Reservoir – Simulator Classification:

Reservoir simulators can be classified in several ways. The most common criteria for
classifying reservoir simulators are the type of reservoir and reservoir fluids to be
simulated and the recovery processes occurring in the subject reservoir.
Reservoir simulators can also be classified according to the coordinate system used in the
model, the number of dimensions in space, and the number of phases.
Classification based on reservoir and fluid type may include gas-, black-oil-, and
compositional-reservoir simulators. Classifications based on recovery processes include
simulators categorized into conventional-recovery, chemical-flood, thermal-recovery, and
miscible-displacement simulators.
Reservoir simulators based on reservoir and fluid descriptions fall into two categories:
black-oil and compositional simulators. Black-oil simulators are used in situations where
recovery processes are insensitive to compositional changes in the reservoir fluids.
Compositional simulators are used when recovery processes are sensitive to
compositional changes. These situations include primary depletion of volatile-oil and gas-
condensate reservoirs, as well as pressure-maintenance operations in these reservoirs.
Reservoir simulators and their applications can also be classified by their geometry and
dimensionality. For example, three-dimensional (3D) simulation models in rectangular
coordinates (x,y,z) can be used for full-field applications. Also, two-dimensional (2D)
models in rectangular coordinates can be used for areal (x,y) applications or for cross-
sectional (x,z) applications. Two-dimensional models in cylindrical coordinates (r,z) can
be used for single-well coning applications. Finally, one-dimensional models can be used
for applications involving laboratory corefloods.

Importance of the simulation grid layout:

There are three important items to consider when designing the simulation grid. These
are:
1- Vertical layering
2- Grid orientation
3- Grid size & shape

All three decisions are influenced by the geological (static) model of the reservoir and the
numerical approximation associated with the simulators.
The vertical layering decision is influenced by the (sand/shale/carbonate) depositional
environment and the stratigraphy of the reservoir. If the contents of the reservoir change
significantly in the vertical direction, such that they will impact the representation of flow
and storage capacity, it must be captured in the simulation model.
The grid orientation effects on pattern-flooding cases. In flow simulation formulations,
the permeability term is represented as a tensor, meaning that it can change by direction
(i.e., it can be anisotropic). Even when the rock permeability happens to be isotropic, if
the reservoir contains natural fractures, they usually cause preferential flow directions
that are reflected in simulation model’s transmissibility terms.
The size of the grid must be chosen to capture both pressure and saturation changes. If
the model is too coarse, the approximations in the numerical simulation can be much
higher than the desired accuracy itself, yielding erroneous results.
For reservoirs with permeability anisotropy (that may be because of natural fractures),
the shape of the grids can also influence the time and the accuracy. In this case, instead
of using square-shaped gridblocks, rectangular-shaped gridblocks may be used to
minimize the numerical difficulty of the problem, in which the long side of the rectangle
is parallel to the direction of high permeability.
Types of reservoir simulation model:
1- The black oil model:

Reservoir processes that can be modelled using the black oil model include:
a- Recovery by fluid expansion-solution gas drive.
b- Waterflooding including viscous, capillary and gravity forces.
c- Immiscible gas injection.
d- Some three phase recovery processes such as immiscible water-alternating-gas
(WAG).

2- The compositional model:

This model is required when significant inter-phase mass transfer effects occur in the
field displacement process. This model usually defines three phases (gas, oil and water)
but the actual compositions of the oil and gas phases are explicitly
acknowledged due to their more complicated PVT behavior. The mass conservation is
applied to each component rather than just to “oil” and “gas” phases which , in turn,
strongly affects their physical properties (viscosity, density, interfacial tensions etc.).
The reservoir processes that can be modelled using a compositional model include:
a- Gas injection with oil mobilization by first contact or developed (multi-contact)
miscibility (e.g. in CO2 flooding).
b- The modelling of gas injection into near critical reservoirs.
c- Gas recycling processes in condensate reservoirs.

3- The chemical flood model:

This model has been developed primarily to model polymer and surfactant (or combined)
displacement processes. Polymer flooding can be considered mainly as extended
waterflooding with some additional effects in the aqueous phase which must be
modelling e.g. permeability reduction.
Examples of reservoir processes that can be modelled using a chemical flood model
include:
a- Polymer flooding which can be used to improve the mobility ratio and hence improve
the microscopic sweep efficiency.
b- Polymer/surfactant flooding where the main purpose of the surfactant is to lower
interfacial tension between the oil and water phases.
c- Alkali flooding where a solution of sodium hydroxide is injected into the formation.
The sodium hydroxide may react with certain components in the oil to produce natural
“soaps” which lower interfacial tension and which may help to mobilise some of the
residual oil.
4- Thermal models:

In all thermal models heat is added to the reservoir either by injecting steam or by actually
combusting the oil (by air injection, for example). The purpose of this is generally to reduce the
viscosity of a heavy oil.
Examples of reservoir processes that can be modelled using thermal models include:
a- Steam “soak” where steam is injected into the formation, the well is shut in for a time to allow
heat dissipation into the oil and then the well is back produced to obtain the mobilized oil (because
of lower viscosity).
b- Steam “drive” where the steam is injected continuously into the formation from an injector to
the producer. The objective is to lower oil viscosity by the penetration of the heat front deep into
the reservoir.
c- In situ combustion: where an actual combustion process is initiated in the reservoir by injecting
oxygen or air. Part of the oil is burned to produced heat and combustion gases that help to drive
the (unburned) oil from the system.

The above more complex reservoir simulation models are based on the fluid flow process. There
are also other types of simulator that are more closely defined by their treatment of the rock
structure or the rock response. These include:
1- Dual-porosity models of fractured systems:

These models have been designed to simulate multiphase flow in fractured systems where the oil
mainly flows in fractures but is stored mainly in the rock matrix. Such models attempt to model
the fracture flows (and sometimes the matrix flows) and the exchange of fluids between the
fractures and the rock matrix. They have been applied to model recovery processes in massively
fractured carbonate reservoir.
2- Coupled Hdraulic, Thermal Fracturing and Fluid Flow Models:

The main function of these is to model the mechanical stresses and resulting deformations and the
effects of these on fluid flow.
 Reservoir Simulation ‫محاكاة المكامن‬
From previous lectures we know that reservoir simulation mean:
Reservoir simulation is an area of reservoir engineering in which computer models
are used to predict the flow of fluids (typically, oil, water, and gas) through porous
media. By Reservoir Simulation we can;
 Understand flow and transport in our reservoirs to make engineering
decisions.
 Develop mathematical models to describe pressure, velocity, saturation,
etc.
 Described by coupled, nonlinear partial differential equations (PDEs).

*Solution to PDEs can't be found analytically, we are left with solving numerically.
Reservoir Simulation Help us Answer Several Questions
 How should a field be developed to maximize economic recovery?
 What is the best enhanced recovery scheme for the reservoir?
 Why is the reservoir not behaving according to predictions made by previous
engineering studies?
 What is the ultimate economic recovery of the field?
 What type of laboratory data is required?
 Is it necessary to do physical model studies of the reservoir?
 What is the best completion scheme for wells?
 From what portion of the reservoir is the production coming?

All Steps in Simulation are important

1) Conversion to mathematical model requires understanding physics:
* Fluid and rock properties of the reservoir.
*Laws that describe flow and transport ( conservation of mass, energy, and
momentum).
2) Numerical solution to the mathematical problem requires
 simplifications and approximations ;
* Assume that fluid and rock properties are constant over a control volume.
*Transform non-linear PDEs into linear system of algebraic equations.
*Solve the system of equation.
3) Using the math solution to find an engineering solution requires economics,
experience, and good decision-making skills.
General Idea
1- Break up the reservoir into individual "blocks" or grids.

Write algebraic equations for pressure, saturation,....etc. for eachblock.

2- Each block depends on the adjacent block equations so we get a system of linear
equations.
3- Solve the system of equations. More blocks means more accuracy, but longer
computation time.
Modeling Method

Any problem is solvable if you can make assumptions the key is determining the right
assumptions
Reservoir simulation elements
1. Geological description
• Probabilistic or deterministic
2. Fluid Type
• Black oil / Compositional
3. Reservoir depletion mechanism
Probabilistic and Deterministic
Deterministic Probabilistic
 All necessary data is • Element of chance is involved
known before • Don’t see exactly when it will
 Can tell exactly what is occur, but the possibility is
going to happen, once the known
system starts. • Example. Roll a die until it
 Example. Conversion comes up ‘3’.
between ft and meter is • Know that in each roll, a ‘3’
deterministic will come up with probability 1/6
 The process of calculating
the output is deterministicprocess
Reservoir models (Probabilistic and Deterministic components)
All reservoir models elements are a combination ofprobabilistic
and deterministic components
3D geology and reservoir modeling in oil industry: Geologic model construction by

integration of sedimentology, sequence stratigraphy, seismic geomorphology, exploration

geophysics and geostatistics, Osamu Takano, Journal of the Geological of Japan, Jan 2013.
Static Model
- Geocellular modeling
• The process of generating a model of the subsurface .
• The physical properties of the reservoir are stored at the grid point.
-Steps
• Define a proper GRID
• Structure modeling
• Stratigraphic modeling
• Lithological modeling
• Petrophysical modeling
Grid
The aim of gridding in reservoir simulation is to turn the geological model of the
field into a discrete system which the fluid flow equation can be solved. • Common
grid co-ordinate system
• Cartesian
• Cylindrical

* How we divide or discretize, geological model into

divisions of ΔX, ΔY, ΔZ?.

We always “Shup-up” the reservoir into block and then we model the block to
block and then we model the block to block.
 * Temporal Discretisation
• This is the process of dividing up the time step intodivisions of
Δt.

Oil and gas reservoirs structure is a set of geological horizons representing bedding
planes. Two related issues are involved in choosing a grid for reservoir
simulation:
• Accuracy with which the geological description of the
reservoir is matched.
• Discretisation of the flow equations.
Rock Property modeling
Given difficulty of measuring rock properties, it is commonto use geostatical
methods to make realisation of permeability, porosity and water saturation.
Dynamic model
• Once the static modeling has been completed, the next step is building
dynamic model and validate it using the production data and well test.
• This model is used for forecasting and field development planning.

Major laws used in reservoir simulation

Conservation of mass, Conservation of momentum ,Conservation of energy