Theme 4 Complete

Theme 4 (1):
Networks and
communication technologies
Introduction
• A computer network is a number of computers
interconnected by one or more transmission paths.
• A network is a set of devices (nodes) connected by media
links. A node can be a computer, printer or any other
devices capable of sending and/or receiving data generated
by other nodes in the network.
• The three main criteria necessary for effective and efficient
networks are, namely: performance, reliability and security.
• The internet is a communication system that has brought a
wealth of information to users’ fingertips by organizing the
data and information for the users.
Components of networks
• Hosts (PCs. Laptops, handhelds)
• Routers and switches (IP router)
• Links (wired or wireless)
• Protocols (IP, TCP, CSMA/CD,
CSMA/CA)
• Applications (network services)
• Users and service agents
Types of networks
• Local area network (LAN)
• Metropolitan area network (MAN)
• Wide area network (WAN)
LAN-Local Area Network
• A computer network that spans over a
relatively small area.
• The computers are geographically close
together.
• Most LANs connect workstations: personal
computers, each node (individual computer) in
a LAN has its own CPU with which is executes
program(mes), but it is also able to access data
and devices anywhere on the LAN.
MAN- Metropolitan Area Network
• A data network designed for a town or
city.
• MANs are larger than LANs, but smaller
than a WAN.
• MANs are usually characterized by very
high-speed connections using fibre
optical cables or other digital media.
WAN-Wide Area Networks
• A computer network that spans a relatively large
geographical area.
• A WAN consists of two or more LANs
• The computers are farther apart but are
connected.
• Computers connected to a WAN are often
connected through public networks, such as the
telephone system, through leased lines or
satellites.
• The largest WAN in existences is the internet.
Topologies of Networks
• There are three main topologies of a LAN:
❖ Bus Topology: All devise are connected to a central cable, called the bus
or backbone. Bus networks are relatively inexpensive and easy to install
for small networks.
❖ Ring Topology: All devices are connected to one another in the shape of
a closed loop, so that each device is connected directly to two other
devices, one on either side of it. Ring topologies are relatively expensive
and difficult to install, but they offer high bandwidth and can span large
distances.
❖ Star Topology: All devices are connected to a central hub. Star networks
consists of a high-bandwidth bus, called the backbone, which connects a
collection of slower-bandwidth star segments.
Examples
Networking Applications
The Internet
• Largest computer network in the world
Telephone Service
• POTS Network
• One of the first networks
• Still used today to provide telephone service to users
Mobile Phones (wireless phones)

• Use a wireless network for communications
• Twice as many mobile phones used worldwide than landline
phones
Cellular (cell) Phones
• Must be within range of cell tower to function
Dual-mode Phones
• Allow users to make telephone calls using more than one
communications network
• Cellular/Wi-Fi dual-mode phones can switch seamlessly between the Wi-
Fi network and a cellular network
Satellite Phones
• Used where cell service is not available
• Most often used by individuals such as soldiers, journalists, wilderness
guides, and researchers
Television and Radio Broadcasting
• Still used to deliver TV and radio content to the public
• Other networks involved with television content delivery are cable TV
networks, satellite TV networks, and private closed-circuit television systems
Global Positioning System (GPS) Applications

• Uses satellites and a receiver to determine the exact geographic location of the
receiver
• Commonly used by individuals to determine their exact location
• Used on the job by surveyors, farmers, and fishermen
• Used to guide vehicles and equipment
• Used by the military to guide munitions and trucks, and to track military aircraft
and ships
Monitoring Systems
• Use networking technology to determine the current location or
status of an object
RFID-based Systems
• Monitor the status of objects
GPS-based Monitoring Systems

• Monitor the physical location of objects--OnStar
Electronic Medical Monitors

• Home health care
Sensor Networks
• Devices that respond to heat, light, pressure and generate a
measurable electrical signal
Telemedicine
• Use of networking technology to provide medical information and
services
• Remote monitoring and consultations
• Remote diagnosis
Telesurgery
• Doctor’s physical location is different from the patient’s physical
location
• Robot assisted
• Will be needed for long-term space exploration
Networking Mediums
Wired Networking Mediums
Twisted-Pair Cable
• Pairs of insulated wires twisted together
• Used for telephone and network connections (LANs)
Coaxial Cable
• Thick centre wire surrounded by insulation
• Used for computer networks, short-run telephone transmissions, and
cable television delivery
Fibre-Optic Cable
• Utilizes hundreds of thin transparent clear glass or plastic fibres over
which lasers transmit data as light
• Used for high-speed communications
Networking Mediums
Wireless Networking Mediums
• Data is sent through the air using radio waves
• The Electromagnetic and Wireless Spectrum
• Radio frequencies are assigned by the FCC and are
measured in hertz (Hz)
• The electromagnetic spectrum is the range of common
electromagnetic radiation (energy) that travels in waves
• Different parts of the spectrum have different
properties, which make certain frequencies more
appropriate for certain applications
Networking Media
• Frequencies assigned to an application usually consist of a
range of frequencies to be used as needed.
• Most wireless networking applications use frequencies in
the RF band at the low end of the spectrum—up to 300
GHz
• Often called the wireless spectrum
• The 900 MHz, 2.4GHz, 5 GHz, and 5.8 GHz are usual
frequencies that are within an unlicensed part of the
spectrum and can be used by any product or individual
• Cordless landline phones, garage door openers, Wi-Fi,
WiMAX, and Bluetooth
How is data transmitted
Bandwidth
• The amount of data that can be transferred in a given
period of time
• Measured in bits per second (bps), Kbps (thousands), Mbps
(millions ), or GFbps (billions)
Analog vs. Digital Signals

• Most data is sent using digital signals
• Data represented by two discrete states: 0s and 1s
• Conventional telephone systems use analog signals
• Represent data with continuous waves
Delivery Method
• Circuit-Switching
Dedicated path over a network is established between sender

and receiver and all data follows that path
• Packet-Switching
• Messages are separated into small units called packets and
travel along the network separately
• Used to send data over the Internet
Broadcasting
• Data is sent out to all other nodes on the network and retrieved
only by the intended recipient
• Primarily used with LANs
Cellular Radio Transmissions
• Use cellular towers within honeycomb-shaped zones called cells
• Calls are transferred from cell tower to cell tower as the
individual moves
• Cell tower forwards call to the Mobile Telephone Switching
Office
• MTSO routes call to the recipient’s phone
• Data sent via cell phones works in similar manner
• Cell phone transmission speed depends on the cellular standard
being used
Microwave and Satellite Transmissions
• High-frequency radio signals that are sent and received
using microwave stations or satellites
• Signals are line of sight, so microwave stations are
usually built on tall buildings, towers, mountaintops
• Microwave stations are earth-based stations that
transmit signals directly to each other within a range of
30 miles
• Microwave stations designed to communicate with
satellites (television and internet services) are called
satellite dishes
Communication satellites are launched into orbit to
send and receive microwave signals from earth
• Traditional satellites use geostationary orbit 22,300
miles above the earth
• A delay of less than half a second is common when
signals travel from earth to satellite and back
• Low earth orbit (LEO) satellites were developed to
combat delay
• Medium earth orbit (MEO) satellites are most
often used for GPS systems
Infrared (IR) Transmissions
• Sends data as infrared light rays
• Like an infrared television remote, IR requires line of sight
• Because of this limitation, many formerly IR devices
(wireless mice, keyboards) now use RF technology
• IR is still sometimes used to beam data between portable
computers or gaming systems, or send documents from
portable computers to printers
Theme 4 (2):
Internet and Intranets
What is the Internet
• The internet has changed our
lives.
But what is the internet?
• It is a network of networks that
is owned by no one and
everyone. The organizations
that oversees the internet has
no authority to control the
material stored on any
segment of it.
Evolution of the internet
• The U.S. Department of Defence launched a project in 1969 to
electronically connect government scientists at universities
throughout the United States so the could easily, quickly and securely
share information.
• The project, Internet was developed at the University of California,
Los Angeles, in a computer room and the project was known as
ARPANET(Advanced Research Projects Agency Network).
• Information that was transmitted over the ARPANET was stored in
packets, which also contained the destination address, the sender’s
address and error checking information.
• Approximately 500 universities actively used ARPANET, which was
later renamed to the INTERNET and turned over to the National
Science Foundation to administer.
https://youtu.be/p5mASvEvDZc
What is an Intranet
• Its an internal network built using the internet and world

wide web standards and products that allow users of an
organization to gain access to the organizations
information.
• Its used to describe intranet technology used in a local
area networks to provide email, web pages, and other
communication methods to individuals within a specific
organization.
• Anyone who is not connected to the organizations local
areas network is unable to access the intranet.
How is the Internet different from
an intranet
• The Internet has many networks connected to it. It is open for
access by many organizations. Its mission is not limited to one
organization alone but caters to the entire world. Both types
of networks use the same protocols, standards, technologies
and procedures but in an intranet permissions are granted
only to members of the organization for which it was created.
Q&A
Theme 4 (3):
Internet and Intranet
Security
Why be concerned about network
and internet security
The internet is vulnerable to attacks from people who seek to beat the system
or cause cyber attacks. Security concerns related to computer networks and
the Internet abound Computer Crime (cybercrime)
Any illegal act involving a computer, including:

➢ Theft of financial assets
➢ Manipulating data for personal advantage
➢ Act of sabotage (releasing a computer virus, shutting down a Web server)
➢ Phishing and Internet scams
All computer users should be aware of security concerns and the precautions
that can be taken
Unauthorized access and unauthorised use
Unauthorized Access
• Gaining access to a computer, network, file, or other resource
without permission
Unauthorized Use
• Using a computer resource for unapproved activities
Both can be committed by insiders and outsiders

Unauthorized access and unauthorised use
Hacking
• Using a computer to break into another computer system
• A serious threat for individuals, businesses, and the country
(national security), i.e., cyberterrorism
• Often performed via wireless networks today
• 70% of wireless networks are left unsecured
War Driving and Wi-Fi Piggybacking
War Driving
• Driving around an area to find a Wi-Fi network to access and use
without authorization
Unauthorized access and
unauthorised use
Wi-Fi Piggybacking
• Accessing an unsecured Wi-Fi network from the
hacker’s current location without authorization
Interception of Communications
• Unsecured messages, files, logon information, etc., can
be intercepted using software designed for that
purpose
• New trend is to intercept credit and debit card
information during the card verification process
Protection against unauthorised
access and unauthorised use
Access Control Systems
• Used to control access to facilities, computer networks,
databases, and Web site accounts
Identification Systems
• Verify that the person trying to access the facility or
system is an authorized user
Authentication Systems
• Determine if the person is who he or she claims to be
Possessed Knowledge Access Systems
• Use information that only the authorized user should know
• Passwords should be strong and changed frequently
• Typically used in conjunction with usernames
Disadvantages
• Passwords can be forgotten
• If known, password can be used by someone who is not an authorized
user
Cognitive Authentication Systems
• Use information the individual knows or can easily remember
(birthplace, pet names, etc.)
• Used in many password recovery systems
Two-factor Authentication
• Using two different methods to authenticate users
• Biometric Feature – something you are
• Possessed Object – something you have
• Conventional username/password combination in conjunction
with an access card that contains a one-time password
Possessed Object Access Systems

• Use a physical object an individual has in his/her
possession to identify that individual
• Smart cards, magnetic cards
• RFID-encoded badges, USB security keys or e-
tokens
Disadvantages
• Can be lost or used by an unauthorized individual
Biometric Access Systems
• Identifies users by a particular unique biological characteristic
• Fingerprint, hand, face, iris, voice, etc.
• Data read by biometric reader must match what is stored in a database
Advantages
• Can only be used by the authorized individual
• Cannot be lost or forgotten
Disadvantages
• Cannot be reset if compromised
• Hardware and software are expensive
Controlling Access to Wireless Networks
• In general, Wi-Fi is less secure than wired networks
• Security is usually off by default; wireless networks
should be secured
Wireless network owners should:

• Enable encryption (WPA is more secure than WEP)
• Not broadcast the network name (SSID)
• Enable other security features as needed
Firewalls, Encryption, and Virtual Private Networks (VPNs)
Firewalls
• A collection of hardware and/or software intended to protect a
computer or computer network from unauthorized access
• Block access to the computer from hackers
• Block access to the Internet from programs on the user’s
computer unless authorized by the user
• Important for home computers that have a direct Internet
connection, as well as for businesses
• Work by closing down external communications ports
Intrusion Prevention System (IPS) Software
• Monitors traffic to try and detect possible attacks
• If an attack is discovered, IPS software can immediately block it
Encryption
• Method of scrambling contents of e-mail or files to make them
unreadable if intercepted
• Private Key Encryption (symmetric key encryption)
• Uses a single key
• Most often used to encrypt files on a computer
• If used to send files to others, the recipient and sender must
agree on the private key to be used
Virtual Private Networks (VPNs)
• A private secure path over the Internet
• Allows authorized users to securely access a private network via
the Internet
• Much less expensive than a private secure network since it uses
the Internet
• Can provide a secure environment over a large geographical
area
• Typically used by businesses to remotely access corporate
networks via the Internet
• Personal VPNs can be used by individuals to surf safely at a
wireless hotspot
Additional Public Hotspot Precautions
• Individuals should take additional precautions
when using public hotspots in addition to using
security software, secure Web pages, VPNs, and
file encryption
Q&A
Theme 4 (4):
Copyright,Censorship,
Privacy
Do you believe everything you read?
Evaluation of information resources
• Information presented
on the Web must be
evaluated for accuracy
• No one oversees the
content of Web pages
Intellectual Property Rights,
Copyright and Piracy
• Large portions of online content are protected by
copyright legislation.
• Privacy is a major concern of anyone using the internet,
especially then the media reports that information about
us is collected covertly by some web site operators.
• "Piracy" includes the reproduction and distribution of
copies of copyright-protected material, or the
communication to the public and making available of such
material on on-line communication networks, without the
authorisation of the right owner(s) where such
authorisation is required by law. Piracy concerns different
types of works, including music, literature, films, software,
videogames, broadcasting programs and signals.
The $8 Billion iPod
Security and privacy
o With so many networked devices in our
home, security of devices is becoming a big
issue.
o Attacks on devices have become more
sophisticated.
o Users need to guard against:
• Breaches of privacy (confidentiality)
• Data destruction (availability)
• Data manipulation (integrity)
Censorship and Privacy Issues
Censorship
• Some countries block some Internet content
• To hinder spread of information from political opposition
• To filter out material determined to be offensive
• To protect national security
• Some countries have attempted to regulate Internet content
• Difficulty defining “patently offensive” and “indecent”
• Difficult finding a fair balance between protection and censorship
Internet Filtering
• Using software or browser options to block access to particular Web pages or
types of Web pages
• Used by individuals, schools, employers, public computers, etc.
• Can use browser settings or special filtering software
Why be concerned about information
privacy and censorship
Privacy
• State of being concealed or free from unauthorized intrusion
Information Privacy
• Rights of individuals and companies to control how information about them is
collected and used
Computers add additional privacy challenges

• Cookies and spyware are possible privacy risks
• Many data breaches recently due to lost or stolen hardware, carelessness with
documents containing sensitive data, etc.
Businesses need to be concerned with the expense, damage to reputation, and possible
lawsuits
• Spam, electronic surveillance, electronic monitoring present additional privacy
Why be concerned about
information privacy and censorship
Censorship and Privacy Issues
Web Browsing Privacy
• Encompasses what information about individuals is available, how it is used,
and by whom
Cookies
• Small files stored on the user’s hard drive by a Web server
• Used to identify return visitors and their preferences
• Can be used to track Web activity
• Cookie information can be personally identifiable or non-personally identifiable
• Cookie data can be viewed or deleted
• Cookie settings can be changed and software can be used to manage cookies
Spyware
• Software installed without users knowledge that
transmits data secretly through the user’s
Internet connection
• Sometimes used by advertisers to gather
marketing information
• Used by criminals to gather personal data stored
on your computer
• Can be blocked and/or removed using security
software
Adware
• Software supported by onscreen advertising
• Often included in free programs
• Does not gather information
• Is not installed without user’s consent
E-Mail Privacy
• Privacy of the e-mail messages you send and receive
• Only encrypted e-mail can be transmitted privately
• Employers and ISPs have access to e-mails sent through those
organizations
• Businesses and ISPs typically archive e-mail messages
Databases, electronic profiling, spam
and other marketing activities
Databases and Electronic Profiling
• Unless data stored in databases is sufficiently protected, security
breaches can occur
• Marketing databases, government databases, and educational
databases are at higher risk for personal privacy violations
Marketing Databases
• Collection of marketing and demographic data about people and
used for marketing purposes
• Data obtained through online and offline purchases, public
information, etc.
Data is also gathered from Web and social media activities
• Facebook, Twitter, Google+, and location services such as
Foursquare
Government Databases
• Collection of data about people, collected and maintained by the
government
• Some information is confidential, other is public
• Tax information, and Social Security earnings are private
• Birth records, marriage and divorce information are public
Electronic Profiling
• Using electronic means to collect a variety of in-depth
information about an individual
• Designed to provide specific information which is then
sold to companies to be used for marketing
Privacy Policy
• Discloses how information you provide will be used
• Included on many Web sites
• Dictates how supplied information may be used, but can
be changed and often without notice
Spam and Other Marketing Activities
• Unsolicited, bulk e-mail sent over the Internet
• Often involves health-related products, counterfeit products,
fraudulent business opportunities, pornography, etc.
• Marketing e-mails from companies a person has done business with
• Appearing via instant messaging (spim)
• Also delivered via mobile phones, social networking sites
• CAN-SPAM Act of 2003 enacted some requirements and penalties
for commercial e-mailers
Be Cautious of Revealing Personal Information
• Read a Web site’s privacy policy
• Avoid putting too many personal details on your Web site
• Use a throw-away email address when signing up for free
trials or other services than may result in spam
• Consider using privacy software, such as Anonymizer
Universal or Privacy Guardian to hide personal
information while browsing the Web
• Supply only the required information in registration forms
• Delete your browsing history and e-mail settings when
using a public computer; use private browsing
Secure Servers and Otherwise Protect Personal Information
• Only enter personal information on Web sites using secure
servers
• Automatic encryption systems for e-mail can help
sensitive data from accidentally being revealed
Chief Privacy Officer (CPO)

• Ensures that the private data stored by businesses in
adequately protected
Electronic Surveillance and
monitoring
Computer Monitoring Software
• Records an individual’s computer usage either by capturing images
of the screen, recording the actual keystrokes used, or creating a
summary of Web sites visited
• Can be used in homes by adults to monitor computer usage of
children or spouse
• Can be used in businesses to monitor employee computer usage
Keystroke-logging programs
• Used to capture keystrokes
• Can be used by hacker to capture usernames, passwords, and other
sensitive information entered into a computer via the keyboard
monitoring
Video Surveillance
• The use of video cameras to monitor activities of individuals
• Used to monitor employees
• Used in public locations for crime-prevention purposes
• Stores and other businesses, public streets, subways,
airports, etc.
• Can be used with face recognition software
• Identify terrorists and other known criminals
• Privacy advocates object to the use of video surveillance and
face recognition technology in public places
• Privacy concerns also exist regarding digital cameras
capabilities in mobile phones
monitoring
Employee Monitoring
• Observing or recording employees’ actions while they are
on the job; legal and quite common
• Can monitor computer usage, phone calls, e-mail, etc.
• Can monitor physical location
Video cameras
• GPS capabilities built into cars or mobile phones
• Proximity cards
• Can also be used to access a facility, computer, etc.
• Businesses should notify employees of monitoring
monitoring
Presence Technology
• Enables one computing device on a network to
locate and identify the current status of another
device on the same network
• Can tell if a someone is using his/her computer or
mobile phone
• Can locate co-workers
• May also be used for marketing activities in the
future
• Potential privacy concerns
monitoring
Protecting Personal and Workspace Privacy
• Can use antispyware software to detect and remove some types of illegal
computer monitoring and spyware
The Employer’s Responsibilities

• Keep company, employee, and customer information private and secure
• Ensure employee activities are not being monitored by a hacker or other
unauthorized individual
• Have an employee policy that informs employees about company’s
monitoring activities
The Employees’ Responsibilities

• Read the company’s employee policy
Deep Web
• The Deep Web, also called the Deep Net, Invisible Web, or Hidden Web, is the
portion of content on the World Wide Web that is not indexed by standard
search engines. Computer scientist Mike Bergman is credited with coining the
term in 2000.
• Apart from general information access, what can be done on the deep web?
▪ Use of bitcoin making purchases anonymous
▪ Drug trafficking (Silk Road)
▪ Human Trafficking
▪ Pornography
▪ Black market purchases
▪ Buying and selling of personal information
▪ Murder for hire

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Theme 4 (1):

Mobile Phones (wireless phones)

Global Positioning System (GPS) Applications

GPS-based Monitoring Systems

Electronic Medical Monitors

Analog vs. Digital Signals

Dedicated path over a network is established between sender

• Its an internal network built using the internet and world

Any illegal act involving a computer, including:

Both can be committed by insiders and outsiders

War Driving and Wi-Fi Piggybacking

Possessed Object Access Systems

Wireless network owners should:

Computers add additional privacy challenges

Chief Privacy Officer (CPO)

The Employer’s Responsibilities

The Employees’ Responsibilities

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