Processing the Latent Image

The processing of the latent image

produces the manifest image.
The exposed silver ions in the silver
halide crystals are converted to
microscopic black grains of silver.
Films can be processed with manual
dipping or with automatic film
processors.
 Six Steps of Processing
• 1-Wetting* • Swells the emulsion for better
chemical penetration.
• 2-Developing • Produces a visible image from the
latent image.
• 3-Stop bath* • Terminates development.

• 4-Fixing • Removes remaining silver halide and

hardens gelatin.
• Removes excess chemicals
• 5-Washing
• Removes water and prepares film for
• 6-Drying viewing
• * (manual processing only)
 Manual Processing
• Film is hung on metal frames and dipped
into tanks of processing chemicals.
Process take about 1 hour per film.
• Film immersed in developer for 5 minutes
at 70°F.
• Wetting-Developer stop bath
fixer waterfilm dryer
 First Automatic Processor
• First automatic
processor introduced
in 1942 by Pako.
• Used film racks.
• First automatic
processor reduced
processing time down
to 40 minutes per film.
 Developer
• The wetting and developing steps are
combines in automatic processors, but
separate in manual. In automatic
processing wetting agent is in developer.
• Wetting softens the gelatin to allow the
developer to come in contact with the
silver halide crystals
• Development converts the latent image to
the manifest image.
 Developer Components
• Water wets the emulsion
• Hydroquinone develops the dark areas of
the film.
• Phenidone develops the grays.
• Glutaraldehyde hardens the emulsion.
• Sodium Carbonate is a buffer
• Sodium Sulfite is a preservative
 Developer Components
• Potassium Bromide or Iodide act as
restrainers and an antifogging agent that
keeps the unexposed crystals from being
developed.
• Sodium Sulfite acts as preservative
helps controls oxidation of developing
agent by air. To prevent aerial oxidation
the developing agent should be covered
by lid. Developer turns brown when it
oxides, so it is recognized.
 Developer Components
• Glutaraldehyde acts as hardener, it
controls swelling/softening of emulsion. If
depleted damp films are the end result.
• Sodium hydroxide/carbonate are
alkaline-act as a buffer and maintain ph.
Gloves to be worn while preparing
developer to prevent burns
 Importance of Proper
Development
• Ideally, proper development implies that all
of the exposed crystals containing the
latent image are reduced to metallic
silver.
• Development is not perfect so some of the
latent image is not reduced and so of
the unexposed crystals are.
 Importance of Proper
Development
• Development is a chemical reaction
governed by:
• Time
• Temperature
• Concentration of the developer
• Long time with low temperature or high
temperature with short time will work.
 Importance of Proper
Development
• With increased concentration, the reducing
agents are more powerful and can
penetrate both exposed and unexposed
silver halide crystals.
• The film and chemical manufactures have
carefully determined the proper
parameters for proper development of the
film.
 Importance of Proper
Development
• Any deviation from those parameters will
result in a loss of image quality, usually
resulting in fog.
• Fog causes an increase in base fog and a
drop in contrast. A fogged image is gray
with poor contrast.
• Three ways to fog film.
 Three Ways to Fog Film
• Chemical fog: contaminated developer,
high temperature, slow transport.
• Radiation fog: unintentional exposure to
radiation.
• Improper storage: wrong safelight or
storage in high heat and humidity, expired
or out of date film.
 3-4-STOP BATH/Fixing the Image
• One the image is developed, it must be treated
so it will not fade but remain permanently.
• This is called fixing the image.
• We must stop development as soon as the film
leaves the developer tank. Acetic acid is used
as the stop bath in the fixer. It is a step in
manual processing but in automatic processor
the acetic acid is part of fixer and performs
same function. This is referred as the activator.
It neutralizes PH and stops developing action.
 4-Fixing the Image
• Ammonium thio sulfate(hypo) removes the
undeveloped/un exposed silver bromide from
the film. This is referred to as clearing the
film.
• Hypo Retention is the undesired retention of
fixer on the emulsion. It is caused by improper
washing of the film.
• Fixers retained in emulsion slowly oxidizes to
form silver sulfide which turns the image
yellow- brown.
 4-Fixing the Image
• The unreduced silver bromide is removed
from the emulsion during fixing. The
emulsion shrinks.
• A hardener is used to speed this process
causing the emulsion to become rigid.
Potassium alum, aluminum chloride or
chromium alum are hardeners.
 4-Fixing the Image

• Hardening of the image is important for

proper transport of the image through the
processor and to permanently fix the
image.
• Used Fixer will contain silver making it
toxic to aquatic life. Must be processed as
hazardous waste.
 4-Fixing the Image
• Preservative-Sodium Sulphite-same
function as in developer.
• Buffer-Acetate to keep PH constant.
• Sequestrating Agents-Boric acid/Boric
salts are used to remove impurities like Al
ions.
• Solvent. Water is used as solvent.
 5-Wash
• Once the image is fixed, all remaining
chemicals must be washed off the film with
water.
• Inadequate washing results in fixer(hypo)
retention. The image will fade with time.
 6-Drying
• Warm and dry air is blown over both sides
of the emulsion to dry the film as it moves
through the dryer assembly of the
processor.
Automatic Film Processor
 Components of a Automatic
Processor
• Transport system • Moves film
• Temperature Control • Controls Developer temp
• Circulation • Agitates chemicals
• Replenishment • Maintains concentration

• Wash • Removes chemicals

• Dry • Removes moisture
vents exhaust
• Electrical
• Fused power
 Transport System Functions
• Moves film through processor at the
correct speed.
• Entrance Rollers activates replenishment
of developer and fixer.
• Racks of rollers used to move film.
• Crossover Racks move film from on tank
to the next tank and remove chemicals
from film.
 Transport System Functions
• Turn around or master rollers turn the film
around at the bottom of the tanks.
• Crossover and Turnaround rollers have
guide shoes. If out of adjustment, can
scratch film.
• Motor drives gears that turn the rollers.
Speed controlled to within 2%.
 Temperature Control
• The temperature is controlled by heating
element in each tank .
• Developer temp is most important
/maintained at 35C(95F).Wash water is
3C(5F) less.
 Circulation System
• Pumps are used to provide agitation of
the chemicals as they pass over the film.
This provide even development and
mixing of the chemicals.
• Filters remove impurities and flecks of
gelatin that are dislodged from the
emulsion in the developer. In fixer, filters
are generally not required.
 Replenishment System
• Each time a film passes through the
chemicals, fresh chemicals are pumped
into the tank.
• This maintains the proper concentration
and level of chemicals in the tanks.
• Developer replenishment is 60 to 70 ml for
each 14 inch film.
 Replenishment System
• Fixer replenishment is 100 to 110 ml for a
14 inch film.
• The developer overflow can mix with the
water overflow and be released down the
drain.
• Fixer overflow is captured as hazardous
waste.
• Water is not re-circulated and is
continuously replenished.
 Wash
• Cold water flows into the processor when
films are being processed.
• If flow of water is not adequate or if too
much fixer gets into the wash water, it
becomes hazardous waste.
• Water dilutes the overflow developer so it
can be safely discharged.
 Dryer System
• Dryer removes all of the moisture from the
film.
• Consists of a heat coils, thermostat, ducts
and blower. Heat should be exhausted to
the return air system of the dark room.
• Some processors used Infrared Heater to
dry the film.
• Damp-moist films should not go to receiver
bin as they are cause of artifacts.
 Electrical System
• Provides power to the electrical
subsystems.
• All circuits are fused or have circuit
breakers.
 Alternative Processing
• New processors can process the film in 45
seconds. This is called Rapid
Processing.
• Extended Processing is used in
mammography to reduce dose and
increase contrast. The developer
temperature is raised and the drive slowed
(increase development time)to extend
development.
 Alternative Processing
• Daylight Processing: The processor
automatically unloads the film from the
cassette and feeds it into the processor.
No darkroom is needed. The cassettes are
automatically reloaded.
• Takes about 15 seconds compared to two
minutes in the darkroom.
 Dry Processing
• Dry processing refers to development of
the images without the use of wet
chemicals.
• It continues to advance and replace
conventional chemical based film
processing.
• Used for printing computer based images
from digital radiography, CT, MRI, Nuclear
Medicine and Ultrasound.
 Dry Processing Advantages
• Elimination of handling, maintenance and
disposal of processing chemicals.
• No Darkroom required (space saved)
• No plumbing required
• Less environmental impact
• Reduced capital costs
• Reduced operating costs
• Higher throughput