Semiconductors

Hemant Jasoriya
B.Tech. NIT Bhopal
Experience: 6.5 years
Energy bands in solids
 Energy bands in solids
➢ In an isolated atom electrons present in energy level but in solid,
atoms are not isolated,
➢ there is interaction among each other, due to this energy level split
into different energy levels.
➢ Splitting of sharp and closely compact energy levels result into
energy band

3s band
3s

2p band
4p

2s band
2s

1s band
1s
 Types of Energy bands in solids
1s22s22p63s13p0 Valence Band (VB):
Range of energies possessed by valence
electron is known as valence band.
3p band (a) Have bonded electron.
(b) No flow of current due to such el-.
(c) Always fulfilled by electron

Conduction Band (CB):

Range of energies possessed by free
electron is known as conduction band.
(a) It has conducting electrons.
(b) Current flows due to such electrons.
(c) If conduction band is fully empty
then current conduction is not possible.
(d) Electrons may exist or not in it.
 Forbidden Energy gap (Δ𝐄𝐠)
Energy gap between conduction band and valence band, where no free
electron can exist.

ΔEg = (CB)min − (VB)max

Forbidden Energy gap (Δ𝐄𝐠) or fermi energy gap or band gap

➢ Width of forbidden energy gap depends upon the nature of

substance.
➢ Width is more, then valence electrons are strongly attached with
nucleus Width of forbidden energy gap is represented in eV.
➢ As temperature increases forbidden energy gap decreases (very
slightly).
Classification of conductors, insulators and
semiconductor
Classification of conductors, insulators and semiconductor
On the basis of the relative values of electrical conductivity and energy
bands the solids are broadly classified into three categories
1. Conductor
2. Semiconductor
3. Insulator
 Comparison between conductor, semiconductor and insulator

Energy
band
diagram
 Concept of "holes" in semiconductors
➢ Due to external energy (temp. or radiation) when electron goes from
valence band to conduction band (i.e. bonded electrons becomes
free) a vacancy of free el− creates in valence band, which has same
charge as electron but positive. This positively charged vacancy is
termed as hole.
 Concept of "holes" in semiconductors
➢ It is deficiency of electron in VB.

➢ It acts as positive charge carrier.

➢ Its effective mass is more than electron.

➢ Its mobility is less than electron.

 Concept of "holes" in semiconductors
Note : Hole acts as virtual charge carrier, although it has no physical
significance.
Number of electrons reaching from VB to CB at temperature T kelvin

3. Eg
n= A𝑇 2 𝑒 −2kT
Where,
A = constant
T = absolute temperature
Eg = energy gap between CB and VB
k = Boltzmann constant = 1.38 × 10−23 J/K
• In silicon at room temperature out of 1012 Si atoms only one electron goes
from VB to CB.
• In germanium at room temperature out of 109 Ge atoms only one electron
goes from VB to CB.
Effect of temperature on semiconductor
 Effect of temperature on semiconductor
At absolute zero kelvin temperature:
At this temperature covalent bonds are very strong and there are no
free electrons and semiconductor behaves as perfect insulator
 Effect of temperature on semiconductor
Above absolute temperature:
With increase in temperature few valence electrons jump into
conduction band and hence it behaves as poor conductor.
Effect of impurity in semiconductor
 Effect of impurity in semiconductor
Doping is a method of addition of "desirable" impurity atoms to pure
semiconductor to increase conductivity of semiconductor.

➢ Impurity atoms added to a semiconductor are called dopants.

➢ The impurity added is usually around 1 part per million (ppm).

➢ The dopant atom should take the position of a semiconductor atom in the
lattice and should be almost the same size as that of the crystal atom.

➢ The presence of the dopant atom should not distort the crystal lattice.

➢ The concentration of dopant atoms should not be large (not more than 1% of
the crystal atom).

➢ Doping of a semiconductor primarily increases its electrical conductivity.

Effect of impurity in semiconductor
N type semiconductor
N type semiconductor

1s²
2s² 2p⁶
3s²3p⁶3d¹0
4s² 4p³
 N type semiconductor
➢ When a pure semiconductor (Si or Ge) is doped with pentavalent
impurities (P, As, Sb, Bi), four electrons out of the five valence electrons
of the impurity take part in covalent bonding with four silicon atoms
surrounding it, and the fifth electron is set free.

➢ These impurity atoms which donate free electrons for conduction are
called Donor impurity (ND).

➢ Due to the Donor impurity, the number of free electrons increases

significantly, so it is called an “N” type semiconductor.

➢ Impurity atoms get a positive charge by donating electrons and are hence
known as “Immobile Donor positive Ion”.

➢ In N-type semiconductors, free electrons are called “majority” charge

carriers and “holes” are called “minority” charge carriers.
P type semiconductor
P type semiconductor
 P type semiconductor
➢ When a pure semiconductor (Si or Ge) is doped with trivalent impurities
(B, Al, In, Ga), the outermost three electrons of the valence band of the
impurity take part in covalent bonding with four silicon atoms
surrounding it, and except one electron from the semiconductor, creating
a hole in the semiconductor.

➢ These impurity atoms which accept bonded electrons from the valence
band are called Acceptor impurity (NA).

➢ Due to the Acceptor impurity, the number of holes increases significantly,

so it is called a “P” type semiconductor.

➢ Impurity ions are known as “Immobile Acceptor negative Ion”.

➢ In P-type semiconductors, holes are called “majority” charge carriers and

free electrons are called “minority” charge carriers.
Comparative Study of P-type and N-type Semiconductor
Comparative Study of P-type and N-type Semiconductor
Example

For a p-type semiconductor, which of the following statements is true?

A. Holes are the majority carriers and pentavalentatoms are the

dopants.

B. Electrons are the majority carriers and pentavalent atoms are the
dopants

C. Electrons are the majority carriers and trivalentatoms are the

dopants.

D. Holes are the majority carriers and trivalent atoms are the dopants.

Solids and Semiconductors

Example

An intrinsic semiconductor is converted into n-type extrinsic

semiconductor by doping it with

A. Aluminium B. Silver

C. Germanium D. Phosphorous

Solids and Semiconductors

Mass Action Law
 Mass Action Law
➢ The law of Mass action asserts that at a constant temperature, the
product of the number of electrons in the conduction band and the
number of holes in the valence band remains constant, regardless of
the quantity of donor and acceptor impurities added.

➢ It is expressed Mathematically as
nenh = ni2 = constant
where ni is the intrinsic carrier concentration, ne is number of
electrons in the conduction band and np is number of holes in the
valence band.
Example
Pure Si at 300 K has equal electron (ne) and hole (nh) concentrations of
1.5 × 1016 m–3. Doping by indium increases nh to 4.5 × 1022 m–3. Calculate
ne in the doped Si. [JEE MAIN 2021]

Solids and Semiconductors

 Conduction in conductor

• Relation between current (I) and drift velocity vd

I = neAvd
n = number of electron in unit volume A = cross sectional area
𝐼
• current density 𝐽 = = ne𝑣𝑑
𝐴
J = ne𝜇E
• drift velocity of electron vd = 𝜇E
J = 𝜎E
• Conductivity 𝜎 = ne𝜇 = 1/𝜌
𝜌 = Resistivity
• Mobility
𝑣𝑑
𝜇=
𝐸
Conduction in conductor
 P-N Junction

Anode Cathode
p n
Description of P-N Junction without applied voltage or bias
▪ P region has mobile majority holes and
immobile negatively charged impurity
ions.

▪ N region has mobile majority free

electrons and immobile positively
charged impurity ions.

▪ Due to concentration difference,

diffusion of holes starts from P to N
side and diffusion of electrons starts
from N to P side.

▪ This creates a layer of only positive (in

N side) and negative (in P side) which
generates an electric field (N to P side)
that opposes the diffusion process.
Description of P-N Junction without applied voltage or bias
▪ During diffusion, the magnitude of the
electric field increases. Due to this, the
diffusion gradually decreases and
ultimately stops.

▪ The layer of immobile positive and

negative ions, which have no free
electrons and holes, is called the
depletion layer
 Description of P-N Junction without applied voltage or bias
➢ Width of depletion layer ≅ 10−6 m
(a) As doping increases depletion layer decreases
(b)As temperature is increased depletion layer also decreases.
(c) P-N junction → nonohmic, due to nonlinear relation between I and V.

➢ Potential Barrier or contact potential

Ge ⟶ 0.3 V Si ⟶ 0.7 V

➢ Electric field, produce due to potential barrier

V 0.5
E = = −6 ⇒ E ≅ 105 V/m
d 10
This field prevents the respective majority carrier from crossing
barrier region
 Diffusion and drift current
(1) Diffusion current −P to N side
(2) Drift current −N to P side
If there is no biasing diffusion current = drift current
So total current is zero
Behavior of p–n junction with an external voltage applied or bias

Forward Bias:
➢ When P-type is connected to a
higher potential than N-type, we
call this bias, forward bias.

➢ The applied voltage is in the

opposite direction as the junction
barrier potential.

➢ Due to this, the effective potential

barrier decreases, and the junction
width also decreases. So, more
majority carriers will be allowed to
flow across the junction.

➢ It means the current flow is

principally due to majority charge
carriers and is in the order of mA,
called as forward bias.
Behavior of p–n junction with an external voltage applied or bias

Reverse Bias:
•When P-type is connected to a lower
potential than N-type, we call this bias,
reverse bias.

•The applied voltage is in the same

direction as the junction barrier potential.

•Due to this, the effective potential

barrier increases, and the junction width
also increases. So, no majority carriers will
be allowed to flow across the junction.

•Only minority carriers will drift. It means

the current flow is principally due to
minority charge carriers and is very small
(in the order of 𝜇A). This bias is called
reversed bias.
 Reverse Bias
➢ In reverse bias, the current is very small and nearly constant with bias
(termed as reverse saturation current).

➢ However, interesting behavior results in some special cases if the reverse

bias is increased further beyond a certain limit. Above a particular high
voltage, breakdown of the depletion layer starts.

➢ Breakdown of a diode is of following two types:

(i) Zener breakdown
(ii) Avalanche breakdown
Comparison between Forward Bias and Reverse Bias
Forward Bias Reverse Bias
Comparison between Forward Bias and Reverse Bias
Forward Bias Reverse Bias
 Comparison between Forward Bias and Reverse Bias
Forward Bias Reverse Bias
7. Forward characteristic curves. 7. Reverse characteristic curve

Reverse
Saturation
Current
Comparison between Forward Bias and Reverse Bias
Forward Bias Reverse Bias
Example
 Characteristic curve of p-n junction diode

For Ideal Diode

Example
Solution
Application of Junction Diode
Light Emitting Diode (LED)
A light emitting diode is simply a forward biased
p-n junction which emits spontaneous light
radiation. When forward bias is applied, the
electron and holes at the junction recombine and
energy released is emitted in the form of light. for
visible radiation phosphorus doped GaAs is
commonly used. The advantages of LEDs are

(i) Low operational voltage and less power.

(ii) Fast action with no warmup time.
(iii) Emitted light is nearly monochromatic.
(iv) They have long life.

Note: I-V characteristics of LED are similar to that

of Si junction diode, but the threshold voltages
are much higher and slightly different for each
color. The reverse breakdown voltages of LED’s
are very low, about 5 V.
Photodiode
It is a reversed-biased p-n junction, illuminated by
radiation. When p-n junction is reversed biased
with no current, a very small reverse saturated
current flows across the junction called the dark
current. When the junction is illuminated with
light, electron-hole pairs are created at the
junction, due to which additional current begins
to flow across the junction; the current is solely
due to minority charge carriers.

(1) A photodiode is used in reverse bias, although

in forward bias current is more than current in
reverse bias because in reverse bias it is easier to
observe change in current with change in light
intensity.
(2) Photodiode is used to measure light intensity
because reverse current increases with increase
of intensity of light.
 Photodiode
The characteristic curves
of a photodiode for two
different illuminations 𝐼1
and 𝐼2 𝐼2 > 𝐼1 are shown
in figure.
Example

A p-n photo diode is fabricated from a semiconductor with a band gap

of 2.5 eV. It can detect a signal of wavelength

(a) 4000 nm (b) 6000 nm

(c) 4900A (d) 6000A

Solution
Solar Cell
➢ A solar cell is a junction diode which
converts tight energy into electrical
energy.
➢ A p-n junction solar cell consists of a
large junction with no external
biasing
➢ The surface layer of p-region is made
very thin so that the incident
photons may easily penetrate to
reach the junction which is the
active region. In an operation in the
photovoltaic mode (i.e., generation
of voltage due to bombardment of
optical photons);
➢ the materials suitable for photocells
are silicon (Si), gallium arsenide
(GaAs), cadmium sulphide (CdS) and
cadmium selenide (CdSe).
Solar Cell (Working)
➢ When photons of energy greater
than band gap energy ( hv > Eg ൯
are made incident on the
junction, electron-hole pairs are
created which move in opposite
directions due to junction field.

➢ These are collected at two sides

of junction, thus producing
photo-voltage; this gives rise to
photocurrent.
Example
Reverse breakdown
 Reverse breakdown
➢ If the reverse bias voltage is made too high, the current through the PN
junction increases rapidly at Vz .
➢ The voltage at which this happens is called breakdown voltage or Zener
voltage.
➢ There two mechanism which causes this breakdown. One is called
avalanche breakdown and other is called Zener breakdown.
 Zener breakdown
➢ When reverse bias is increased the electric field at then junction also
increases.

➢ At some stage, the electric field becomes so high that it breaks the
covalent bonds creating electron, hole pairs, thus a large number of
carriers are generated.

➢ This causes a large current to flow. This mechanism is known as Zener

breakdown
 Avalanche breakdown
➢ At high reverse voltage, due to high electric field, the minority charge
carriers, while crossing the junction acquires very high velocities.

➢ These by collision breaks down the covalent bonds, generating more

carriers. A chain reaction is established, giving rise to high current.

➢ This mechanism is called avalanche breakdown.

Zener and Avalanche breakdown
 Zener Diode
➢ A Zener diode is a specially designed heavily doped p-n junction, having
a very thin depletion layer and having a very sharp breakdown voltage.

➢ It is always operated in breakdown region.

➢ Once the breakdown occurs the potential difference across the diode
does not increase even if the applied battery potential is increased.

➢ Such diodes are used to obtain constant voltage output

➢ Its breakdown voltage Vz is less than 6 V

Zener Diode as a Voltage Regulator:

In breakdown region the equation:

𝑉𝑧 + 𝑉R = 𝑉applied
Example
In the given circuit, the value of current 𝐼𝐿 will be……… mA. (When 𝑅𝐿 =
1kΩ ) [JEE (Main)-2022]
Example

A Zener diode, having a breakdown voltage equal to 15 V, is used in a

voltage regulator circuit shown in the figure. The current through the
diode is

(a) 5mA (b) 10mA

(c) 15 mA (d) 20mA

Solution
Logic gates
 Logic gates
•A logic gate is a digital circuit that performs a logical operation on one or more
binary inputs and produces a single binary output.

•The inputs and outputs are represented by binary digits, such as 0 and 1.

•Logic gates are built using semiconductor diodes and transistors, and each gate
is represented by a characteristic symbol.

•The operation of a logic gate is indicated in a table known as a truth table,

which contains all possible combinations of inputs and the corresponding
outputs.

•A logic gate can also be represented by a Boolean algebraic expression, which

is a method of writing logical equations showing how an output depends upon
the combination of inputs.

•Boolean algebra was invented by George Boole in the mid-19th century and is
widely used in digital electronics.
OR Gate
OR Gate
Example
Show the output waveform of OR gate for the following input waveforms
of 𝐴 and 𝐵
AND Gate
AND Gate
Example
Show the output waveform of OR gate for the following input waveforms
of 𝐴 and 𝐵
NOT Gate
NOT Gate
 Boolean Algebra

➢ George Boolean invented a kind of algebra which deals with logical

statements that have only two values, namely either a “true” or a
“false” value .
➢ Postulates and theorems of Boolean Algebra:

OR Laws
1) A + 0 = A 2) A + 1 = 1
3) A + A = A ഥ=1
4) A + A

AND Laws

5) A . 0 = 0 6) A . 1 = A
7) A . A = A ഥ =0
8) A . A
 Boolean Algebra

Complementation Laws
9) 0ത = 1
10) 1ത = 0
ഥ=A
11) A
Commutative Laws
12) A + B = B + A
13) A . B = B . A
Associative Laws
14) A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C
15) A . (B . C) = (A . B) . C
Distributive laws
16) A . (B + C) = AB + AC
17) A + (B . C) = (A + B) . (A + C)
 Boolean Algebra

De – Morgan’s theorems:

ഥ . Bത
18) A+B = A

ഥ + Bത
19) A . B = A

ഥ . Bത = A . B
ഥ+Bത = A
20) A

ഥ + Bത = A + B
ഥ . Bത = A
21) A
NOR Gate
NAND Gate
Example
Sketch the output waveform 𝑌 from a NAND gate having following inputs
𝐴 and 𝐵.
XOR Gate
XNOR Gate
Example
Solution
Example
Solution
Example
Solution
Example

Which of the following gate is called universal gate ?

A. OR gate B. NAND gate

C. AND gate D. NOT gate

 Why NOR Gate is called Universal Gate

A Y
A Y

A
A
A
Y Y
B B
B

A A
Y Y
B
B
A Y
A Y
A
A A
Y Y
B B
B
A A
Y Y
B
B
 Why NAND Gate is called Universal Gate

Truth table of a single

input NAND gate
A 1 A NOT A B = ( A) Y
0 0 1
1 1 0
Truth table
A A B Y' Y
1 Y AND
B Y’ 0 0 1 0
0 1 1 0
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 1
A Truth table
A
A B A B Y
Y OR 0 0 1 1 0
B 0 1 1 0 1
B 1 0 0 1 1
1 0 0 0 1
 Boolean Algebra

➢ George Boolean invented a kind of algebra which deals with logical

statements that have only two values, namely either a “true” or a
“false” value .
➢ Postulates and theorems of Boolean Algebra:

OR Laws
1) A + 0 = A 2) A + 1 = 1
3) A + A = A ഥ=1
4) A + A

AND Laws

5) A . 0 = 0 6) A . 1 = A
7) A . A = A ഥ =0
8) A . A
 Boolean Algebra

Complementation Laws
9) 0ത = 1
10) 1ത = 0
ഥ=A
11) A
Commutative Laws
12) A + B = B + A
13) A . B = B . A
Associative Laws
14) A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C
15) A . (B . C) = (A . B) . C
Distributive laws
16) A . (B + C) = AB + AC
17) A + (B . C) = (A + B) . (A + C)
 Boolean Algebra

De – Morgan’s theorems:

ഥ . Bത
18) A+B = A

ഥ + Bത
19) A . B = A

ഥ . Bത = A . B
ഥ+Bത = A
20) A

ഥ + Bത = A + B
ഥ . Bത = A
21) A