9 Operators and Commutators

9.1 Operators
Operators are commonly used to perform a specific mathematical operation
on another function. The operation can be to take the derivative or integrate
with respect to a particular term, or to multiply, divide, add or subtract a
number or term with regards to the initial function. Operators are commonly
used in physics, mathematics and chemistry.

Example. 1. A regular function can be thought of as an operator.

(i)
f : x 7→ ax,
where a is a real number.
Operator: the function f
Operates on: real numbers
Action: multiply by a.
(ii) Squaring
f : x 7→ x2
Operator: the function f
Operates on: real numbers
Action: squaring

2. Operators which acts on functions:

(i)
â : f (x) 7→ af (x),
where a is a real number.
Operator: â
Operates on: scalar functions
Action: multiply by a.
(ii)
x̂ : f (x) 7→ xf (x),
Operator: x̂
Operates on: scalar functions
Action: multiply by x.
(iii) Differentiation Operator
d
D : f (x) 7→ f (x)
dx
Operator: D
Operates on: scalar functions
Action: Differentiate with respect to x.
We can similarly define partial differentiation operators, grad opera-
tor, integral operator, etc.
(iv) The Momentum Operator
~ ∂
P̂ =
i ∂x
where:
– ~ is Planck’s constant,
– i is the imaginary unit.
~ ∂ ~ ∂ψ(x, t)
P̂ = : ψ(x, t) 7→
i ∂x i ∂x
Operator: P̂
Operates on: wave function, ψ(x, t).

(iv) The Energy Operator

~∂
Ê =
i ∂t
where:
– ~ is Planck’s constant,
– i is the imaginary unit.
~∂ ~ ∂ψ(x, t)
Ê = : ψ(x, t) 7→
i ∂t i ∂t
Operator: Ê
Operates on: wave function, ψ(x, t).

(iv) The Hamiltonian Operator

~2 ∂ 2
Ĥ = −
2m ∂x2
where:
 – ~ is Planck’s constant,
– m is the mass of the particle (regard as constant).
– i is the imaginary unit.
~2 ∂ 2 ~2 ∂2
Ĥ = − : ψ(x, t) →
7 −
2m ∂x2 2m ∂ψ(x, t)x2
Operator: Ĥ
Operates on: wave function, ψ(x, t).

3. Operators which act on vectors.

   
1 1 x1
(i) Let A = be a square matrix and ~v = be an arbi-
0 1 x2
trary vector. Define an operator in the following manner:

~v →
 A : 7 A~
v    
x1 1 1 x1 x1 + x2
7 → = .
x2 0 1 x2 x2

Operator: A
Operates on: two dimensional
 vectors
 
x1 x1 + x2
Action: maps a vector to .
x2 x2

9.2 Linear Operators

An operator O is a linear operator if it satisfies the following two conditions:

(i) O(f + g) = O(f ) + O(g).

(ii) O(λf ) = λO(f ), where λ is a scalar.

Example. Determine if the following operators are linear:

1. O = â : f (x) 7→ af (x).
 Solution:

O(f + g) = a(f + g)
= af + ag
= O(f ) + O(g)
O(λf ) = a(λf )
= λaf
= λO(f )

Therefore O is linear.

2. O = squaring : x 7→ x2 .
Solution:

O(x + y) = (x + y)2
= x2 + y 2 + 2xy
= O(x) + O(y) + 2xy
O(1 + 2) = O(3) = 9
O(1) + O(2) = 1+4=5

Therefore O is not linear.

d
3. D : f (x) 7→ dx
f (x).
Solution:
d
D(f + g) = (f + g)
dx
d d
= f+ g
dx dx
= D(f ) + D(g)
d
D(λf ) = (λf )
dx
d
= λ f
dx
= λD(f )

Therefore D is linear.
  
1 1
4. A = : ~v 7→ A~v .
0 1
Solution:
     
1 1 x1 y1
A(~v + w)
~ = ( + )
0 1 x2 y2
   
1 1 x1 + y1
= ( )
0 1 x2 + y2
 
(x1 + y1 ) + (x2 + y2 )
=
x2 + y2
   
x1 + x2 y1 + y2
= +
x2 y2
     
1 1 x1 1 1 y1
= +
0 1 x2 0 1 y2
= A(~v ) + A(w)~
   
1 1 x1
A(λ~v ) = (λ )
0 1 x2
  
1 1 λx1
=
0 1 λx2
 
λx1 + λx2
=
λx2
 
x1 + x2
= λ
x2
  
1 1 x1
= λ
0 1 x2
= λA~v

Therefore A is linear.
9.3 Composing Operators
When we have two operators and we want to apply them to a function in
sequence, we use the notation O1 ◦ O2 .

O1 ◦ O2 : f 7→ O1 (O2 (f )).

First apply O2 and then O1 . The order is important.

Example. 1. Consider the following two operators.

O1 : f (x) 7→ xf (x)
O2 : g(x) 7→ (g(x))2

Find O1 ◦ O2 and O2 ◦ O1 .

Solution: We first find O1 ◦ O2 .

O1 ◦ O2 (h(x)) = O1 (O2 (h(x))

= O1 ((h(x)2 )
= x(h(x)2 )
O1 ◦ O2 : h(x) 7→ x(h(x)2

We now find O2 ◦ O1 .

O2 ◦ O1 (h(x)) = O2 (O1 (h(x))

= O2 (xh(x))
= x2 (h(x)2 )
O2 ◦ O1 : h(x) 7→ x2 (h(x)2 )

Observe that O1 ◦ O2 6= O2 ◦ O1 . Hence the order in which you apply the

operators is important.
9.4 Commutators
Let OA and OB be two operators. The commutator of OA and OB is the
operator defined as
[OA , OB ] = OA ◦ OB − OB ◦ OA .
Example. 1. Consider the following two operators.
 
1 0
OA : ~v 7→ A~v , A =
0 0
 
1 1
OB : ~v 7→ B~v , B =
1 0
Find [OA , OB ].
Solution: We first find OA ◦ OB .
OA ◦ OB (~v ) = OA (OB (~v ))
= OA (B~v )
= AB~v  
1 1
OA ◦ OB : ~v 7→ AB~v , AB =
0 0
      
x1 1 1 x1 x1 + x2
7→ =
x2 0 0 x2 0
We now find O2 ◦ O1 .
OB ◦ OA (~v ) = OB (OA (~v ))
= OB (A~v )
= BA~v  
1 0
OB ◦ OA : ~v 7→ BA~v , BA =
1 0
      
x1 1 0 x1 x1
7→ =
x2 1 0 x2 x1
Therefore the commutator of OA and OB is
[OA , OB ] = OA ◦ OB − OB ◦ OA
[OA , OB ](~v ) = (OA ◦ OB − OB ◦ OA )(~v )
= (AB − BA)(~v )
2. Consider the following two operators.
d
D : f (x) 7→ (D)f (x) = f (x)
dx
d
xD : f (x) 7→ (xD)f (x) = x f (x)
dx

Find [D, xD].

Solution:

(D ◦ xD)(f (x)) = D(xD(f (x)))

d
= D(x f (x))
dx
d d
= (x f (x))
dx dx
d2 f df
= x 2+
dx dx
2
= (xD + D)(f (x))
(xD ◦ D)(f (x)) = xD(D(f (x)))
d
= xD( f (x))
dx
d d
= x ( f (x))
dx dx
d2 f
= x 2
dx
= (xD2 )(f (x))

Therefore the commutator of D and xD is

[D, xD] = D ◦ xD − xD ◦ D
= xD2 + D − xD2
= D

∂ ∂
3. Find the commutator [x ∂y , y ∂x ].
Solution:
∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂
[x ,y ] = x ◦y −y ◦x
∂y ∂x ∂y ∂x ∂x ∂y

∂ ∂ ∂ ∂
(x ◦ y )(f ) = x (y (f )
∂y ∂x ∂y ∂x
∂2f ∂f
= x(y + )
∂y∂x ∂x
∂2 ∂
= (xy + x )(f )
∂y∂x ∂x
∂ ∂ ∂ ∂
(y ◦ x )(f ) = y (x (f )
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y
∂2f ∂f
= y(x + )
∂x∂y ∂y
∂2 ∂
= (xy + y )(f )
∂x∂y ∂x
Therefore the commutator is:
∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂
[x ,y ] = x ◦y −y ◦x
∂y ∂x ∂y ∂x ∂x ∂y
2
∂ ∂ ∂2 ∂
= (xy + x ) − (xy +y )
∂y∂x ∂x ∂x∂y ∂x
∂ ∂
= x −y
∂x ∂y