DIVERSITY OF MICROORGANISMS

Part 1. Acellular and Procaryotic Microbes

CATEGORIES OF MICROORGANIMS

Acellular Infectious Agents

Viruses

• Complete virus particles called virions, are very

small and simple in structure.

• Viruses could not be seen until electron

microscopes were invented in the 1930s.

• The negative staining procedure, developed in • A typical virion consists of a genome of either
1959, revolutionized the study of viruses, making DNA or RNA, surrounded by a capsid ( protein
it possible to observe unstained viruses against coat), which is composed of many small protein
an electron-dense, dark background. units called capsomeres.
• No type of organism is safe from viral • Some viruses ( called enveloped viruses) have
infections: viruses infect humans, animals, an outer envelope composed of lipids and
plants, fungi, protozoa, algae, and bacterial cells. polysaccharides. Bacterial viruses may also have
Many human diseases are caused by viruses. a tail, sheath, and tail fibers. There are no
Some viruses – called oncogenic viruses or ribosomes for protein synthesis or sites of
oncoviruses- cause specific types of cancer, energy production; hence, the virus must invade
including human cancers such as lymphomas, and take over a functioning cell to produce new
carcinomas, and certain types of leukemia. virions.
• Viruses are said to have 5 specific properties • Viruses are classified by the following
that distinguish them from living cells. characteristics:
➢ ▫ They possess either DNA or RNA, unlike a) type of genetic material (either DNA or
living cells, which possess both. RNA),
➢ ▫ They are unable to replicate on their b) whether the virus nucleic acid is single
own; their replication is directed by the stranded or double stranded,
viral nucleic acid once it is introduced c) whether the virus nucleic acid is
into a host cell. positive sense or negative-sense, d.
➢ ▫ Unlike cells, they do not divide by shape of the capsid, e. number of
binary fission, mitosis, or meiosis. capsomeres, f. size of the capsid, g.
➢ ▫ They lack the genes and enzymes presence or absence of an envelope, h.
necessary for energy production. type of host that it infects, i. type of
➢ ▫ They depend on the ribosomes, disease it produces, j. target cell, and k.
enzymes, and metabolites (“building immunologic or antigenic properties.
block”) of the host cell for protein and
nucleic acid production. • There are four (4) categories of viruses,
based on the type of nucleic acid they
possess. The genetic material of most viruses
is either double-stranded DNA or single- 2. The "retrograde evolution theory":
stranded RNA, but a few viruses possess viruses evolved from free-living
single-stranded DNA or double-stranded prokaryotes that invaded other
RNA. living organisms, and gradually lost
functions that were provided by the
• Viral genomes are usually circular
host cell. This theory has little
molecules, but some are linear (having two
support.
ends). Capsids of viruses have various shapes
and symmetry.
3. The "escaped gene theory": viruses
are pieces of host cell RNA or DNA
• They may be polyhedral (many sided), that have escaped from Jiving cells
helical (coiled tubes), bullet shaped, and are no longer under cellular
spherical, or a complex combination of these control. Of the three theories, this is
shapes. currently the most widely accepted
explanation for the origin of viruses.
• Polyhedral capsides have 20 sides or
facets; geometrically, they are referred to as
icosahedron. Each facet consists of several
capsomeres; thus the size of the virus is
determined by the size of each facet and the
number of capsomeres in each.

• Frequently, the envelope around the

capsid makes the virus appear spherical or
irregular in shape in electron micrographs.
The envelope is acquired by certain animal
viruses as they escape from the nucleus or
cytoplasm of the host cell by budding. In
other words, the envelope is derived from
either the host’s cell nuclear membrane or
cell membrane.

• Apparently, viruses are then able to alter

these membranes by adding protein fibers,
spikes, and knobs that enable the virus to
recognize the next host cell to be invaded.

Origin of Viruses
• Three major theories have emerged to
explain the origin of viruses.

1. The "coevolution theory": viruses

Animal Viruses
originated in the primordial soup
and coevolved with bacteria and • Viruses that infect humans and animals are
archaea. This hypothesis has few collectively referred to as “ animal viruses”
supporters. MP LEC AND LAB
MODULE 1 Page 53
• Some animal viruses are DNA viruses; others • The second step in the multiplication of animal
are RNA viruses. Animal viruses may consist viruses is penetration, but unlike
solely of nucleic acid surrounded by a protein bacteriophages, the entire virion usually enters
coat (capsid), or they may be more complex. For the host cell, sometimes because MP LEC AND
example, they may be enveloped and/or they LAB MODULE 1 Page 55 the cell phagocytizes the
may contain enzymes which play a role in viral virus. This necessitates a third step that was not
multiplication within host cells. required for bacteriophages – uncoating-
whereby the viral nucleic acid escapes from the
capsid. From this point on, the viral nucleic acid
“dictates what occurs within the host cell”.

• The fourth stage is biosynthesis, whereby many

viral pieces (viral nucleic acid and viral proteins)
are produced. This step can be quite
complicated, depending on what type of virus
infected the cell. Some animal viruses do not
initiate biosynthesis right away, but rather,
remain latent within the host cell for variable
periods.

• The fifth step – assembly – involves fitting the

virus pieces together to produce complete
virions. After the virus particles are assembled,
they must escape from the cell – a sixth step
called release. How they escape from the cell
depends on the type of virus that it is.
• The first step in the multiplication of animal
viruses is attachment (or adsorption) of the virus • Some animal viruses escape by destroying the
to the cell. Like bacteriophages, animal viruses host cell, leading to cell destruction and some of
can only attach to cells bearing the appropriate the symptoms associated with that particular
protein or polysaccharide receptors on their virus.
surface. • Other viruses escape the cell by a process
• Did you ever wonder why certain cause known as budding. Viruses that escape from the
infections in dogs, but not humans, or vice versa? host cell cytoplasm by budding become
surrounded with pieces of the cell membrane,
• Did you ever wonder why certain viruses cause thus becoming enveloped viruses. All envelope
respiratory infections, while others cause viruses escaped from their host cells by budding.
gastrointestinal infections?
• Remnants or collection of viruses, called
ANSWER: inclusion bodies are often seen in infected cells
• It all boils down to receptors. and are used as a diagnostic tool to identify
certain viral diseases. Inclusion bodies may be
• Virus can only attach to and invade cells that found in the cytoplasm (cytoplasmic inclusion
bear a receptor that they can recognize and bodies) or within the nucleus (intranuclear
attach to. inclusion bodies), depending on the particular
disease.
• In rabies, the cytoplasmic inclusion bodies in against viral infections. This is because
nerve cells are called Negri bodies. antibiotics function by inhibiting certain
metabolic activities within cellular pathogens,
• The inclusion bodies of AIDS and the Guarnieri
and viruses are not cells. However, for certain
bodies of smallpox are also cytoplasmic.
patients with colds and influenza, antibiotics
• Herpes and poliomyelitis viruses cause may be prescribed in an attempt to prevent
intranuclear inclusion bodies. In each case, secondary bacterial infections that might follow
inclusion bodies may represent aggregates or the virus infection.
collections of viruses. Some important human
• In recent years, a few chemicals – called
viral diseases include AIDS, chicken pox, cold
antiviral agents – have been developed that
sores, the common cold, Ebola virus infections,
interfere with virus-specific enzymes and virus
genital herpes infection, German measles,
production by either disrupting critical phases in
hantavirus pulmonary syndrome, infectious
viral cycles or inhibiting the synthesis of viral
mononucleosis, influenza, measles, mumps,
DNA,RNA, or proteins.
poliomyelitis, rabies, and viral encephalitis. In
addition, all human warts are caused by viruses. Oncogenic viruses
Latent Virus Infections • Viruses that cause cancer are called oncogenic
viruses or oncoviruses.
• Herpes virus infections, such as cold sores
(fever blisters), are good examples of latent virus • While the cause of many (perhaps most) types
infections. Infected persons harbor the latent of human cancers remain unkown, it is known
virus in nerve cells. A fever, stress, or excessive that some human cancers are caused by viruses.
sunlight can trigger the viral genes to take over
• Epstein-Barr virus ( a type of herpesvirus) is the
the cells and produce more viruses; in the
cause of infectious mononucleosis ( not a type of
process, cells are destroyed and a cold sore
cancer), but it also causes three types of human
develops.
cancers: nasopharyngeal cancer, Burkitt’s
• Latent viral infections are usually limited by the lymphoma, and B cell lymphoma.
defense systems of the human body –
• Kaposi sarcoma, a type of cancer that is
phagocytes and antiviral proteins called
common in AIDS patients, is caused by human
interferons that are produced by virus infected
herpes virus 8. • Associations between hepatitis
cells.
B and C viruses and hepatocellular (liver)
• Shingles, a painful nerve disease that is also carcinoma have been established.
caused by a herpes virus, is another example of
• Human papilloma viruses (HPV;wart viruses)
a latent viral infection. Following a chickenpox
can cause different types of cancer, including
infection, the virus can remain latent in the
cervical cancer and other types of cancer of the
human body for many years. Then when the
genital tract.
body’s immune defenses become weakened by
old age or disease, the latent chickenpox • A retrovirus that is closely related to human
resurfaces to cause shingles. immunodeficiency virus (HIV; the cause of AIDS),
called HTLV-1, causes a rare type of adult T cell
Antiviral Agents
leukemia.
• It is important for healthcare professionals to
understand that antibiotics are not effective
• All the above-mentioned viruses, except HTLV- latent through many host cell generations. Later,
1, are DNA viruses. the provirus can exit the host cell genome to
undergo viral replication
Human Immunodeficiency Virus
Ebola and Zika Viruses
• Human deficiency virus (HIV), the cause of
acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS), is • In recent ye-ars, two viruses have caused
an enveloped, double-stranded RNA virus. It is a concerns throughout the world because of their
member of a genus of viruses called Lentiviruses, high mortality (Ebola virus) or their ability to
in a family of viruses called Retroviridae cause serious birth defects (Zika virus). Ebola
(retroviruses). virus is a thread-shaped virus that is thought to
cross over from bats to infect humans.
• HIV is able to attach to and invade cells bearing
receptors that the virus recognizes. The most • An outbreak of Ebola hemorrhagic fever in
important of these receptors is designated CD4 Western Africa in 2014 to 2015 infected more
and cells possessing that receptor are called than 28,000 people and caused over 11,000
CD4+ cells. deaths

• The most important of the CD4+ cells is the • More recendy, Zika virus, which is transmitted
helper T cell; HIV infections destroy these by mosquitoes, has spread into the Americas
important cells of the immune system. from Micronesia and has been responsible for a
large number of birth defects.
• Macrophages also possess CD4 receptors and
can, thus, be invaded by HIV. In addition, HIV is Antiviral Agents
able to invade certain cells that do not possess
CD4 receptors, but do possess other receptors • In recent years, a number of chemicals-called
that HIV is able to recognize. antiviral agents-have been developed to
interfere with virus-specific enzymes and virus
• An enveloped virus, containing two identical production by either disrupting critical phases in
RNA strands. Each of its 72 surface knobs viral replication cycles or inhibiting the synthesis
contains a glycoprotein capable of binding to a of viral DNA, RNA, or proteins. MP LEC AND LAB
CD4 receptor on a certain host cells ( e.g., MODULE 1 Page 58
T helper cells). The “stalk” that supports the
knob is a transmembrane glycoprotein, which • Antibiotics that function by inhibiting certain
may also play a role in attachment top host cells. metabolic activities within prokaryotic and
eukaryotic pathogens have no activity against
Provirus viruses since they are not cells. However, for
certain patients with colds and influenza,
• Some viruses such as HIV (retroviruses) and
antibiotics may be prescribed in an attempt to
some DNA viruses are capable of inserting the
prevent secondary bacterial infections that
viral genome into the host cell DNA.
might follow the virus infection.
• In this case, the viral genome is referred to as a
Bacteriophages
provirus. This process allows the virus to cause a
latent infection and to avoid causing an immune • Like animal cells, bacteria can also be infected
response that may eliminate the virus. by viruses, called bacteriophages (or simply
phages). Like all viruses, they are obligate
• The viral genome is replicated with the host cell
genome during cell division and can remain
intracellular pathogens, in that they must enter hypodermic needle. From this point on, the
a cell to replicate phage DNA "dictates" what occurs within the
bacterial cell. This is sometimes described as the
. • Bacteriophages can be categorized by the
phage DNA taking over the host cell!
events that occur after invasion of the bacterial
"machinery."
cell: some are virulent phages, whereas others
are temperate phages. • The third step in the lytic cycle is called
biosynthesis. It is during this step that the phage
• Phages in either category do not actually enter
genes are expressed, resulting in the production
the bacterial cell-rather, they inject their nucleic
(biosynthesis) of viral pieces.
acid into the cell.
• In the fourth step of the lytic cycle, called
• Virulent bacteriophages always cause what is
assembly, the viral pieces are assembled to
known as the lytic cycle, which ends with the
produce complete viral particles (virions). It is
destruction (lysis) of the bacterial cell. For most
during this step that viral DNA is packaged up
phages, the whole process (from attachment to
into capsids.
lysis) takes less than 1 hour.
• The final step in the lytic cycle, called release,
• The replicative cycle of bacteriophages is very
is when the host cell bursts open and all of the
similar to that of animal viruses except that
new virions (about 50-1,000) escape from the
bacteriophages do not actually enter the host
cell. Thus, the lytic cycle ends with lysis of the
cell, but rather inject their nucleic acid into the
host cell.
cell.
• Lysis is caused by an enzyme (referred to as an
endolysin) that is coded for by a phage gene. At
the appropriate time-after assembly-the
appropriate viral gene is expressed, the enzyme
is produced, and the bacterial cell wall is
destroyed.

• With certain bacteriophages, a phage gene

codes for an enzyme that interferes with cell wall
synthesis, leading to weakness and, finally,
collapse of the cell wall.

Viroids and Prions

• The first step in the lytic cycle is attachment * A viroid is an infectious RNA molecule that is
(adsorption) of the phage to the surface of the transmitted between plants.
bacterial cell The phage can only attach to
bacterial cells that possess the appropriate
Prions
receptor-a protein or polysaccharide molecule • Prions are small infectious proteins that cause
on the surface of the cell that is recognized by a fatal neurologic diseases in animals and humans
molecule on the surface of the phage. in which the brain becomes riddled with holes
(becomes sponge-like).
• The second step in the lytic cycle is called
penetration. In this step, the phage injects its
DNA into the bacterial cell acting much like a
• Prions are thought to be transmitted by PART 2. THE DOMAIN BACTERIA
consumption of food contaminated with the
agent. Characteristics

• All diseases caused by prions are untreatable • The Domain Bacteria contains 23 phyla, 32
and & fatal and are collectively referred to as classes, 5 subclasses, 77 orders, 14 suborders,
"transmissible spongiform encephalopathies" 182 families, 871 genera, and 5007 species.
(TSE). • Organisms in this domain are broadly divided
• Kuru is a disease that was once common into 3 phenotypic categories ( i.e., categories
among natives in Papua, New Guinea, where based on their physical characteristics) (1) those
women and children ate prion-infected human that are Gram-negative and have a cell wall, (2)
brains as part of a traditional burial custom ( those that are Gram-positive and have a cell wall,
ritualistic cannibalism). and (3) those that lack a cell wall.

• Kuru, C-J disease, and GSS disease involve loss • Using computers, microbiologists have
of coordination and dementia. established numerical taxonomy system that not
only help to identify bacteria by their physical
• Dementia, a general mental deterioration, is characteristics, but also can help establish how
characterized by disorientation and impaired closely related these organisms are by
memory, judgment, and intellect. In fatal familial comparing the composition of their genetic
insomnia, insomnia and dementia follow material and other cellular characteristics.
difficulty sleeping. All these diseases are fatal
spongiform encephalopathies, in which the brain • Many characteristics of bacteria are examined
becomes riddled with holes (sponge-like) to provide data for identification and
classification. These characteristics include cell
• The 1997 Nobel Prize for Physiology or morphology ( shape), staining reactions, motility,
Medicine was awarded to Stanley B. Prusiner, colony morphology, atmospheric requirements,
the scientist who coined the term prion, and nutritional requirements, biochemical and
studied the role of these proteinaceous metabolic activities, specific enzymes that the
infectious particles in disease. organism produces, pathogenicity, and genetic
• Of all pathogens, prions are believed to be the composition.
most resistant to disinfectants. The mechanism Cell morphology
by which prions cause disease remains a
mystery, although it is thought that prions • There are 3 basic shapes of bacteria: round or
convert normal protein molecules into spherical bacteria – the cocci ( singular: coccus);
nonfunctional ones by causing the normal rectangular or rod-shaped bacteria – the bacilli
molecules to change their shape. Many scientists (singular: bacillus); and spiral shaped bacteria (
remain unconvinced that proteins alone can sometimes referred to as spirilla).
cause disease. • Bacteria divide by binary fission – one cell splits
in half to become 2 daughter cells. Following
binary fission, the daughter cells may separate
completely from each other or may remain
connected, forming various morphological
arrangements.
• Cocci may be seen singly or in pairs ( syphilis, with a flexible cell wall that enables
diplococci), chains ( streptococci), clusters ( them to move readily through tissues. Its
staphylococci), packets of four ( tetrads), or morphology and characteristic motility –
packets of eight (octads), depending on the spinning around its long axis – make T. pallidum
particular species and manner in which the cells easy to recognize in clinical species obtained
divided. Examples of cocci include Enterococcus from patients with primary syphilis. Borrelia
ssp., Neisseria spp., Staphylococcus ssp., and spp., the etiologic agents of Lyme disease and
Streptococcus ssp. relapsing fever, are examples of less tightly
coiled spirochetes.
• Bacilli ( often referred to as rods) may be short
or long, thick or thin, pointed or with curved or
blunt ends. They may occur singly, in pairs (
diplobacilli), in chains ( streptobacilli), in long
filaments, or branched. Some rods are quite
short, resembling elongated cocci; they are
called coccobacilli.

• Some bacilli stack up next to each other, side

by side in a palisade arrangement, which is
characteristic of Corynebacterium diphtheriae (
the cause of diphtheria) and organisms that
resemble it in appearance ( called diphtheroids).
Examples of bacilli include members of the
family Enterobacteriaceae (e.g., Enterobacter,
Escherichia, Klebsiella, Proteus, Salmonella, and
Shigella spp.), Haemophilus influenzae,
Pseudomonas aeroginosa, Bacillus spp., and
Clostridium spp.

• Curved and spiral-shaped bacilli are placed into

• Some bacteria may lose their characteristic
a third morphological grouping. For example,
shape because adverse growth conditions
Vibrio spp., such as Vibrio cholerae ( the cause of
prevent the production of normal cell walls. Such
cholera) and Vibrio parahaemolyticus ( a
cell-wall-deficient bacteria are called L-forms.
common cause of diarrhea), are curved ( comma-
Some L-forms revert to their original shape when
shaped) bacilli. Spiral-shaped bacteria usually
placed in favorable growth condition, whereas
occur singly, but some species may form pairs. A
others do not. Bacteria in the genus Mycoplasma
pair of curved bacilli resembles a bird and is
do not have cell walls; thus, microscopically they
described as having a gull-wing morphology.
appear in various shapes. Bacteria that exist in a
Campylobacter spp. ( a common cause of
variety of shapes are described as being
diarrhea) have a gull-wing morphology.
pleomorphic; the ability to exist in a variety of
• Spiral-shaped bacteria are referred to as shapes is known as pleomorphism. Because they
spirochetes. Different species of spirochetes vary have no cell walls, mycoplasmas are resistant to
in size, length, rigidity, and the number and antibiotics that inhibit cell wall synthesis.
amplitude of their coils. Some are tightly coiled,
such as Treponema pallidum, the cause of
Staining Procedures stain has become the most important staining
procedure in the bacteriology laboratory,
• As they exist in nature, most bacteria are because it differentiates between "Gram-
colorless, transparent, and difficult to see. positive" and "Gram-negative" bacteria.
Therefore, various staining methods have been
devised to enable scientists to examine bacteria. • The organism's Gram reaction serves as an
extremely important "clue" when attempting to
• In preparation for staining, the bacteria are learn the identity (species) of a particular
smeared onto a glass microscope slide (resulting bacterium.
in what is known as a "smear"), air-dried, and
then "fixed." • The color of the bacteria at the end of the Gram
staining procedure depends on the chemical
• The two most common methods of fixation are composition of their cell wall.
heat fixation and methanol fixation. Heat
fixation is usually accomplished by placing the • If the bacteria were not decolorized during the
slide on a slider warmer. If not performed decolorization step, they will be blue to purple at
properly, excess heat can distort the morphology the conclusion of the Gram staining procedure;
of the cells. such bacteria are said to be "Gram-positive.“

• Methanol fixation, which is accomplished by • The thick layer of peptidoglycan in the cell walls
flooding the smear with absolute methanol for of Gram-positive bacteria makes it difficult to
30 seconds, is a more satisfactory fixation remove the crystal violet-iodine complex during
technique and better preserves the morphology the decolorization step.
of cells and microorganisms. In general, fixation
• If, on the other hand, the crystal violet was
serves three purposes:
removed from the cells during the decolorization
1. It kills the organisms. step, and the cells were subsequently stained by
2. It preserves their morphology (shape). the safranin (a red dye), they will be pink to red
3. It anchors the smear to the slide. at the conclusion of the Gram staining
procedure; such bacteria are said to be "Gram-
• Specific stains and staining techniques are used negative."
to observe bacterial cell morphology (e.g., size,
shape, morphologic arrangement, composition • The thin layer of peptidoglycan in the cell walls
of cell wall, capsules, flagella, endospores). of Gram-negative bacteria makes it easier to
remove the crystal violet-iodine complex during
• A simple stain is sufficient to determine decolorization. In addition, the decolorizer
bacterial shape and morphologic arrangement dissolves the lipid in the cell walls of Gram-
(e.g., pairs, chains, clusters). For this method, a negative bacteria; this is destroys the integrity of
dye (such as methylene blue) is applied to the the cell wall and makes it much easier to remove
fixed smear, rinsed, dried, and examined using the crystal violet-iodine complex
the oil immersion lens of the microscope. The
procedures used to observe bacterial capsules, • Mycobacterium species do not stain well, if at
spores, and flagella are collectively referred to as all, with the Gram stain because of the high lipid
structural staining procedures. content in their cell walls. They are more often
identified using a staining procedure called the
• In 1883, Dr. Hans Christian Gram developed a acid-fast stain.
staining technique that bears his name-the Gram
stain or Gram staining procedure. The Gram
• In the Kinyoun procedure, carbol fuchsin (a known as bacterial colony. A colony contains
bright red dye) is first used to stain the cells. The millions of organisms.
phenol component of the stain (carbol) acts to
• The colony morphology ( appearance of the
"lock" the stain into the cell wall. A decolorizing
colonies ) of bacteria varies from one species to
agent (a mixture of acid and alcohol) is then used
another.
in an attempt to remove the red color from the
cells. Because mycobacteria are not decolorized • As is true for cell morphology and staining
by the acid alcohol mixture (again owing to the characteristics, colony features serve as
waxes in their cell walls), they are said to be "acid important “clues” in the identification of
fast." bacteria.
• The acid-fast stain is especially useful in the Atmospheric requirements
tuberculosis laboratory ("TB lab"), where the
acid-fast mycobacteria are readily seen as red • In the microbiology laboratory, it is useful to
bacilli (referred to as acid-fast bacilli or AFB) classify bacteria on the basis of their relationship
against a blue or green background in a sputum to oxygen (O2), and carbon dioxide (CO2). With
specimen from a tuberculosis patient. *see table respect to oxygen, a bacterial isolate can be
4-8 Characteristics of Some Important classified into one of five major groups: obligate
Pathogenic Bacteria aerobes, microaerophilic aerobes
(microaerophiles), facultative anaerobes,
• The Gram and acid-fast staining procedures aerotolerant anaerobes, and obligate
are referred to as differential staining anaerobes.
procedures because they enable microbiologists
to differentiate one group of bacteria from • To grow and multiply, obligate aerobes require
another (i.e., Gram-positive bacteria from Gram- and atmosphere containing molecular oxygen in
negative bacteria, and acid-fast bacteria from concentrations comparable to that found in
non-acid-fast bacteria room air. Mycobacteria and certain fungi are
examples of microorganisms that are obligate
Motility aerobes. Microaerophiles (microaerophilic
aerobes) also require oxygen for multiplication,
• If a bacterium is able to “swim”, it is said to be
but in concentrations lower than that found in
motile. Bacteria unable to swim are said to be
room air. Neisseria gonorrhoeae and
nonmotile. Bacteria motility is most often
Campylobacter spp. (which are a major cause of
associated with the presence of flagella or axial
bacterial diarrhea) are examples of
filaments, although some bacteria exhibit a type
microaerophilic bacteria that prefer an
of gliding motility on secreted slime. Most spiral-
atmosphere containing about 5% oxygen.
shaped bacteria and about one-half of the bacilli
are motile by means of flagella, but cocci are • Anaerobes can be defined as organisms that do
generally nonmotile. Various terms are used to not require oxygen for life and reproduction.
describe the number and location of flagella on However, they vary in their sensitivity to oxygen.
bacterial cells. The terms obligate anaerobe, aerotolerant
anaerobe, and facultative anaerobe are used to
Colony morphology describe the organism’s relationship to
• After a bacterial cell lands on the surface molecular oxygen. An obligate anaerobe is an
culture medium, it divides over and over again, anaerobic that can only grow in an anaerobic
ultimately producing a mound or pile of bacteria, environment.
• An aerotolerant anaerobe does not require another cell to retain all necessary cellular
oxygen, grows better in the absence of oxygen, substances. All diseases caused by Rickettsia
but can survive in atmospheres containing species are transmitted by arthropod vectors
molecular oxygen (such as air and a CO2 (carriers); thus, rickettsial diseases are said to be
incubator). arthropod-borne.

• Facultative anaerobes are capable of surviving • Arthropods such as lice, fleas, and ticks
in either the presence or absence of oxygen; transmit the rickettsias from one host to another
anywhere from 0% to 20-21%. by their bites or waste products. Diseases caused
by Ricketssia spp. include typhus and typhus-like
Nutritional Requirements diseases. All these diseases involve production of
• All bacteria need some form of the elements rash.
carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, sulfur, phosphorus, • Chlamydias are probably the most primitive of
and nitrogen for growth. Special elements, such all bacteria because they lack the enzymes
as potassium, calcium, iron, manganese, cobalt, required to perform many essential metabolic
copper, zinc, and uranium, are needed by certain activities, particularly production of adenosine
bacteria. Some microbes have specific vitamin triphosphate (ATP) molecules. ATP molecules
requirements and some need organic substances are the major energy-storing or energy-carrying
secreted by other living microorganisms during molecules of cells.
their growth.
• Sometimes called “energy parasites”,
• Organisms with especially demanding chlamydias are obligate intracellular pathogens
nutritional requirements are said to be that are transferred by inhalation of aerosols or
fastidious. Special enriched media must be used by direct contact between hosts – not by
to grow fastidious organisms in the laboratory. arthropods.
Unique bacteria Mycoplasmas
• Rickettsias, chlamydias, and mycoplasmas are • Mycoplasmas are the smallest of the cellular
Gram negative bacteria, but they do not possess microbes. Because they lack cell walls, they
all the attributes of typical bacterial cells. Thus, assume many shapes, from coccoid to
they are often referred to as “unique” or filamentous; thus; they appear pleomorphic (
“rudimentary” bacteria. Because they are so occurring in various distinct form) when
small and difficult to isolate, they were formerly examined microscopically.
thought to be viruses. MP LEC AND LAB MODULE
1 Page 66 • Mycoplasmas were formerly called
pleuropneumonia-like organisms (PPLO), first
• Rickettsias and chlamydias are bacteria with a isolated from cattle with lung infections.
Gram-negative-type cell wall. They are obligate
intracellular pathogens that cause diseases in • In humans, pathogenic mycoplasmas cause
humans and other animals. As the name implies, primary atypical pneumonia and genitourinary
an obligate intracellular pathogen is a pathogen infections; some species can grow intracellularly.
that must live within a host cell. They will not Because they have no cell wall, they are resistant
grow on artificial (synthetic) culture media. to treatment with penicillin and other antibiotics
that work by inhibiting cell wall synthesis.
• The genus Rickettsia appear to have leaky cell
membranes, making most of them live inside