Solids and Semiconductor Devices 1

Semiconductor Electronics-1
Energy band in solids

The electrons in an isolated atom have well-defined energy levels. However, in a
crystal consisting of a no. of atoms, the energy levels are closely spaced together to
form a continuous distribution called the energy band.
Valence Band (VB) is the energy band occupied by the valence electrons.
Conduction Band (CB) The unfilled energy band just above the valence band is called
conduction band.
Forbidden Energy Gap (FG) is the gap between valence band and conduction band. It
is the width of the energy gap that decides whether the solid is a conductor, insulator
or semiconductor.
It is the minimum energy required to move an electron from valence band to
conduction band.
Fermi level is the highest energy level occupied by an electron is the valence band at
zero Kelvin and the corresponding energy is called Fermi energy.
Distinguish between Conductors, Insulators and Semiconductors on the basis of Band

Energy bands in Solids
Conductors Insulators
Semiconductors
Conductor
• Conduction band and valence band overlap
• no forbidden energy gap.
• On applying a small electric field, the electrons acquire energy and conducts
electricity.
Insulator
• Valence band is completely filled and conduction band is empty.
• Forbidden energy gap is quite large.
• When electric field is applied, the electrons in VB find it difficult to acquire
large energy and move to the CB and go in for conduction.
• The electron cannot be excited from the valence band to the conduction band
by thermal excitation.
Semiconductor
• Valence band is completely filled and conduction band is completely empty
• has a small energy gap.
• At zero Kelvin electrons are not able to cross the energy gap. Hence,
semiconductor at 0 K is an insulator.
• When the temperature increases (at room temperature), some electrons in VB
acquire thermal energy greater than energy gap and jump to the CB increasing
the conductivity.
Conduction in a Semiconductor in terms of electrons and holes
At 0 Kelvin, semiconductor behaves as an insulator. At room temperature, electrons

acquire thermal energy to move from VB to CB. As a result, a vacancy is created in
the VB. This vacancy is called a hole.A hole is considered as a seat of positive
charge having a charge equal to that of an electron.
Expression for electrical conductivity in a semiconductor
Consider a semiconductor of length ‘l’ and area of cross section ‘A’. Let ne and nh be
the number density of electrons and holes respectively. Let V be the p.d. set up across
the semiconductor such that
E = V/l -(1)
Due to the electric field set up, electons and holes move in opposite direction with
drift velocities Ve and Vh contributing electron current Ie and hole current Ih in the
same direction.
I = Ie + Ih -(2)
II = neeAve + nheAvh = eA(neve + nhvh) – (3)
I/A = e(neve + nhvh) -(4)
But  = RA/l -(5)
(1)(5)
E/ = V/ RA = I/A -(6)
Comparing (4) and (6)

E/ = e (neve + nhvh)
Conductivity,  = 1/ = e/E(neve + nhvh)
Mobility is defined as drift velocity per unit electric field.

Mobility of electron, e = ve/E
Mobility of holes, h = vh/E
 = e (neve + nhvh)
Intrinsic Semiconductor
It is a pure semiconductor free from impurities in which ne = nh = ni.
Eg: Si or Ge crystal.
Doping is the process of adding impurity to a pure semiconductor so as to increase the

electrical conductivity.
The impurity atoms are of 2 types
a) Pentavalent impurity atoms such as Antimony or Arsenic is added to a pure
semiconductor. It produces excess electrons and the semiconductor is called n-
type semiconductor
b) Trivalent impurity atoms such as Indium or Gallium is added to a pure
semiconductor, the semiconductor is called p-type semiconductor.
For an extrinsic semiconductor ne nh = ni2

Intrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor
1. It is a pure semiconductor free from 1. It is a pure semiconductor doped with

impurity. trivalent or pentavalent impurity atoms.
2. The no. of free electrons in CB = no. of 2. ne> nh for n-type semiconductor.

holes in Vb nh> ne for p-type semiconductor.
ne = nh ne nh = ni2
3. Electrical conductivity is low and 3. Electrical conductivity is high and
depends only on temperature. depends on temperature and amount of
doping.
n-type (extrinsic) semiconductor
• When a pure semiconductor is doped with a pentavalent impurity atom, each

impurity atom contributes one free electron in addition to the electron-hole
pairs that are existing.
• Thus, in an n-type semiconductor, ne > nh. Electrons are the majority charge
carriers and holes are the minority charge carriers.
• When the impurity is added, the excess electrons occupy a discrete energy level
called donor energy level just below the CB by 0.045eV. Thus, a very small
energy supply can excite electrons from donor energy level to CB increasing
the conductivity. The width of the energy gap is reduced.
p-type semiconductor
• When a pure semiconductor is doped with a trivalent impurity atom, each

impurity atom contributes one hole in addition to electron-hole pairs already
existing.
• nh> ne. For this reason holes are the majority carriers and electrons are
minority carriers.
• When the impurity is added, excess holes occupies some allowed energy level
called acceptor energy level just above the VB by 0.045eV.
• At room temperature, electrons in VB are easily transferred to acceptor level
until these levels are filled. This produces a large no. of holes in VB and VB
become hole conducting band thereby reducing the width of the energy gap.
Formation of p-n junction or semiconductor diode
symbolic representation of p-n diode
A p-n junction is obtained when a p-type crystal is played in contact with n-type
crystal.
• The majority carriers, more concentration of holes from p-region diffuse into n-
region and the majority carriers, electrons from n-region diffuses into p-region
giving rise to diffusion current.
• When an electron diffuses from n to p, it leaves behind it an ionised donor on
n-side. The ionised donor (+ ve charge) is immobile as it is bounded by the
surrounding atoms. This immobile charges set up an electric field.
• The drifting of electrons move from p-side to n-side due to electric field
resulting in drift current.
• Due to the electron-hole combination, a thin layer consisting of only immobile
ions of opposite polarity called the depletion layer is formed at the junction.
• This immobile charge carriers set up a potential barrier which opposes the
diffusion of majority carriers further.
Width of the depletion region

is a measure of resistance of p-n junction diode
a) It depends on the type of biasing and amount of doping.
b) Width decreases when it is forward biased and increases when it is reverse
biased.
Forward biased p-n junction
• A p-n junction is said to be forward biased when p-region is maintained at a

higher potential with respect to n-region.
• Holes are repelled by the positive terminal and electrons are repelled by the
negative terminal so that electrons and holes move towards the junction and
recombine.
• Width of the depletion layer decreases and offers low resistance.
• Direction of applied voltage (V) is opposite to the build in potential (V0).
• As the depletion layer width decreases, the barrier height is reduced.
• Effective barrier height under forward bias is (V0 − V).
• This movement of holes and electrons constitute a large current flow through
the junction called the forward current.
• When forward biased voltage is increased, forward current increases from zero
and at a particular voltage called threshold voltage or cut-in voltage, current
increases linearly and rapidly.
Reverse Biased p-n junction

`
• p-n junction is said to be reverse biased when p-region is maintained at a lower

potential with respect to n-region.
• When the p-n junction is reverse biased, holes are attracted towards the
negative terminal and electrons are attracted towards the positive terminal of
the battery increasing the depletion region.
• Since no e—hole combination occurs, no current flows and the junction offers
high resistance. Hence, there is no conduction across the junction due to
majority carriers .
• Reverse bias supports the potential barrier. Therefore, the barrier height
increases and the width of depletion region also increases.
• Effective barrier height under reverse bias is (V0 + V).
• But at low reverse voltage, few minority charge carriers cross the junction.
This constitutes a current in the opposite direction called reverse current or
leakage current and is limited to the concentration of the minority carrier on
either side of the junction.
• At critical reverse bias voltage known as breakdown voltage, reverse current
increases rapidly.
Characteristics of a p-n junction
Forward bias Reverse bias

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Semiconductor Electronics-1

Energy band in solids

Distinguish between Conductors, Insulators and Semiconductors on the basis of Band

Conduction in a Semiconductor in terms of electrons and holes

At 0 Kelvin, semiconductor behaves as an insulator. At room temperature, electrons

Comparing (4) and (6)

Conductivity,  = 1/ = e/E(neve + nhvh)

Mobility is defined as drift velocity per unit electric field.

Doping is the process of adding impurity to a pure semiconductor so as to increase the

For an extrinsic semiconductor ne nh = ni2

1. It is a pure semiconductor free from 1. It is a pure semiconductor doped with

2. The no. of free electrons in CB = no. of 2. ne> nh for n-type semiconductor.

n-type (extrinsic) semiconductor

• When a pure semiconductor is doped with a pentavalent impurity atom, each

• When a pure semiconductor is doped with a trivalent impurity atom, each

Formation of p-n junction or semiconductor diode

symbolic representation of p-n diode

Width of the depletion region

Forward biased p-n junction

• A p-n junction is said to be forward biased when p-region is maintained at a

Reverse Biased p-n junction

• p-n junction is said to be reverse biased when p-region is maintained at a lower

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