligible for busing.

62. Locating Underground Pipes and Cables: Pipe line and cable location is essential for leak detection. It can be
used to understand your water network, conducting repairs and adjustments, locating leaks known distance for
correlating etc. Pipelines are continually monitored, check for leak detection and avoid the problem of geo hazards.

63. Coastal Vegetation Mapping and Conservation: Coastal vegetation like Mangroves are the protectors of coast
from natural hazards like tsunami , so that the conservation of these vegetation are highly important. GIS enable us
to map which are having higher density of vegetation and which area need more vegetated? Integration of these
details to coastal zone mapping helps to identify the area prone to coastal erosion and we can plant more
vegetation to reduce coastal erosion.

64. Regional Planning: Every day, planners use GIS technology to research, develop, implement, and monitor the
progress of their plans. GIS provides planners, surveyors, and engineers with the tools they need to design and map
their neighborhoods and cities. Planners have the technical expertise, political savvy, and fiscal understanding to
transform a vision of tomorrow into a strategic action plan for today, and they use GIS to facilitate the decision-
making process. (ESRI, GIS Solutions for Urban and Regional Planning).

65. GIS for Land Administration: In a number of countries, the separate functions of land administration are
being drawn together through the creation of digital cadastral databases, with these database they can reuse land
for suitable needs ,digital taxation and even utilities are also easily handle using these database.

66. Snow Cover Mapping and Runoff Prediction: Systematic, periodical and precise snow cover mapping
supported by GIS technology, and the organization of the results in a snow cover information system forms the
basis for a wide range of applications. On the practical side, these applications are related to the monitoring of
seasonal and yearly alterations of the snow cover under the presently existing climatic conditions, to simulate and
forecast runoff, to map the regional distribution of the water equivalent, and to document the recession process of
the snow cover during the melting period in its relation to geological features.

67. GIS for Wildlife Management: Man-made destruction such as habitat loss, pollution, invasive species
introduction, and climate change, are all threats to wildlife health and biodiversity. GIS technology is an effective
tool for managing, analyzing, and visualizing wildlife data to target areas where international management
practices are needed and to monitor their effectiveness. GIS helps wildlife management professionals examine and
envision.

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3.2 Future Trends of GIS: Insights

The definitions and approaches to GISs described previously illustrate the scope and breadth of this
special type of information technology. Furthermore, as GISs become more accessible and widely
distributed, there will always be new questions to be answered, new applications to be developed, and
innovative technologies to integrate. One notable development is the emergence of what is called the
geospatial web. The geospatial web or geoweb refers to the integration of the vast amounts of content
available on the Internet (e.g., text, photographs, video, and music) with geographic information, such as
location. Adding such geographic information to such content is called geotagging and is similar to
geocoding. The integration of geographic information with such content opens up new ways to access,
search, organize, share, and distribute information.

Mapping mashups, or web-based applications that combine data and information from one source and
map it with online mapping applications, are an example of the geoweb at work. There are mashups for
nearly everything that can be assigned a location, from restaurants and music festivals to your
photographs and favorite hikes. Though the geoweb may not necessarily be considered a GIS, it certainly
draws upon the same concepts and ideas of geography and may someday encompass GISs. Perhaps more
important, the diffusion of GISs and the emergence of the geoweb have increased geographic awareness
by lowering the barriers of viewing, using, and even creating maps and related geographic data and
information.

In summary one must discuss the future trends, prospects and challenges of GIS in terms of hardware,
software, data, liveware, procedures, legislation and legal issues.

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