Chapter 5 For1l

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CHAPTER 5

INTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES:


1.Explain the importance of chemical processing in photography.
2.Describe the purpose of film processing.
3.Outline the step-by-step process of film development, stop-
bath, and fixing.
4.Understand the composition and function of a developer.
5.Describe the purpose of a stop-bath and its role in the
processing process.
6.Understand the difference between contact printing and
enlarging.
7.Identify common problems encountered in color photography.
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1. Development - is the process by which an
invisible latent image in an emulsion is made
visible.
• Black- and-white emulsion- the image is composed of
grains of black metallic silver.
• Color emulsion- the developed silver is replaced with
cyan, yellow, and magenta dye.

In development, a developing agent chemically breaks


down or reduce exposed silver halide crystals to form
grains of metallic silver. This process or reaction is the
same in both black and white films and photographic
papers.
2. Stop-bath - halts the developer action in
appropriate moment. It also prevents the contamination
of the developer and fixer from each other.

3. Fixation- A fixer makes the developed image


permanent when it is followed by a thorough washing.
In this processing stage, the unexposed underdeveloped
silver halides crystals are dissolved and removed from
the emulsion of the photographic material.

Presentation title 205


Film processing can be carried out in trays, tanks, mechanized
equipment.

Panchromatic materials- handled in total darkness.


Other materials like blue films, orthochromatic films
printing papers- are handled under a safelight.
1. Equipment for film processing
a. Tank or tray f. Timer
b. Developing reel g.Funnel
c. Opener for film cartridge (pliers). h.Photographic sponge
Some 35 mm films have a i. Film clips for drying
reusable cartridge that can be j. Glass or plastic bottles
snapped open by hand but others (gallon size) for storing
can only be opened with a pair of mixed solutions.
pliers.
d. Scissors to cut the tongue of the
film
e. Thermometer
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Small format films like the .35 mm is best developed in a
cylindrical daylight developing tank that accommodate a spiral
reel.

The tank and the reel can be a stainless steel or made of hard
plastic. These tanks usually have a light tight lid with provision
for pouring solutions in and out while covered so that only one
tank is required for the entire process.
have a center clip or hook to hold one end of the film, the
remaining length slips into the grooves created by the spiral. Metal reels
comes in a fixed size.

is loaded by simply the film into the spiral from the outer
end. It has a flange that moves with back and forth rachet action after the film
had been engaged on the outside guide slots, the rachet movement feeds it
smoothly into the grooves. Plastic reel can be adjusted to accommodate
different film size.

Presentation title 210


1. Tank method of film development
a) Mix the developer, stop-bath, and the fixer according to
instructional manuals. Then bring it to temperature which is 20-21
C or 68-70 F.
b)In a dry area, lay out the film, opener, scissors, reel and the tank so
they can be readily located in the dark.
c) Incomplete darkness, open the film cartridge by simply prying off
the cap opposite the end, where the long spool core protrudes.
Extends the film then remove it from the tips in the spool core.
Then reel it.
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• Reeling procedure
To load a metal spiral reel, hold the film with the emulsion side in or down loosely in one
hand while the other hand holds the reel. Engage the films end at the center clip or hook of
the reel. Slightly squeeze the film width by pressing between the thumb and forefinger so it
narrows just enough to fit into the reel.

Turn the reel with the other hand to pull the film onto the reel. Do not apply excessive
pressure with the hand holding and squeezing the film. Let the film pass freely, it will
straighten out full width in the spiral space of the reel.

It is advised for beginners to practice with unwanted film several times, first with the lights
on to make sure that the film will not buckle or one side of the film touching another in the
reel. In such case, the portion of the image where the layer touched will not be developed
because the solution cannot get to it. Once you get the feel of it, start the practice with eyes
closed to simulate darkness until the exercise is perfected.

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1. Tank method of film development
d) After the reeling of the film is done place it inside the daylight developing tank then cover it.
White light can now be opened. Remove the lid cover of the tank and pour the film developer
slowly until the tank is full. Invert the tank then agitate it for a few seconds. Timer should start
now. Intermittent agitation should be made during the developing time. After 5-6 minutes pour
out or drain the developer.

e) Pour in the stop-bath, agitate the tank some more and after 15-20 seconds drain out stop-bath.
Next is to pour in the fixing bath. Agitation should also be done every so often and after 15 to
20 minutes drain the fixer from the tank.

Note: Used developer, stop-bath, and fixer can be used again and
again but instead of pouring them back in the bottles of fresh or
unused solutions, pour them in a separate container so it
will not contaminate the fresh or unused solutions.
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1. Tank method of film development
f) You now wash the negative for several changes or preferably in running water
for another 15-20 minutes.

g) Remove the negative from the developing reel. Get the sponge and immerse it
in water then squeeze it to remove excess water. Wipe the negative with the
sponge slowly to remove the
water adhering on the negative. This must be done on both sides of the
negative. Water that adheres on the surface of the negative can cause
watermarks if allowed to dry without wiping.

h) Hang the negative to dry at a clean, dust free place or better in a negative drier.
2. Tray method of film development
• With this method of film development, the developer is placed on a tray. In
total darkness, remove the film from the cartridge then hold one end of the
film and immerse the film in the developer in the tray making sure that the
film is thoroughly dipped until the whole length of the film is evenly wet.
Timer will start now. With see-saw or pulling up or down motion, move the
film from one end to the other then back, continuously, until the developing
time of 4-5 minutes is done. Then transfer it to the stop-bath for 10-15 seconds
with the same motion.
2. Tray method of film development
• Thereafter, place the film in the fixer and execute same motion for about 5
minutes then you can now open the white light. Continue the fixing until the
required time is finished. Next will be the washing and drying of the negative.

• This developing procedure is actually not recommended because the film has a
long contact with air during the procedure which can cause aerial fog. Besides it
is more tedious and tiring especially with a 36 exposure film.
A typical components of a black and white developer are:
1. Solvent (water)
2. Developing agent
3. Preservatives
4. Accelerator
5. Restrainer

Various chemicals can serve this function. Chemicals chosen are determined
whether it is slow or fast acting, procedure high, normal, or low contrast, achieves
maximum emulsion speed, creates fine grain or acts in a number of way
D-76 Film developer formula

1. Water 52C or 125 F - 750 ml


2. Elon - 2 grams
3. Hydroquinone - 5 grams
4. Sodium sulfite - 100 grams
5. Borax (granules) - 2 grams
6. Water to make - 1 liter
DEKTOL - Paper Developer

1. Water 52c or 125 F - 500 ml


2. Elon - 311 grams
3. Hydroquinone - 12 grams
4. Sodium sulfite - 4.5 grams
5. Sodium carbonate - 67.5 grams
6. Potassium bromide - 1 gram
7. Water to make - 1 liter

This is a stock solution. To use take 1 part stock solution and add 2
parts water.
Stop-bath can be plain water only with 28% glacial acetic acid.

The chemical component of a fixing bath are:


1. Water
2. Dissolving agent
3. Preservative
4. Neutralizers
5. Hardener
A typical fixer formula:

1. Water 50 C or 125 F - 600ml


2. Hypo (sodium thiosulfate) - 240 grams
3. Sodium sulfite (anhydrous) - 15gms
4. Acetic Acid (28%) - 480 ml
5. Boric Acid (crystals) - 7.5 gms
6. Potassium alum (fine granular) - 15gms
7. Water to make - 1 liter

This fixing bath is recommended generally for both films and photographic
papers.

Presentation title 221


There are two general types of photographic printing:

1. Contact printing

Contact printing is the procedure of exposing photographic print materials


while it is pressed in contact with the negative being reproduced. This is the simplest
and the most economical method of photographic printing. In terms of print quality, it
can surpass enlargements in tonality because there is no scattering of image forming
lights as this can be in projected beams of an enlarger. It usually looks sharper because
there is no lens in the printing system to add its aberrations in the print making process
and also because details that may be slightly out of focus are not enlarged so the
unsharpness are not apparent.

Presentation title 222


Contact prints are generally made for proofs of 35 mm negatives or
copies of the large format negatives like 5" x 7" or 8" x 10". It is also
used to make positive copies of negatives. Contact prints can be
made with either black- and-white or color materials.

Contact prints may be made with:


a. glass and pad
b. pressure printing frame
c. contact printer
Glass and pad
A sheet of clear glass about 2 inches bigger than the print size in all sides to give a
border for handling and for its application of pressure The pad should be of the same
size as the glass

Pressure printing frame


This is like a picture frame with a removable hinge back leaf spring on the back.
Lock it into place and it exert pressure against the glass the frame.

Contact printer
For a large volume work and a more controlled printing, a contact
printer is most effective and convenient. This is essentially a glass-
top box with an exposing light and a safelight (for proper
arrangement of the negatives and the paper) inside and a hinge
pressure cover on the glass. Switches of the format control the
lights.
Printing Procedure

• Clean the glass from dust, dirt and stains. Place the negative with the base side
against the glass and the emulsion facing the emulsion of the photographic paper.

• If a film rather than a photographic paper is being exposed, it must be backed with a
black paper so reflected lights will not add unwanted exposure, arrange the negatives
to be printed on the photographic paper so every part of it is accommodated with
extra space on all sides.

• To prevent movement of the negatives, the use of transparent tape is advice to hold
the negative in place. Then press tightly together the negative and the paper with the
glass and the pad. Expose it to light. Correct exposure is determined with test strips
just like in enlargement. Process the exposed photographic paper with the same
solutions and processing time as in enlargement procedure. Then wash, then dry.
There are two general types of photographic printing:

2. Projection Printing or Enlarging


This is a type of printing where the image in a negative is optically projected or
enlarged onto a print material for exposure to produce a picture image. The main
equipment used is the Enlarger.

The basic or essential parts of an Enlarger are:


1. baseboard and its vertical column 5. lens
2. lamphouse 6. focusing knob
3. condenser or diffuser 7. elevating knob
4. bellows 8. red filter
9. electrical cord and switch

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Presentation title 227
Essential accessory of an enlarger:

1. negative carrier
2. easel or paper holder
3. timer for consistent and repeatable exposure

There are different sizes of enlargers. The size of the enlarger is dependent
on the size of the negative it is capable of accepting. There is the 8mm for
microfilms, the 35 mm which is now the most common and popular, the
120mm, or the bigger negative sizes like 4"x 5".

Presentation title 228


The common light sources for enlargers are:
1. Tungsten lamp
2. Halogen lamp
3. Mercury vapor lamp
4. Fluorescent lamp sometimes referred to as "cold
light" because of its somewhat diffused
illumination. This is generally used in portrait
work.

There are two general types of Enlargers:


1. Diffusion type
2. Condenser type
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Before undertaking the enlarging procedure, mix or
prepare the chemical solutions according to
specifications; the negative; and the enlarger; and
the darkroom which must be clean and in proper
order.

Presentation title 230


The fundamental steps in enlarging are as follows:
1. Clean both sides of the negative then place it in the negative carrier with the emulsion
(dull side) facing the lens of the enlarger or downward position. Insert the negative in
the enlarger.
2. Adjust the masking guides of the easel in accordance with the intended size to be
printed.
3. Turn on the red light (safelight) then turn off the white light.
4. Switch on the enlarger then adjust the lens of the enlarger to its widest aperture. (This
will allow the brightest image on the easel).
5. Adjust focus by rotating the focusing knob. For desired size of the image, adjust the
elevating knob. For bigger 81
magnification, push the enlarger up and for smaller magnification, pull the enlarger
down, then tighten the elevating knob securely. Focus may now be finely readjusted.
6. Switch off the enlarger's light. Close down the lens aperture two or three times from its
optimum aperture. (Be guided by its click stop adjustment).
7. If this is the first time that the negative is being printed, make a series of
test strips or trial exposures on strips of photographic papers exposed at
different exposure time generally 2 seconds interval each. Make sure that
the photographic papers are placed in the easel emulsion side (shiny side)
up when making the exposure.
8. Process the test strips by immersing it in the developing solution for 1 to
1 ½ minutes. Slip the exposed photographic paper into the developing
solution to wet them evenly. Agitate it continuously by either moving the
print or by rocking the tray. When the developing time is finished, lift off
the print, drip dry it before transferring it to the next solution. Then
transfer it to the stop-bath for 10 to 15 seconds then in the fixing bath for
a minute or so. Examine the test strip under a white light to determine
which of the exposure time is the best and if the contrast of the print is
alright otherwise, repeat the exercise whether shorter or longer exposure
time is needed.
9. When the right exposure had been selected, make a full print. Process it
then evaluate the print for over-all quality. Consider for possible cropping,
or local exposure control.
Cropping- is the excluding or omitting some images on the negative from
the final print. Local exposure control is achieved by either burning-in or
dodging.
Burning-in is the adding of exposure time on a specific area to bring out
details.
Dodging is the holding back of some lights to a specific area to make it
lighter in density.

Presentation title 233


Note: You can use your hand or improvise with a thick paper material for both burning-
in or dodging technique.

Generally, over-exposed and underdeveloped are often mottled and lacks contrast on
shadow areas and good gradation of tone in the highlights. Underexposed and over.
developed prints usually lacks details in the highlights and they often show chemical
fog or yellow stains.

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Be aware that there are some factors that affects developing time:

a. Concentration and freshness of the chemical solution. Full strength


requires shorter developing time than a diluted one. Likewise
exhaustion and contamination will need added developing time.

b. Temperature - Room or more specifically the temperature of the


solution is also an influencing factor. Higher temperature means shorter
developing time and vice-versa. Lower temperature will mean longer
developing time.

c. Agitation - More agitation will lessen developing time.


10. Current fixing baths only require 10-15 minutes fixing time.
Formerly it was 20-30 minutes.

11. Wash the prints in running water for another 20-30 minutes.

12. Dry the prints

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237
A. EQUIPMENT FOR PAPER DEVELOPING

1. Three plastic trays - one each for the developer, stop-bath and the
fixer. (The size of the tray is determined by the largest prints size).
2. Metal, plastic, or bamboo tong preferably with rubber ends to hold
the prints.
3. Rubber (surgical) hand gloves. (There are some persons who are
subject to skin allergic reactions with the solutions For precaution,
wear it.)
4. Timers
5. Paper cutter
6. A bigger tray or tank for washing
J. COLOR PRINTING PROCESS
A color negative film is printed on a color photographic r which is
essentially similar to the films used in a camera paper except that the
emulsion layer is coated in a paper base and couplers which are colorless.
Colored couplers are not used because the prints would then be unsuitable
for direct viewing. Printing a color negative in complementary colors in a
non- reversal print material reverses both tone scale and the color of the
negative within the accuracy limit of the photographic process of the tone
and color of the original subject.

Presentation title 239


The blue sensitive layer produces a yellow color when developed.

The green sensitive layer produces a magenta color when developed.

The red sensitive layer produces cyan color when developed.

Color and density of a photograph taken with a color negative film can be
adjusted quite freely to a certain extent. Raising the density will make the image
darker while lowering it will make the image lighter, and by adding cyan we can
give the image an over-all bluish tinge while removing yellow will emphasize
magenta and cyan giving the image a purplish tinge

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1. Color Film Processing

The most important point to be emphasized in connection with film processing in


the strict adherence to the instructions for the mixing of solutions and carrying out
of processing steps. The mixing and processing operations are not so difficult yet
they are exacting in the steps in the sense that the steps must be standardized
critically if repeatable results are to be obtained.

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a. Temperature control
Temperature control for film developing are crucial and appreciable deviation can
result in speed and color balance changes. In addition, physical defects such as
reticulation of the emulsion or frilling along the edge of the film are apt to occur if
the temperature of the solutions is too high.

Normal color negative developing temperature is 38°C, process C-41.

Presentation title 242


b. Agitation
Proper agitation is important throughout color film
developing but it is crucial during the entire developing steps.

The C-41 film processing steps are:

1. Color developer
2. Bleach - Fix
3. Stabilizer

Presentation title 243


2. Color Printing
Printing of color negatives are basically the same as black-and-white
negatives. The major difference lies in the use of filters. Filters are used for
corrections of density and color balance. Basically though, the print can be
made darker or lighter by increasing or decreasing exposure time Color
balance can be subtlely or radically altered by changing the filter pack.
Dodging technique is the same as in black-and- white printing. In the
processing stage, color temperature control is more critical. Likewise the
processing time in each stage is more precise and accurate up to drying
step of color prints

Presentation title 244


a. Equipment

1. Enlarger with built dial-in filter or with provision for placing filters
between the light source and the negative. Light source is generally a
tungsten-halogen lamp. The use of fluorescent lamp is not adviced.

2 Color Photographic papers.

3. Filters-Acetate color printing filters (CP) like C229 (always med to absorb
alreviolet rays from the light some CPM, CPZM CPWM CP 80M, CP 05Y,
CP 10Y, CP 20Y, CP 40Y (2 of these) and CC 025M, CC 025Y.

4. Safelights - Kodak safelight filter No. 13 (amber) with 15 watts bulb.


Presentation title 245
b. Printing procedure in color printing of a negative.

1. Prepare the chemical solutions by carefully following the instructions


given with the photographic paper and the chemicals.

2. Place the negative in the enlarger with the emulsion side toward the lens of
the enlarger. Use 50 M +50 Y filter (40 M + 10 M +40 Y + 40 Y + 10 Y) or
others as specified in the paper instructions to make a test strip of series of
four exposures at the same magnification as will be used in the first print.
Exposure time is 10 seconds each of f4, f5.6, f8 and 11.

Presentation title 246


3. Process the print then dry it.

4. Then judge the best test strip for color balance. Look at sensitive areas or
at the middle as flesh. tones of persons and decide on what color or colors is
in excess and how much is excess - slight, considerable, great.

5. Based on the above decision, select a filter pack that will control the color
of the exposing light. Add to filter pack, filter of the same color or colors as
those in excess in the test. Add 10 filter for a slight change, 20 for
considerable change and for great change 30 filter (20 filter + 10 filter).
Some casts may require as much as 50 filter addition to the pack.
6. Make another test exposure based on the estimated filter pack
and the corresponding additional exposure time.

7. Depending on the experience of the one printing, a third,


fourth, or even a fifth test strip may be necessary until the
desired color balance and density is obtained.

Presentation title 248


Since we live in a world of color it is only natural that in general, we find
color photographs more realistic than black and white. Comparatively black
and white photographs are more of an abstraction from reality, or in other
words, they are commonly accepted on their merits as pictures. In a portrait, it
is the likeness that is considered as the paramount importance, but other types
of black and white prints tends to be judged without reference to or regard for
the appearance of the original scene. As a result, tone rendition in black and
white prints can vary over a wide range and still remain satisfactory.

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In Forensic Photography, generally, fingerprints and handwritings,
or other printed materials which are subject for examination, analysis,
comparison and evaluation are black and white (for contrast) in their
original appearance so the use of color photographs is not adviced.

In the case of color photographs, however, an average observer tends


to make a more direct comparison between subject and reproduction.
His thoughts and comments will be based on a considerably greater
extent on his recollection of the original scene or his conception of
how the original scene should have appeared.
If the color photograph is to be satisfactory, skin and other objects
which have definite appearance in the mind of the observer must be
represented with reasonable accuracy, both in terms of tone rendition
and color rendering. Color adds a more "dimension" (figurative
sense) to the mere reproduction of the scene in tone of gray. Color
photograph is subject to a more orientation and greater range effect
than a black and white photographs.

Presentation title 251


a. Color quality of illumination
Essentially, the problem in color work is the fact that color films does not "see"
color as the human eye The color of light is bluer with higher temperature and
yellower with lower temperature. Color temperature is expressed in degree
Kelvin (K) obtained by adding 273 to the temperature in degree centigrade.

b. Subject contrast
Subject contrast of a film depends largely on one factor-lighting contrast -
which is the ratio between the highest and lowest amount of illumination falling
on the principal subject.
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C. Exposure accuracy
Color films, particularly the reversal type have much less
exposure latitude than black and white films. Exposure setting
must therefore be determined with greater degree of accuracy.
Use of exposure meter is highly adviced in the setting of correct
exposure.
d. Color Perception
Inexperienced observer sometimes cannot recognize subtle tints
mixtures and reflections brought about by the effects of lighting
condition and their surroundings.
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e. Color Harmony
Color harmony is the systematic arrangement of colors to give a
pleasing effect. This subject is complex because of personal
taste. This is a problem in commercial photography and
illustrative work but seldom in Forensic work.

f. Color Blindness
People with this defective color vision have difficulty in
distinguishing and naming colors. They sometime see part of the
spectrum as gray.
Presentation title 254

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