LECTURE TWO / WEEK THREE/ 16Th February 2024

STRUCRURE OF MICROORGANISMS: Viruses/Prions/Viroids/Virusoids;

VIRUSES
→ Viruses are infectious agents characterized by their simple acellular structure, consisting of a protein
coat (capsid) and a nucleic acid genome (either DNA or RNA).
→ They lack independent metabolism and reproduce only within living host cells.

Key points about viruses:

→ Study of viruses: Virology is the branch of science dedicated to the study of viruses.
→ Observation: Viruses are observed using electron microscopes due to their small size.
→ Wide host range: Viruses infect every type of cell, including bacteria, algae, fungi, protozoa, plants,
and animals.
→ Control of host machinery: Viruses are minute particles that take control of the synthetic and genetic
machinery of host cells to replicate.

Properties/Characteristics:
→ Obligate intracellular parasites: Viruses can only replicate within host cells.
→ Ultramicroscopic: Viruses range in size from 20 nm to 450 nm in diameter.
→ Acellular nature: Viruses lack cellular structures and do not display independent life characteristics.
→ Inactive outside host cells: Viruses are inert outside host cells and become active only inside them.
→ Specific attachment: Viruses have surface molecules with high specificity for attaching to host cells.
→ Replication: Viruses multiply by taking control of host cell genetic material and regulating the
synthesis and assembly of new viruses.
→ Lack of metabolic enzymes: Viruses lack enzymes for most metabolic processes.
→ Protein synthesis machinery: Viruses lack machinery for synthesizing proteins independently.

NOTE
→ Animal viruses range in size from parvovirus, which measures 20 nm to poxvirus to 450 nm in
length, making them comparable in size to small bacteria.
→ Some viruses are even smaller, measuring around 800 nanometers (0.8 micrometers) in length.
→ The largest known virus, the mimivirus, has an average diameter of about 500 nanometers (0.5µm)
and can be readily observed using light microscopy, appearing as large as small bacteria.

Viral Components: Capsids and Envelopes

Capsids:
→ Capsids are protein structures that enclose the viral genetic material (nucleic acid) in many
viruses.
→ They provide protection to the viral genome and help in the virus's attachment to host cells during
infection.

Nucleocapsid:
→ The combination of the capsid and the nucleic acid (DNA or RNA) is referred to as the
nucleocapsid.
→ It forms the core structure of the virus.

Enveloped viruses:
→ Some viruses have an additional outer covering called an envelope.

1 - Dr. Ogolla - Week 7/ 23rd February 2024

 → This envelope is derived from the host cell's membrane and contains viral proteins, which aid in
attachment to host cells and evasion of the immune system.

Naked Viruses:
→ Viruses that lack an envelope and consist solely of a nucleocapsid are termed naked viruses.
→ These viruses are typically more resistant to harsh environmental conditions but may be more
susceptible to certain disinfectants compared to enveloped viruses.

Types of Viral Capsids

Types of Viral Capsids

1. Helical Capsid:
• Structure: The helical capsid is characterized by a cylindrical or
tubular structure, with the viral nucleic acid arranged in a helical coil
within the capsid.
• The nucleic acid may have two free ends and is accommodated within
the central space of the capsid.
• Examples: Tobacco mosaic virus is a well-known example of a virus
with a helical capsid structure.

2. Icosahedral:
Structure:
→ virus characterized by its symmetrical, polygonal structure
resembling a 20-sided polyhedron called an icosahedron.

→ These capsids form symmetrical, polygonal structures.

→ Examples: Various viruses exhibit icosahedral and prolate capsid

structures, including bacteriophages, poliovirus, adenovirus.

Functions of viral capside / envelope

1. Protects the nucleic acid from the effects of enzymes and chemicals when the virus is outside the host
cell.
2. Help to introduce the viral DNA or RNA into a host cell by binding to the cell surface and assisting
in penetration of the viral nucleic acid.
3. Parts of the viral capsids and envelops stimulate the immune system to produce antibiotics that can
neutralize viruses and protect the host cells against future infections (concept of vaccines).

Nucleic Acids:
- RNA viruses can be double –stranded but are more often single-stranded.
(NB: Ordinarily DNA is usually a double strand while RNA is a single stranded molecular)
- An RNA virus with some unusual features is a retrovirus e.g HIV that can change its nucleic acid
from RNA to DNA.
- Viruses are genetic parasites because they cannot multiply until the nucleic acid has reached the
internal habitat of the host cell.

2 - Dr. Ogolla - Week 7/ 23rd February 2024

- A virus must carry genes for synthesizing the viral capsid and genetic material for regulating the
actions of the host and for packaging the mature virus.
- Viruses contain enzymes for specific operations within their host cell.
- They may come with performed enzymes required for viral replication e.g polymerases that
synthesize DNA and RNA and replicates that copy RNA.
- The AIDS virus comes equipped with reverse transcriptase for synthesizing DNA from RNA.

HOW VIRUSES ARE CLASSIFIED

Body responsible ICTV – International Committee on Taxonomy of viruses. In year 2000 – listed 3
orders, 63 families and 263 genera of viruses (previously there was only 1 order).
The main criteria / characteristics used to group viruses are
1. Viral structure
2. Chemical composition
3. Similarities in genetic make up
4. Serological reactions (antibody-antigen reactions)
5. The host range of the virus (range infected) and kind of diseases caused.
6. The type of vector that transmits the virus – insects and mites

Viruses are therefore classified as (viral groups)

1. Animal 2. Plant 3. Bacterial viruses
4. Naked virus 5. Enveloped viruses 6. DNA or RNA virus
7. Helical viruses 8. Icosahedral virus

MODES OF VIRAL MULTIPLICATION

- The general phases in the life cycle of animal viruses are absorption, penetration, uncoating,
synthesis, assembly and release from the host cell.

1. Absorption / Attachment
- A virus encounters a susceptible host cell and attaches to specific receptors on the cell membrane
- The receptors are glycoproteins the cell requires for its normal function
e.g HIV virus attaches to CD4 protein on certain white blood cells.
- Cells that lack compatible virus receptors are resistant to absorption and invasion by that virus.
2. Penetration and uncoating
- The flexible cell membrane of the host is penetrated by the whole virus or its nucleic acid.
- Through endocytosis the entire virus is engulfed by the cell and enclosed in a vacuole.

3 - Dr. Ogolla - Week 7/ 23rd February 2024

 - The enzymes in the vacuole dissolve the envelope and the capsid uncoating the virus
- This process releases the viral nucleic acid into the cytoplasm

3. Synthesis (Replication and protein production)

Viral nucleic acid exerts control over the host’s synthetic and metabolic machinery. This varies
depending on whether the virus is DNA or RNA.
- DNA virus enter the host cell’s nucleus where they are replicated and assembled (except the
retroviruses).
- RNA viruses are replicated and assembled in the cytoplasm
- Some viruses come equipped with the enzymes for synthesis of viral components while others
utilize those of the host.
- The nucleic acid RNA or DNA is synthesized using the host nucleotides
- Proteins for the capsid, spikes and viral enzymes are synthesized on the hosts ribosomes using its
amino acids.

4. Assembly (Host cell as factory)

Mature virus particles are constructed from the growing pool of parts toward the end of the cycle.
- The capsid is first laid down as an empty shell that serves as a receptacle for the nucleic acid strand.

5. Release of mature viruses

Assembled viruses leave their host through either of those two days.
(a) Non enveloped viruses released when the cell lyses or raptures
(b) Envelope viruses are released by budding from the membranes of the nucleus or vesicles

COMPLEX VIRUS : Bacterial viruses or bacteriophage

- Are viruses that parasites on bacteria and are tadpole like in

appearance
- The tail portion has a central core and an outer sheath of
protein subunits
- At the base of fail is plate like structures which bears six fibres
- The bacteriophage which attacks E. Coli is known as a colin
phage
-

- It uses the fibres to fix itself to the wall of the bacterium the core penetrates inside the bacterium and
releases the phage DNA inside bacterial wall.
- The phage DNA converts the nucleic acid of the bacterium into virus DNA and develops protein coat
around the DNA.
- A large number of bacteriophage are produced inside the bacterial cell and the bacteria cell finally
ruptures due to lysis.

4 - Dr. Ogolla - Week 7/ 23rd February 2024

 Medical Uses of Viruses:

1. Gene Therapy:
→ Viruses are utilized as vectors to deliver therapeutic genes into target cells for the treatment of genetic
disorders.
→ Example: Adeno-associated viruses (AAVs) are used in gene therapy for conditions like muscular
dystrophy and cystic fibrosis.

2. Vaccines:
→ Viruses are used as vaccine vectors to stimulate immune responses against specific pathogens.
→ Examples: Vaccines for COVID-19, influenza, measles, mumps, and rubella are developed using
weakened or inactivated viruses.

3. Cancer Treatment (Oncolytic Virotherapy):

→ Oncolytic viruses are engineered or naturally occurring viruses that selectively infect and kill cancer
cells.
→ Example: Oncolytic viruses such as herpes simplex virus (HSV) and adenoviruses are being studied
as potential treatments for various cancers.

4. Diagnostic Tools:
→ Viruses are used in diagnostic tests to detect the presence of specific antibodies or antigens
in patient samples.
→ Example: Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) kits utilize viral antigens for the
detection of antibodies in diseases like HIV and hepatitis.

5. Viral Vectors in Research:

→ Viral vectors are widely used in research laboratories to introduce genes of interest into cells for
studying gene function and protein expression.
→ Examples: Lentiviral vectors, retroviral vectors, and adenoviral vectors are commonly used in
molecular biology research.

Agricultural Uses of Viruses:

1. Biological Control of Pests:

→ Certain viruses can be used as biopesticides to control agricultural pests, such as insect larvae and
mites.
→ Example: Baculoviruses are used to control populations of insect pests like the corn earworm and
cabbage looper.

2. Plant Disease Management:

→ Some viruses are used to control plant diseases caused by other pathogens, such as bacteria or fungi.
→ Example: Hypoviruses are used to control chestnut blight, a fungal disease that affects chestnut trees.
3. Viral Vectors for Genetic Modification:
→ Viruses can be engineered as vectors to deliver desired genes into plants for genetic
modification.
→ Example: Plant viral vectors like the Tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) or Potato virus X (PVX)
are used to introduce traits such as insect resistance or enhanced nutrient uptake into crops.

5 - Dr. Ogolla - Week 7/ 23rd February 2024

 4. Production of Transgenic Plants:
→ Viruses can be employed in the production of transgenic plants by facilitating the insertion of foreign
genes into plant genomes.
→ Example: Viral vectors like the Cauliflower mosaic virus (CaMV) have been utilized to create
transgenic plants with improved traits, such as herbicide tolerance or virus resistance.

5. Molecular Tools for Plant Research:

→ Viruses serve as valuable tools in plant research for studying gene function, plant development, and
molecular biology.
→ Example: Viral vectors like the Tobacco rattle virus (TRV) are used in techniques such as virus-
induced gene silencing (VIGS) to investigate gene function in plants.

PRIONS
- Prions are group of unusual infectious agents that are not viruses and belong in a category of their
own.
- Prion refers to a protenaceous infection pasticle)
- Its primary structure is that of a naked protein molecule.
- They are the only biologically active agents that lack any sort of nucleic acid (DNA or RNA)
- They are unable to replicate but are transersible
- They cause diseases that can spread from host to host by direct contact or contaminated food e.g the
mad cow disease in cattle
- Prion like proteins are common in cell membranes of plants, yeasts, animals
- They have extreme resistance. They are able to survive heat treatment.

6 - Dr. Ogolla - Week 7/ 23rd February 2024