KRASHEN’S MONITOR MODEL

SCHUMMAN’S
PIDGINIZATION/
ACCULTURATION MODEL
CHOMSKYAN LINGUISTICS
Reporter: Inah Lorraine Tatel
 STEPHEN KRASHEN
Stephen Krashen was born on May 14, 1941. He is an
American linguist and educational researcher.
 Much of his recent researches has involved the study
of non-English and bilingual language acquisition.
 Since 1980, he has published over 100 books and
articles and has been invited to deliver over 300
lectures at universities throughout the United
States and Canada.
He has developed a model of Second Language
Acquisition (SLA) that is known as “Monitor Model”
which is an interesting set of five central hypotheses
developed in late 1970s but accepted in 1980s.It is the
most comprehensive model of SLA.
 The Monitor model is widely-known and well-
accepted. It has had a large impact in all areas of SLA
research and teaching.
 STEPHEN KRASHEN
 Language acquisition does not require
extensive use of grammatical rules and
does not require tedious drill.
Acquisition requires meaningful interaction
in the target language – natural
communication – in which speakers are
concerned not with the form of their
utterances but with the messages they are
conveying and understanding.
“Comprehensible input is the crucial and
necessary ingredient for the acquisition
of language
 STEPHEN KRASHEN
 The best methods are therefore those that
supply “comprehensible input” in low anxiety
situations, containing messages that students
really want to hear. These methods do not
force early production in the second language
but allow students to produce when they are
“ready”, recognizing that improvement comes
from supplying communicative and
comprehensive input, and not from forcing
and correcting production.
In the real world, conversations with
sympathetic native speakers who are
willing to help the acquirer understand are
very helpful.
KRASHEN’S MONITOR
MODEL
 Krashen’s theory of SLA/Monitor
Model consists of five main
hypothesis
1. The Acquisition-Learning hypothesis
2. The Monitor hypothesis
3. The Input hypothesis
4. The Affective Filter hypothesis
5. The Natural Order hypothesis
The Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis
It is the most fundamental of the five hypothesis in Krashen’s theory
and the most widely known among linguists and language teachers.
According to Krashen, there are two independent systems of
foreign language performance: The “Acquired System” and the
“Learned System”.
The Acquired System or “Acquisition” is the product of
subconscious process very similar to the process children undergo
when they acquire their first language. It requires meaningful
interaction in the target language – natural communication – in
which the speakers are concentrated not in the form of their
utterances, but in the communicative act.
The Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis
The “learned system” or “learning” is the product of formal
instruction, and it comprises a conscious process which results
in conscious knowledge about the language, for example, the
knowledge in grammar rules.
A deductive approach in a teacher-centered setting produces
“learning”, while an inductive approach in a student-centered
setting leads to “acquisition”
The Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis
According to Krashen, “Learning” is less important than “acquisition”.
The Monitor Hypothesis
• The Monitor hypothesis explains the relationship between
acquisition and learning.
• It also defines the influence of learning on acquisition.
• According to Krashen, the acquisition system is the utterance
initiator, while the learning system performs the role of the monitor
and editor
• The monitoring function is the practical result of the
learned grammar.
The Monitor Hypothesis
• The ‘monitor’ acts in a planning, editing, and correcting function
when three specific conditions are met:
• The second language learners have sufficient time at their disposal.
• They focus on form or think about correctness.
• They know the rule
• It appears that the role of consciousness learning is somewhat
limited in SL performance.
• The role of ‘monitor’ is minor, being used only to correct
deviations from “normal” speech and to give speech a more
“polished” appearance.
The Monitor Hypothesis
• Krashen suggests that there is individual variation among language
learners with regard to ‘monitor’ use.
• He distinguishes those learners that use the ‘monitor’ all the time
(over-users); those learners who have not learned or who prefer
not to use their conscious knowledge (under-users); and those
learners that use the ‘monitor’ appropriately (optimal users)
• An evaluation of the person’s psychological profile can help
determine to what group they belong.
• Usually, extroverts are under-users, while introverts
and perfectionists are over-users.
• Lack of self-confidence is frequently related to the overuse of the
‘monitor’
The Input Hypothesis
• The Input hypothesis is Krashen’s attempt to explain how the
learner acquires a second language – how second language
acquisition takes place.
• It is the most effective dogma for SLA.
• According to this theory, the learner improve and progress along the
“Natural Order”
• Krashen argues that the input received by the learner must not
only be comprehensible but also slightly beyond the current
linguistic competent level of the learner.
• Here, it is discovered that natural input is the key to designing
a syllabus.
The Input Hypothesis
• This concept is represented as i+1. “i” stands for current level and
1 refers to improvement of level by gathering knowledge at least
increasing a level continuously.
For example: If a learner is at a stage “i”, then the acquisition
takes place when he/she is exposed to “Comprehensible Input” that
belongs to level “i+1”.
• Since not all of the learners can be at the same level of linguistic
competence at the same, Krashen suggests that natural
communicative input is the key to designing a syllabus, ensuring
in this way that each learner will receive some “i+1” input that is
appropriate for his/her current stage of linguistic competence.
The Affective Filter Hypothesis
• The term ‘affective filter’ stands for adherence to acquiring language
avoiding negative aspects.
• The Affective Filter Hypothesis embodies Krashen’s view that a
number of ‘affective variables’ play a facilitative, but non-casual
role in second language acquisition.
• These variables include:
• Motivation
• Self-confidence
• Anxiety
• Personality traits
The Affective Filter Hypothesis
• Krashen claims that learners with high motivation, self-confidence,
a good self-image, a low level of anxiety and extroversion are better
equipped for success in second language acquisition.
• Low motivation, low self-esteem, anxiety, introversion and
inhibition can raise the affective filter and form a ‘mental block’ that
prevents comprehensible input from being used for acquisition.
• In other words, when the filter is ‘up’ it impedes language acquisition.
• On the other hand, positive affect is necessary, but not sufficient
on its own, for acquisition to take place.
The Natural Order Hypothesis
• The Natural Order hypothesis is based on research findings (Dulay
& Burt, 1974; Fatham, 1975; Makino, 1980 in Krashen, 1987)
• It suggests that the acquisition of grammatical structures follows a
‘natural order’ which is predictable.
• For a given language, some grammatical structures tend to
be acquired early while others, late.
• This order seemed to be independent of the learner’s age, L1
background, conditions of exposure, and although the
agreement between individual acquirers was not always 100% in
the studies, there were statistically significant similarities that
reinforced the existence of a Natural Order of language
acquisition.
The Natural Order Hypothesis
• Krashen however points out that the implication of the natural order
hypothesis is not that a language program syllabus should be based
o the order found in the studies.
• In fact, he rejects grammatical sequencing when the goal is
language acquisition.
The Silent Period
A receptive moment in which students acquire knowledge by only
listening and understanding without producing.
There i3s no pressure for students to speak.
The Role of Grammar in Krashen’s
View
• According to Krashen, the study of the structure of the language can
have general educational advantages and values that high schools
and colleges may not want to include in their language programs.
• Any benefit, however, will greatly depend on the learner
being already familiar with the language.
• It should also be clear that analyzing the language, formulating
rules, setting irregularities apart, and teaching complex facts about
the
target language is not language teaching, but rather is “Language
Appreciation” or linguistic, which does not lead to communicative
proficiency.
The Role of Grammar in Krashen’s
View
• The only instance in which the teaching of grammar can result in
language acquisition (and proficiency) is when the students are
interested in the subject and the target language is used as a
medium of instruction.
• Very often, when this occurs, both teachers and students are
convinced that the study of formal grammar is essential for second
language acquisition, and the teacher is skillful enough to present
explanations in the target language so that the students
understand.
• In other words, the teacher talk meets the requirements for
comprehensible input and perhaps, with the students’
participation, the classroom becomes an environment suitable for
acquisition.
The Role of Grammar in Krashen’s
View
• Also, the filter is low in regard to the language of explanation, as the
students’ conscious efforts are usually on the subject matter, on
what is being talked about, and not the medium.
• This is a subtle point.
• In effect, both teachers and students are deceiving themselves.
• They believe that it is the subject matter itself, the study of
grammar, that is responsible for the students progress, but in
reality, their progress is coming from the medium and not the
message.
• Any subject matter that held their interest would do just as well.
APPLYING THE MONITOR
HYPOTHESIS IN THE
CLASSROOM
 Applying the monitor hypothesis in the
classroom
• TEACH THE GRAMMAR TO THE APPROPRIATE STUDENTS – Young students
need no grammar instruction. Older students can benefit from some
grammar instruction to answer nagging questions compared to L1, and as
an induction to linguistics.
• TEACH GRAMMAR MINIMALLY – Teach grammar sparingly, realizing that it
does not really help to develop fluency. Use correct grammar and point
out how it is being used at the level of the sentence, but limit grammatical
units.
• ASK THE WHOLE CLASS QUESTIONS AND EXPECT CHORALE ANSWER – Use
regular scaffolded comprehension check questions to the whole class to
get general sense of student understanding. The confidence, volume and
speed with which the class answers can be a good indicator of general
comprehension.
 Applying the monitor hypothesis in the
classroom
• ASK INDIVIDUAL STUDENTS QUESTIONS – Use differentiated
comprehension check questions to individuals based on their level of
understanding and
self-reflection.
• CHECK ACQUISITION WITH TIMED WRITING – Have students write essays
from time to time. Start with timed writing of stories they are familiar
with to give them confidence.
• LET STUDENTS USE THE MONITOR – Occasionally give students time to
write, read and rewrite their essays so that they can use their own
internal monitor.
SCHUMMAN’S PIDGINATION/
ACCULTURATION MODEL FOR
SECOND LANGUAGE
ACQUISITION
 Schumann’s Acculturation Model
• Theoretical Foundations of John Schumann’s Acculturation
Model (1978)
• The process of L2 learning as an aspect of acculturation
• Schumann’s famous case study pertaining to the process of
acculturation
• Schumann’s approach with regard to the role of Social and
Psychological distances while learning L2
 Definitions of Acculturation

1. Cultural modification of an individual, group, or people

by adapting to or borrowing traits from another
culture
e.g. the acculturation of immigrants to American life.
2. A merging of cultures as a result of prolonged contact.
3. The process by which a human being acquires the
culture of a particular society from infancy
(Merriam- Webster)
 Theoretical foundations of John
Schumann’s Acculturation Model
 Foundations of Acculturation Model
L2 learning is an aspect of acculturation and
the degree to which L2 learners acculturate to the
Target Language groups (i.e. assimilate to the target
language culture), governs and controls L2 learning.
Schumann’s Famous Case Study
Pertaining to the Process of
Acculturation
Case Study on the Process of
Acculturation
Schumann based much of his original work on the language
development of a 33 year old Costa Rican man named
Alberto. Alberto graduated from a Costa Rican high
school where he had studied English for six years. He
moved to Cambridge, at the age of 33 where he lived with
other Costa Rican couple. Significantly, he socialized
with other Costa Ricans. According to the
Acculturation Model, it was Alberto’s lack of
acculturation that resulted in his lack of linguistic
development (Gass & Slinker, 2008).
Schumann’s Approach with regard
to the Role of Social &
Psychological Distances while
Learning L2
 Schumann’s Approach with regard to the Role of
Social
& Psychological Distances while Learning L2
According to Schumann (1986), the process of acculturation
is influenced by social and psychological factors.The
aforementioned factors according to him, determine the level
of Psychological Distance and Social Distance. He further
claimed that there are eight characteristics of Social Distance
and four characteristics of Psychological Distance that effect
the process of acculturation.
Characteristics of Social Distance
According to Schumann (1986), with regard to second language learner’s
acculturation, there are eight characteristics of Social Distance
mentioned as follows:
1. Social Dominance
2. Integration Patterns
3. Enclosure
4. Cohesiveness
5. Size
6. Cultural Congruence
7. Attitude
8. Intended Length of Residence
8 factors that influences the social
distance between cultures
1. SOCIAL DOMINANCE PATTERNS – if one group exerts power over the
other. Especially if there is social dominance by native
culture.
2. INTEGRATION STRATEGIES – Are the two groups integrated? The
less integration between two cultures = more distance
3. ENCLOSURE – enclosure of the learner group within their own
culture, with little or no interaction with members of the
target language.
4. COHESIVENESS – tight-knit groups of learners = more social
distance. Learner group less united = less social distance
8 factors that influences the social
distance between cultures
5. SIZE - The bigger the group of learners, the bigger the social distance.
SIZE DOES MATTER!
6. CULTURAL CONGRUENCE – The less alike the two cultures are, the
less culture congruence they have.
7. ATTITUDE – Attitude is everything! Negativity towards the target
language culture is not the answer. Positive attitude is the key
to language success.
8. INTENDED LENGTH OF RESIDENCY – the intended length of stay in
the target country will affect the social distance. Learners intending to
stay in the country for a short period of time tend to have greater social
distance.
Characteristics of Psychological Distance
According to Schumann (1986), with regard to second language learner’s
acculturation, there are four characteristics of Psychological Distance
mentioned as follows:
1. Language Shock
2. Cultural Shock
3. Motivation
4. Ego Permeability
Characteristics of Psychological Distance
1. LANGUAGE SHOCK – Feeling silly about trying to learn the
language equates to less likely to learn.
2. CULTURE SHOCK – Being anxious or disoriented in the culture
equates to less likely to learn.
3. MOTIVATION – Level of motivation affects learning. High motivation
= higher chances of learning.
4. Ego-permeability – the extent to which second language learners
view their first language as fixed and rigid will impact their
learning of the second language.
Schumann’s Acculturation Theory
Thus, the greater the social and psychological
distance, the harder it is for the learner to acquire
the new language (target language). But the smaller
the distance, the easier it is for the learner to
acquire it.
This theory doesn’t deal with the process of
language learning as we normally think of it (such
as how we acquire grammar and listening skills but
rather focuses on social and psychological factors
that influence our success in learning the TG.
Chomskyan Linguistics
Chomskyan Linguistics
• Introduction
• Chomsky’s Life
• Background
• Chomsky’s Critique to Skinner’s Model
• Language and Mind
• Transformational and Generative Grammar
• Implications for Education
• Conclusion
Noam Chomsky
• He was born on December 7, 1928.
• From the age of 2, he spent ten years in a progressive Deweyite school
in Philadelphia, where there was a congenial emphasis on individual
creativity.
• He attended the University of Pennsylvania where he met Zellig Harris
• In 1949, he graduated with BA. His thesis was about Modern Hebrew.
He then entered graduate school.
• In 1951, He became one of the Society of Fellows at Harvard, from
where he moved to the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (M.I.T) in
1955.
• He has been repeatedly jailed for political activism (Smith, 2004).
• He has been influenced by a large variety of thinkers,
philosophers, politicians and linguists
Noam Chomsky
• He made a resurrection to innateness.
• He has shown that there is really only one human language: that the
immense complexity of the innumerable languages we hear around us
must be variations on a single theme. He has revolutionized
linguistics, and in so doing has set a cat among the philosophical
pigeons.” (Smith, 2004: 16).
• Since 1957, syntax and cognition have become the pace-maker
in theoretical linguistics rather than phonology.
Background of Chomskyan
Linguistics
CHOMSKYAN LINGUISTICS
Chomsky’s theory is based on the idea that all children are born
with innate ability to learn any human language.
Based on his theory, all children have a Language Acquisition
Device (LAD). The LAD’s job is to encode into a child’s brain the major
principles of language and grammatical structure.
According to Chomsky, a theory of language should be known as a
theory of competence because he believes once a full theory of
competence is developed, then other cognitive abilities and performance
will be integrated.
FACTORS IN HIS THEORY
• First, he believes that all children have an optimal learning age.
Between the ages of 3 and 10 is when children will learn to talk in its
entirety and will grasp fluency.
• Second, children do not need a trigger to learn a language. Language
comes naturally. Parents do not need to coax their child to speak.
Simply speaking around the child will help the child to produce a
language on their own.
• Third, even if the child is corrected, they will still speak in the same
way they spoke before they were corrected.
• Children have a born ability to learn any human language.
NATIVIST THEORY
A set of theories that contend that human abilities
and developmental processes are innate and hard-wired
into our brain at birth.
These theories inform beliefs about developmental
processes most closely associated with initial language
acquisition.
The ability to manifest itself without being taught.
NATIVIST THEORY
LAD is the main idea of the theory which is a
language organ that helps children rapidly learn and
understand language.
Once the child is exposed to language, the LAD
activates.
HOW DOES LAD FUNCTIONS?
Matching the innate
knowledge and
structures of the
particular language in the
environment

Once LAD is activated, they

discover the structure of
the language they learned

Children need access to

samples of a natural
language to activate
LAD
For example:
John is a 1 year old baby and wants to eat biscuits. He
begins to form sounds in an attempt to communicate with
those around him. With that, his LAD activates.

Words and sentences follows quickly because he already

has an innate knowledge of the basic rules of language.
“Mommy, biscuits”
Sentence are formed in the ff sequence:
Primary They learn the rules of
Linguistic • INPUT the language and use
Data them to produce
sentences they have
General
Language never heard from
principle/Grama • LAD
tical knowledge
anywhere or anyone.
rule

Child’s
• OUTPUT
speech
 Sentence are formed in the ff sequence:
By saying that Language us an innate faculty, Chomsky
implies that children are born with a set of rules about language
in their head which he calls the “Universal Grammar” .
Universal Grammar is a set of innate principles and
adjustable parameters that are common to all human languages.
It focuses on the structural relationships rather than the
linear order of words.
e.g. Your cat is friendly?
Is your cat friendly?
Universal Grammar Principles

Language is organized that depends on the

structural relationships between elements in a
sentence.
Language usually contain NP and VP (other
phrases)
Parameters of the Universal Grammar

•Determine the ways in which language can vary.

•The head parameter specifies the position at
the head relation to its compliments for
different languages.
•Each phrases have central element that is
called the head (NP – noun, VP – verb)
 Summary of the Nativist Theory
• Children are born with a specific innate ability to discover for
themselves the underlying rules of a language system on the
basis of the sample of a natural language they are exposed to.
• Language acquisition is something that happens to a child placed
in a certain environment.
• Children’s acquisition of grammatical rules is guided by principles
of an innate UG which could apply to all language.
Chomskyan Linguistics
• Before the 1960s, the Structuralist Model was dominant. It was
simply descriptive of the different levels of production namely:
Phonology, morphology, syntax and semantics.
• It did not provide any model or framework for understanding how
the actual learning takes place.
• In the 1950s, Skinner constructed his cognitive learning model:
behaviorism which correlates with the notion and habit
formation.
STIMULUS RESPONSE REINFORCEMENT
• According to Skinner, children learn the language by imitating
and repeating and the mind is a blank slate at birth.
Chomsky’s Critique to Skinner’s Model
Although children hear only a finite number of
sentences, they are able to produce an infinite
number of possible sentences with no previous
formal training or correction.
Poverty of the stimulus
•Chomskyan syntax: More complex that people
had previously thought syntax to be.
•The grammar of a sentence can’t be deduced from
its surface form.
• The school children were difficult to teach.
• The school children were eager to learn.
•So environmental language data is insufficient:
grammar can’t be learned from it.
Chomsky’s Critique to Skinner’s Model
Constraints and Principles cannot be learned:
• Children learn their first or second language at an early age.
• They learn, for example, single word formation at the age
one, and learn the basic grammar around age six.
• At this age, no one has the cognitive ability to understand
the principles of grammar as a system, but because some
innate capacity, is still capable of using it.
• Put it differently, children do not know anything about
grammar or syntax but still they can produce
grammatical sentences in most of the time.
Chomsky’s Critique to Skinner’s Model
Patterns of development are universal
• When children develop their language, they learn the
various aspects of language in a vey similar order.
• If children only learned what they are taught, the order of
what they learned would vary in different environments.
e.g.Brown Model 1973:
Creativity
Language is CREATIVE
- We can produce and understand an infinite range of novel
grammatical sentences.
-Children do not imitate a fixed repertoire of sentences
Chomsky: Creativity is not explicable if language is learnt just
from the environment.
Degeneracy of the data
• The child’s language data is degenerate.
• Ungrammatical utterances are frequent and are not marked out
as “wrong”
• Therefore, it is impossible to deduce the grammar of a
language, if your only input data is utterances from
the environment.
Language Acquisition Device
• L.A.D is a function of the brain that is specifically for learning
language. It is an innate biological function of human beings just
like learning to walk.
• L.A.D. plays two roles in Chomskyan theory:
1. It accounts for the striking similarities among human languages.
e.g. the similarity in using relative clause constructions from English, French and
Arabic.
A. English: a – the man that I saw was your brother
b. I read the book that you read.
B. French: L’homme que j’ai vu etait ton frere.
b. J’ai lu le livre que tu as lu.
2. It accounts for the speed, ease and regularity with which children
learn their first language.
• If the sequence order is the same in all children, it is then quite normal
to speak about language universals.
Evidence from Creoles
• Pidgin: simple language that arise in contact situations
• Creole: A fully complex language descended from a pidgin
• The grammar of a Creole is created by children as they learn it
• This is evidence that this grammar comes from some
innate source.
Universals
• Human languages exhibit remarkable similarities or
principles. These patterns are called universals.
• We can find these similarities on many linguistic levels:
1. Phonological Universals: Consonants, for example, are
distinguished also according to the location of their
production, that is, after the various organs of the vocal tract.
With the help of this detailed information we can now refer
to every consonant by its location and manner of articulation;
for example, is a voiceless, labiodentals.
2. Syntactic Universals: One semantic universal regards our
notion of color. There exist eleven basic color terms:
black, white, red, green, blue, yellow, brown, etc.
Language as Rule-governed System
Claiming that language is rule-governed system is like claiming that
language is definable in terms of grammar.
Grammar is a set of rules that have two tasks:
1. Separating grammatical from ungrammatical sentences.
2. Providing a description each of the grammatical sentences, stating
how they should be pronounced and what they mean.
For example:
1. The though of those poor children were really… WAS really bothering me.
2. Ze pound are worthless = the pound is worthless
The speaker who is ready to correct themselves and others gives evidence
that there is a right and wrong way of saying things. This assumption that speakers
know the grammar of a language is a claim that these grammars are
psychologically real.
INTUITIONS
Linguistic knowledge of language lies well beyond the level of
consciousness. One way of investigating this knowledge is to ask
speakers of a language for their judgments about sentences of
their language. For example, ask them about the grammaticality
and ungrammaticality of their language.
a. I like Indians without reservations.
b. I have no reservations in my liking for Indians.
c. I like Indians who don’t have reservations.
This is to argue a certain distinction should be made
between speaker’s perceptual understanding abilities and his
actual knowledge of the language performance.
COMPETENCE AND PEFORMANCE
COMPETENCE – knowledge of the language. It includes
knowledge of the vocabulary, phonology, syntax and semantics.
PERFORMANCE – is the use of language in speaking and
understanding utterances is linguistic performance.
The distinction between performance and competence is
sentence and utterance. SENTENCES are abstract objects which
is not tied to a particular context, speaker or time utterance but
rather tied to a particular grammar. UTTERANCES are debatable
events, tied to a particular speaker, occasion and context
TRANSFORMATIONAL GENERATIVE GRAMMAR
It considers grammar to be a system of rules that generates
exactly those combinations of words that form grammatical
sentences in a given language and involves the use of defined
operations (called transformations) to produce new sentences
from existing one.
PHRASE STRUCTURE
A phrase structure or tree diagram provides a formal
representation of the phrase structure of a sentence or a phrase.
DEEP STRUCTURE AND SURFACE STRUCTURE
DEEP STRUCTURE is the aspect of syntactic structure
operated on by semantics for the purpose of semantic
interpretation. SURFACE STRUCTURE is the aspect of syntactic
structure operated on by phonology for the purpose of phonetic
interpretation.
GENERATIVE ASPECTS
A grammar is to generate all and only the
grammatical sentences of a language. It was
designed that by following the rules and
conventions, possible sentences of a language
can be produced.
Implications for education
• Language acquisition and learning become differentiated.
• Language develops within the mind.
• Nature and Nurture go together
• A child learning language simply does not have the enough evidence
to enable it to learn the relevant principles from scratch.
• Mental lexicon, mental structures and schemata can enhance
language learning.