Differential Amplifier

•Key learnings
•Formula
•Circuit Diagram
•Working
 Key learnings
• Differential Amplifier Definition: A differential amplifier is defined
as an electronic device that amplifies the difference between two
input voltages while suppressing voltages common to both inputs.
• Amplification Types: There are primarily two types of differential
amplifiers: BJT and Opamp, each suited for different electronic
applications
• Operational Dynamics: The operation of a differential amplifier
involves varying the output in response to changes in the input
voltages, crucial for processing signals accurately.
• CMRR Importance: A high Common-Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR)
is essential in differential amplifiers to ensure noise rejection and
signal integrity.
• Practical Applications: Differential amplifiers are fundamental in
various applications including analog signal processing and
automation systems.
 What is a Differential Amplifier?
• A differential amplifier (also known as a difference
amplifier or op-amp subtractor) is a type of electronic
amplifier that amplifies the difference between two
input voltages but suppresses any voltage common to
the two inputs.
• A differential amplifier is an analog circuit with two
inputs (V1 and V2) and one output (V0) in which the
output is ideally proportional to the difference
between the two voltages.
• The formula for a simple differential amplifier can be
expressed:
 Expression

• From the formula above, you can see that when

V1 = V2, V0 is equal to zero, and hence the output
voltage is suppressed.
• But any difference between inputs V1 and V2 is
multiplied (i.e. amplified) by the differential
amplifier gain Ad.
• This is why the differential amplifier is also known
as a difference amplifier – the difference between
the input voltages is amplified.
 BJT Differential Amplifier
• The Figure shows such a
BJT differential amplifier
circuit made of two BJTs
(Q1 and Q2) and two
power supplies of
opposite polarity, VCC and
–VEE which uses three
resistors among which
two are the collector
resistors, RC1 and RC2 (one
for each transistor) while
one is the emitter resistor
RE common to both
transistors.
 Working
• Here the input signals (V1 and V2) are applied to the
base of the transistors while the output is collected
across their collector terminals (Vo1 and Vo2).
• The circuit diagram for a BJT differential amplifier is
shown above.
• In this case, if the V1 at Q1 is sinusoidal, then as V1 goes
on increasing, the transistor starts to conduct and this
results in a heavy collector current IC1 increasing the
voltage drop across RC1, causing a decrease in Vo1.
• Due to the same effect, even IE1 increases which
increases the common emitter current, IE resulting in
an increase of voltage drop across RE.
 Working (cont.)
• This means that the emitters of both transistors are driven
towards positive which in turn implies that the base of Q2
would start to become more and more negative.
• This results in a decrease of collector current, IC2 which in
turn decreases the voltage drop across the collector
resistor RC2, resulting in an increase in the output voltage
Vo2.
• This indicates that the changes in the sinusoidal signal
observed at the input of transistor Q1 are reflected as such
across the collector terminal of Q2 and appear with a phase
difference of 180o across the collector terminal of Q1.
• The differential amplification can be driven by considering
the output in-between the collector terminals of the
transistors, Q1 and Q2.
Thanks
 Power Amplifier
• Power Amplifier
• Types of Power Amplifiers (Class A,
Class B, Class AB, Class C)
 Definition
• Power amplifiers are basically used
to enhance the power level of the input
signal.
• Power amplifier is also called large signal
amplifiers, as in order to get large power at
the output, input signal voltage required must
also be large.
• The transistors that are employed in power
amplifiers are termed as power transistors.
 What is A Power Amplifier?
• An amplifier is an electronic device used to increase the
magnitude of voltage/current/power of an input signal.
• It takes in a weak electrical signal/waveform and reproduces a
similar stronger waveform at the output by using an external
power source.
• Depending on the changes it makes to the input signal,
amplifiers are broadly classified into Current, Voltage and
Power amplifiers.
• The power of the input signal is increased to a level high
enough to drive loads of output devices like speakers,
headphones, RF transmitters etc. Unlike voltage/current
amplifiers, a power amplifier is designed to drive loads
directly and is used as a final block in an amplifier chain.
 Power Amplifier (Cont.)
• The input signal to a power amplifier needs to be
above a certain threshold.
• So, instead of directly passing the raw audio/RF
signal to the power amplifier, it is first pre-
amplified using current/voltage amplifiers and is
sent as input to the power amp after making
necessary modifications.
• You can observe the block diagram of an audio
amplifier and the usage of power amplifier below.
 Stages of Power Amplifiers

• Stage 1: Voltage amplification stage: As the

input signal developed by the transducer is of
very low value and a higher value signal is needed
at the output so input signal is amplified at the
very first stage of power amplifiers.
• Here, we have used two stages of voltage
amplifier so as to amplify the low-value input to
the desired level.
 Stages of Power Amplifiers
• Stage 2: Driver stage: The amplified voltage
obtained from the voltage amplifier is fed to
the driver stage to provide maximum power
gain and to facilitate impedance matching.
• Stage 3: Output stage: This stage essentially
consists of power amplifiers and is responsible
to transfer maximum power to the output
device.
 Classification of Power amplifiers
• Power amplifiers are classified as different classes which shows the
variation of the output signal with respect to the applied input
signal.
Class A
• In this class of power amplifiers, the output current flows for
overall i.e., 360 of the input cycle. It only operates on the linear
region of the load as the operating point is so selected which gives
us exact output as that of input.
• Here, the maximum possible efficiency is of 50%. This class is used
when we simply want a distortion-free output.
• Throughout the input signal, the transistor remains in forward bias
mode. In this class, the transistor remains in active mode all the
time which leads to excessive heat generation thus causing a
reduction in the efficiency.
• When the input voltage is applied at the base terminal of the
transistor operating in CE mode it leads to variation in base current,
this variation in IB produces similar variation in collector current and
the output is taken across the load.
Class A (Circuit Diagram)
 Waveform
• The applied
input causes the
collector current
to fluctuates the
collector current
from max to min
which
resultantly
moves the Q
point along the
load line.
 Advantage & Disadvantages
Advantages
• It provides distortion less amplification.
• Small signal can be amplified.
Disadvantages:
• Collector efficiency is low.
• Output power is low.
• Due to excessive heat generation, heat sinks are
needed which makes them costly and bulky.
 Class B
• In this type, the transistor is biased in such a way that the current
flows only during the positive half input cycle.
• In this two complementary transistors are used which receive the
input signal of equal magnitude but opposite in phase.
• When the input is applied at the centre tapped secondary of
transformer it generates two identical signals of opposite phase and
the two transistors are driven by these two input signals.
• When V1 goes positive, V2 goes negative which causes Q1 to
conduct and Q2 goes in OFF mode. As collector current in Q1
increases, it produces positive half of input signal.
• When V1 goes negative and V2 goes positive, Q2 automatically
starts conducting and Q1 goes in OFF mode. As the collector
current in Q2 increases, it generates another half of the voltage
signal.
Circuit Diagram
Waveform
 Explanation
• When no any input signal is present then both the
transistor goes in OFF mode and no current is drawn.
• This prevents the unnecessary working of the transistor
which decreases the chances of overheating of the
device.
• Working of class B leads to crossover
distortion because as we know the voltage of 0.7v is
required by the transistor to start its conduction so
transistor will not be active below 0.7v.
• This means that the portion of the wave will not get
reproduced at the output leading to distorted output.
This zero crossing distortion is
called crossover distortion.
 Advantage & Disadvantages
Advantages:
• It is more efficient as compared to the class A
power amplifier.
• Even harmonics are avoided because of the push-
pull mechanism.
Disadvantages:
• It leads to crossover distortion.
• The cost and size are increased because of
coupling transformers.
 Class AB
• It is a combination of class A and class B type of power amplifiers.
• This class was basically introduced to eliminate crossover distortion
that occurs in class B.
• In this type, the angle of conduction lies somewhere between 180‫﮲‬
to 360‫ ﮲‬.
• Here, the transistor biasing is done in such a way that operating
point Q lies near cut-off voltage.
• The collector current flows for more than half of input cycle that
means it conducts during the positive half of the input cycle.
• For a small portion of the negative half cycle, as the input circuit
becomes forward biased.
• But the conduction stops for the small portion of the negative half
cycle as the transistor goes reverse biased.
• Its efficiency lies between 50% to 60%
Circuit Diagram
Waveform
 Advantage & Disadvantages
Advantages:
• It eliminates crossover distortion.
• It is less costly as compared to class B
Disadvantages:
• Efficiency is low.
• There are chances of presence of DC
components at the output.
 Class C
• This class of power amplifier is designed to provide the
highest efficiency of about 80%.
• These are biased in such a way that it operates for less than
180‫ ﮲‬of the input signal but provides the full output signal
in case of resonant frequency tuned circuits.
• This class of amplifiers show limited use at a fixed
frequency.
• Distortion is higher in this class so it is not suitable for an
audio application.
• The collector current flows for less than half cycle of the
input signal.
• The transistor remains idle and does not conduct for more
than half portion of the input cycle.
Circuit Diagram
Waveform
 Advantage & Disadvantages
Advantages:
• Power amplifier gives higher efficiency.
• The size of the system is physically small.
Disadvantages:
• It is not good in case of audio applications.
• Linearity of a power amplifier is low.
 Amplifier Classes and Efficiency
• As well as audio amplifiers there are a number of
high efficiency Amplifier Classes relating to switching
amplifier designs that use different switching
techniques to reduce power loss and increase
efficiency.
• Some amplifier class designs listed below use RLC
resonators or multiple power-supply voltages to
reduce power loss, or are digital DSP (digital signal
processing) type amplifiers which use pulse width
modulation (PWM) switching techniques.
Diagram (Amplifier Efficiency)
 Power Amplifiers Applications
• Consumer Electronics: Audio power amplifiers are used in
almost all consumer electronic devices ranging from microwave
ovens, headphone drivers, televisions, mobile phones and Home
theatre systems to theatrical and concert reinforcement
systems.
• Industrial: Switching type power amplifiers are used for
controlling most of the industrial actuator systems like servos
and DC motors.
• Wireless Communication: High power amplifiers are important
in transmission of cellular or FM broadcasting signals to users.
• Higher power levels made possible because of power amplifiers
increases data transfer rates and usability. They are also used in
satellite communication equipment.
Thanks
Multi-Stage Transistor Amplifier

• Types of Coupling
• Direct Coupled Amplifier
 Multi-Stage Transistor Amplifier

• In practical applications, the output of a single state

amplifier is usually insufficient, though it is a voltage or
power amplifier.
• Hence they are replaced by Multi-stage transistor
amplifiers.
• In Multi-stage amplifiers, the output of first stage is
coupled to the input of next stage using a coupling
device.
• These coupling devices can usually be a capacitor or a
transformer.
• This process of joining two amplifier stages using a
coupling device can be called as Cascading.
Diagram of Two stage amplifier
 Purpose of coupling device
• The basic purposes of a coupling device are
• To transfer the AC from the output of one stage to the input
of next stage.
• To block the DC to pass from the output of one stage to the
input of next stage, which means to isolate the DC
conditions.

Types of Coupling
• Joining one amplifier stage with the other in cascade, using
coupling devices form a Multi-stage amplifier circuit.
• There are four basic methods of coupling, using these
coupling devices such as resistors, capacitors, transformers
etc. Let us have an idea about them.
 Types of Coupling-1
Resistance-Capacitance Coupling
• This is the mostly used method of coupling, formed using
simple resistor-capacitor combination.
• The capacitor which allows AC and blocks DC is the main coupling
element used here.
• The coupling capacitor passes the AC from the output of one stage
to the input of its next stage.
• While blocking the DC components from DC bias voltages to effect
the next stage

Impedance Coupling
• The coupling network that uses inductance and capacitance as
coupling elements can be called as Impedance coupling network.
• In this impedance coupling method, the impedance of coupling coil
depends on its inductance and signal frequency which is jwL.
 Types of Coupling-2
Transformer Coupling
• The coupling method that uses a transformer as
the coupling device can be called as Transformer
coupling.
• There is no capacitor used in this method of
coupling because the transformer itself conveys
the AC component directly to the base of second
stage.
• The secondary winding of the transformer
provides a base return path and hence there is no
need of base resistance.
• This coupling is popular for its efficiency and its
impedance matching and hence it is mostly used.
 Types of Coupling-3
Direct Coupling
• If the previous amplifier stage is connected to the
next amplifier stage directly, it is called as direct
coupling.
• The individual amplifier stage bias conditions are
so designed that the stages can be directly
connected without DC isolation.
• The direct coupling method is mostly used when
the load is connected in series, with the output
terminal of the active circuit element.
• For example, head-phones, loud speakers etc.
 Direct Coupled Amplifier
• As no coupling devices are used, the coupling of the
amplifier stages is done directly and hence called as Direct
coupled amplifier.
Construction
• The figure below indicates the three stage direct coupled
transistor amplifier.
• The output of first stage transistor T1 is connected to the
input of second stage transistor T2.
• The transistor in the first stage will be an NPN transistor,
while the transistor in the next stage will be a PNP
transistor and so on.
• This is because, the variations in one transistor tend to
cancel the variations in the other.
• The rise in the collector current and the variation in β of
one transistor gets cancelled by the decrease in the other
Circuit Diagram
 Operation
• The input signal when applied at the base of
transistor T1, it gets amplified due to the
transistor action and the amplified output
appears at the collector resistor Rc of
transistor T1.
• This output is applied to the base of transistor
T2 which further amplifies the signal.
• In this way, a signal is amplified in a direct
coupled amplifier circuit.
 Advantage, Disadvantage &
Applications
Advantages
• The advantages of direct coupled amplifier are as follows.
• The circuit arrangement is simple because of minimum use of
resistors.
• The circuit is of low cost because of the absence of expensive
coupling devices.
Disadvantages
• The disadvantages of direct coupled amplifier are as follows.
• It cannot be used for amplifying high frequencies.
• The operating point is shifted due to temperature variations.
Applications
• The applications of direct coupled amplifier are as follows.
• Low frequency amplifications.
• Low current amplifications.
 Comparisons
Transformer Direct
S.No Particular RC Coupling
Coupling Coupling

Excellent in
1 Frequency response audio frequency Poor Best
range

2 Cost Less More Least

3 Space and Weight Less More Least

4 Impedance matching Not good Excellent Good

For amplifying
For voltage For Power
5 Use extremely low
amplification amplification
frequencies
Thanks
 Op-Amplifier (IC 741)

• Internal structure of an operational

amplifier
• Ideal op amp & Idealized analysis of
op-amp circuits
 Key learnings
• IC 741 Op Amp Definition: An IC 741 op-amp is defined as a
monolithic integrated circuit that contains a single operational
amplifier, packaged in an 8-pin dual-in-line case.
• Pin Diagram: The IC 741 pin diagram includes inverting and non-
inverting inputs, an output, power supply terminals, and offset null
terminals to adjust input offset voltage.
• Circuit Diagram: The IC 741 internal circuit comprises differential
input, gain, and push-pull output stages with transistors, resistors,
capacitors, and diodes.
• Working Principle: The IC 741 operates on negative feedback,
where part of the output signal is fed back to the inverting input to
stabilize and linearize the output.
• Applications of IC 741: The IC 741 op-amp is versatile, used in
circuits like voltage followers, amplifiers (inverting and non-
inverting), summing amplifiers, differential amplifiers, integrators,
and differentiators.
 An operational amplifier
• An operational amplifier, or op-amp, is a versatile electronic device
that can perform various operations on analog signals, like addition,
subtraction, multiplication, integration, and differentiation.
• It is a DC-coupled, high-gain voltage amplifier with differential input
and a single output.
• Op-amps are essential building blocks for many analog circuits, such
as filters, oscillators, comparators, and amplifiers.
• One of the most popular op-amps is the IC 741, a general-purpose
op amps in integrated circuit form.
• Designed by Fairchild Semiconductor in 1963, it has been enhanced
over the years by various manufacturers.
• The IC 741 op amp features high input impedance, low output
impedance, short-circuit protection, internal frequency
compensation, and low offset voltage, making it suitable for many
applications.
 What is an IC 741 Op Amp?
• An IC 741 op-amp is defined as a monolithic integrated
circuit that contains a single operational amplifier.
• It is packaged in an 8-pin dual-in-line (DIP) plastic or
metal case.
• The IC 741 op amp has three main terminals: an
inverting input (pin 2), a non-inverting input (pin 3),
and an output (pin 6).
• It also has two power supply terminals: a positive
supply (pin 7) and a negative supply (pin 4).
• Additionally, it has two offset null terminals (pin 1 and
pin 5) that can be used to adjust the input offset
voltage to zero by adding an external potentiometer.
• Finally, it has one unused terminal (pin 8) that has no
connection.
Pin diagram of the IC 741 op amp
 Explanation
• The circuit diagram shows the internal components of the
IC 741 op amp. It consists of three stages: a differential
input stage, a gain stage, and a push-pull output stage.
• The differential input stage is composed of two matched
transistors Q1 and Q2 that receive the input signals from
pins 2 and 3.
• The gain stage is composed of two transistors Q3 and Q4
that amplify the difference between the input signals.
• The push-pull output stage is composed of two transistors
Q5 and Q6 that provide a low-impedance output signal at
pin 6.
• The circuit also includes resistors R1 to R6 that provide
biasing and feedback for the transistors, capacitors C1 and
C2 that provide frequency compensation for stability, and
diodes D1 and D2 that provide short-circuit protection for
the output.
 Summary
Pin Number Pin Name Pin Function
Used to adjust the input offset voltage
1 Offset Null
to zero
Receives the negative or inverted input
2 Inverting Input
signal
Receives the positive or non-inverted
3 Non-Inverting Input
input signal
Connected to the negative voltage
4 Negative Supply
source
Used to adjust the input offset voltage
5 Offset Null
to zero
6 Output Provides the amplified output signal
Connected to the positive voltage
7 Positive Supply
source
8 NC (No Connection) No connection
 How Does an IC 741 Op Amp Work?
• The working principle of an IC 741 op-amp is based on the concept
of negative feedback.
• Negative feedback means that a fraction of the output signal is fed
back to the inverting input terminal through an external resistor
network.
• This feedback signal opposes or cancels out some of the input
signal, resulting in a linear and active mode, rather than being
saturated fully on or off as in a comparator mode.
• The amount of negative feedback depends on the ratio of two
resistors: a feedback resistor (Rf) and an input resistor (Rin).
• The feedback resistor is between the output and the inverting
input, while the input resistor connects the input source to the
inverting input.
• The non-inverting input is connected to the ground or a reference
voltage.
 Explanation
• The negative feedback reduces the effective gain of the
op amp by a factor of 1 + Rf/Rin.
• This factor is called the feedback factor or the closed-
loop gain. The closed-loop gain can be controlled by
adjusting the values of Rf and Rin.
• The advantage of using negative feedback is that it
makes the op-amp more stable, accurate, and linear.
• It also reduces the effects of noise, distortion,
temperature variations, and manufacturing differences
on the op-amp performance.
• The disadvantage of using negative feedback is that it
reduces the overall gain and bandwidth of the op-amp.
 What are the Characteristics of an IC
741 Op Amp?
• Open-loop gain: This is the gain of the op-amp without any
feedback. It is typically very high, ranging from 105 to 108.
However, it varies with frequency, temperature, and supply voltage.
• The open-loop gain affects the accuracy and linearity of the op-
amp.
• Input impedance: This is the resistance that the op-amp presents to
the input signal. It is typically very high, ranging from 105 to
1013 ohms.
• This means that the op-amp draws very little current from the input
source and does not load it significantly. The input impedance
affects the signal transfer and noise rejection of the op-amp.
• Output impedance: This is the resistance that the op-amp presents
to the output load. It is typically very low, ranging from 10 to 100
ohms. This means that the op-amp can drive a wide range of loads
without losing much voltage across its output terminals.
• The output impedance affects the power delivery and stability of
the op-amp.
 Characteristics: Offset voltage
• Offset voltage: This is the voltage difference between the inverting
and non-inverting inputs when the output voltage is zero.
• It is caused by slight mismatches in the internal components of the
op-amp. It is typically very small, ranging from 1 to 10 mV for cheap
commercial-grade op amp ICs.
• However, it can cause errors in the output voltage, especially when
the op-amp is used in high-gain or high-precision applications.
• The offset voltage can be adjusted to zero by using the offset null
terminals and an external potentiometer.
• The offset voltage also varies with temperature and time, which are
known as offset drift and aging effects, respectively.
• These variations can be minimized by using high-quality op-amps or
chopper-stabilized op amps that use an auto-zero circuit to remove
any offset.
 Characteristics: Slew Rate
• Slew rate: This is the maximum rate of change of
the output voltage per unit time. It is usually
expressed in volts per microsecond (V/µs).
• It indicates how fast the op-amp can respond to
changes in the input signal. It also limits the
maximum frequency that the op-amp can handle
without distortion.
• The slew rate depends on the
internal capacitance and current of the op-amp. It
is typically in the range of 0.1 to 100 V/µs for
general-purpose op amps and up to 6000 V/µs for
high-speed op amps.
 Characteristics: Bandwidth
• Bandwidth: This is the range of frequencies that the op-amp can
amplify without significant attenuation or distortion.
• It is usually measured at the -3 dB point, where the output voltage
drops to 70.7% of its maximum value.
• The bandwidth depends on the open-loop gain and the negative
feedback of the op-amp.
• The higher the open-loop gain, the lower the bandwidth, and vice
versa.
• The higher the negative feedback, the higher the bandwidth, and
vice versa.
• The bandwidth also depends on the slew rate, as it limits the
maximum frequency that can be amplified without distortion.
• The bandwidth is typically in the range of 1 Hz to 1 MHz for general-
purpose op amps and up to 1 GHz for high-speed op amps.
 Characteristics: Common-mode
rejection ratio (CMRR)
• This is a measure of how well the op-amp can reject signals that are
common to both inputs, such as noise or interference.
• It is defined as the ratio of the differential gain to the common-
mode gain, expressed in decibels (dB).
• The higher the CMRR, the better the op-amp can reject common-
mode signals and amplify only differential signals.
• The CMRR depends on the matching of the internal components of
the op-amp.
• The common-mode gain is the gain of the op-amp when a common
input signal is applied.
• The CMRR depends on the frequency, temperature, and supply
voltage of the op-amp.
• It is typically in the range of 80 dB to 120 dB at DC, but lower at
higher frequencies.
• The CMRR affects the accuracy and noise rejection of the op-amp.
 Characteristics: Power supply
rejection ratio (PSRR)
• Power supply rejection ratio (PSRR): This is a measure of
how well the op-amp can reject changes in the power
supply voltage.
• It is defined as the ratio of the change in input offset
voltage to the change in power supply voltage, expressed in
decibels (dB).
• The lower the PSRR, the more sensitive the op-amp is to
power supply variations.
• The PSRR depends on the frequency, temperature, and load
of the op-amp.
• It is typically in the range of 50 dB to 100 dB at DC, but
lower at higher frequencies.
• The PSRR affects the stability and reliability of the op-amp.
 Summary
Parameter Symbol Typical Value Unit
Supply voltage Vcc ±15 V
Output voltage swing Vout ±14 V
Output current Iout 25 mA
Open-loop gain Aol 200,000 V/V
Input impedance Zin 2 MΩ

Output impedance Zout 75 Ω

Offset voltage Vos 1 mV
Offset voltage drift TCVos 7 µV/°C

Offset voltage aging AVos/At 0.3 µV/month

Slew rate SR 0.5 V/µs
Bandwidth BW 1.5 MHz
Common-mode rejection ratio CMRR 90 dB

Power supply rejection ratio PSRR 86 (positive), 96 (negative) dB

 What are the Applications of an IC
741 Op Amp?
• Voltage follower: This is a circuit that produces an output
voltage that is equal to the input voltage. It is also known as
a buffer or an isolation amplifier. It is used to isolate a
signal source from a load or to provide a high input
impedance and a low output impedance.
• Inverting amplifier: This is a circuit that produces an output
voltage that is proportional and opposite to the input
voltage. It is used to invert the polarity of a signal or to
amplify it with a negative gain.
• Non-inverting amplifier: This is a circuit that produces an
output voltage that is proportional and the same as the
input voltage. It is used to amplify a signal with a positive
gain.
 Applications of an IC 741 Op Amp
• Summing amplifier: This is a circuit that produces an
output voltage that is proportional to the sum of two or
more input voltages. It is used to add signals together or to
perform weighted summing.
• Differential amplifier: This is a circuit that produces an
output voltage that is proportional to the difference
between two input voltages. It is used to measure or
amplify small signals in the presence of common-mode
noise or interference.
• Integrator: This is a circuit that produces an output voltage
that is proportional to the integral of the input voltage with
respect to time. It is used to perform integration or low-
pass filtering.
• Differentiator: This is a circuit that produces an output
voltage that is proportional to the derivative of the input
voltage with respect to time. It is used to perform
differentiation or high-pass filtering.
 Ideal op amp & Idealized
analysis of op-amp circuits
 Key learnings
• Ideal OP Amp Definition: An ideal OP Amp is defined as a
differential amplifier with infinite open loop gain, infinite
input resistance, and zero output resistance
• Infinite Input Resistance: Ideal OP Amps have infinite input
resistance, which leads to zero input current.
• Zero Output Resistance: Ideal OP Amps have zero output
resistance, ensuring maximum efficiency in signal
transmission.
• Infinite Bandwidth: Ideal OP Amps can operate at any
frequency range due to their infinite bandwidth.
• Zero Offset Voltage: Ideal OP Amps have zero offset
voltage, meaning there is no voltage difference between
the input terminals.
 What is an Ideal OP Amp?
• An operational amplifier (OP Amp) is defined as a direct current
coupled voltage amplifier that increases the input voltage passing
through it.
• Ideally, an OP Amp should have high input resistance, low output
resistance, and very high open loop gain.
• In an ideal OP Amp, the input resistance and open loop gain are
infinite, while the output resistance is zero.

Characteristic Value
Open Loop Gain (A) ∝
Input Resistance ∝
Output Resistance 0
Bandwith of Operation ∝
Offset Voltage 0
 An ideal OP Amp
• An ideal OP Amp is defined as a differential amplifier
with infinite open loop gain, infinite input resistance,
and zero output resistance.
• The ideal OP Amp has zero input current because its
infinite input resistance creates an open circuit at the
input.
• This means there is no current at either input terminal.
• With no current through the input resistance, there is
no voltage drop between the input terminals.
• Thus, no offset voltage appears across the inputs of an
ideal operational amplifier.
 An ideal OP Amp-2
• If v1 and v2 are the voltages at the inverting and non-inverting
terminals of the OP Amp, and v1 = v2, then in an ideal case:

• The bandwidth of operation of an ideal op-amp is also infinite.

• That means the op-amp perform its function for all ranges of
frequencies of operation.
Inverting amplifier
 Inverting Operational Amplifier
• The Inverting Operational Amplifier configuration is one of
the simplest and most commonly used op-amp topologies
• The inverting operational amplifier is basically a constant or
fixed-gain amplifier producing a negative output voltage as
its gain is always negative.
• We saw in the last tutorial that the Open Loop Gain, ( AVO )
of an operational amplifier can be very high, as much as
1,000,000 (120dB) or more.
• However, this very high gain is of no real use to us as it
makes the amplifier both unstable and hard to control as
the smallest of input signals, just a few micro-volts, (μV)
would be enough to cause the output voltage to saturate
and swing towards one or the other of the voltage supply
rails losing complete control of the output.
 Inverting Operational Amplifier
• As the open loop DC gain of an operational amplifier is
extremely high we can therefore afford to lose some of this
high gain by connecting a suitable resistor across the
amplifier from the output terminal back to the inverting
input terminal to both reduce and control the overall gain
of the amplifier.
• This then produces and effect known commonly as
Negative Feedback, and thus produces a very stable
Operational Amplifier based system.
• Negative Feedback is the process of “feeding back” a
fraction of the output signal back to the input, but to make
the feedback negative, we must feed it back to the negative
or “inverting input” terminal of the op-amp using an
external Feedback Resistor called Rƒ.
• This feedback connection between the output and the
inverting input terminal forces the differential input voltage
towards zero.
 Inverting Operational Amplifier
• This effect produces a closed loop circuit to the amplifier resulting in the
gain of the amplifier now being called its Closed-loop Gain.
• Then a closed-loop inverting amplifier uses negative feedback to
accurately control the overall gain of the amplifier, but at a cost in the
reduction of the amplifiers gain.
• This negative feedback results in the inverting input terminal having a
different signal on it than the actual input voltage as it will be the sum of
the input voltage plus the negative feedback voltage giving it the label or
term of a Summing Point.
• We must therefore separate the real input signal from the inverting input
by using an Input Resistor, Rin.
• As we are not using the positive non-inverting input this is connected to a
common ground or zero voltage terminal as shown below, but the effect
of this closed loop feedback circuit results in the voltage potential at the
inverting input being equal to that at the non-inverting input producing
a Virtual Earth summing point because it will be at the same potential as
the grounded reference input.
• In other words, the op-amp becomes a “differential amplifier”.
Inverting Operational Amplifier
Configuration
 Inverting Amplifier Working
• In this Inverting Amplifier circuit the operational amplifier is
connected with feedback to produce a closed loop operation.
• When dealing with operational amplifiers there are two very
important rules to remember about inverting amplifiers, these are:
“No current flows into the input terminal” and that “V1 always
equals V2”.
• However, in real world op-amp circuits both of these rules are
slightly broken.
• This is because the junction of the input and feedback signal ( X ) is
at the same potential as the positive ( + ) input which is at zero volts
or ground then, the junction is a “Virtual Earth”.
• Because of this virtual earth node the input resistance of the
amplifier is equal to the value of the input resistor, Rin and the
closed loop gain of the inverting amplifier can be set by the ratio of
the two external resistors.
 Working (Cont.)
• We said above that there are two very important rules to
remember about Inverting Amplifiers or any operational amplifier
for that matter and these are.
• No Current Flows into the Input Terminals
• The Differential Input Voltage is Zero as V1 = V2 = 0 (Virtual Earth)
• Then by using these two rules we can derive the equation for
calculating the closed-loop gain of an inverting amplifier, using first
principles.
• Current ( i ) flows through the resistor network as shown.
Expression
Expression-2
 Expression-3
• The negative sign in the equation indicates an inversion
of the output signal with respect to the input as it is
180o out of phase.
• This is due to the feedback being negative in value.
• The equation for the output voltage Vout also shows
that the circuit is linear in nature for a fixed amplifier
gain as Vout = Vin x Gain.
• This property can be very useful for converting a
smaller sensor signal to a much larger voltage.
Non-inverting Operational Amplifier
 Non-inverting Operational Amplifier
• The second basic configuration of an operational
amplifier circuit is that of a Non-inverting Operational
Amplifier design.
• In non-inverting operational amplifier configuration,
the input voltage signal, ( VIN ) is applied directly to the
non-inverting ( + ) input terminal which means that the
output gain of the amplifier becomes “Positive” in
value in contrast to the “Inverting Amplifier” circuit we
saw in the last tutorial whose output gain is negative in
value.
• The result of this is that the output signal is “in-phase”
with the input signal.
 Amplifier Design
• Feedback control of the non-inverting operational
amplifier is achieved by applying a small part of
the output voltage signal back to the inverting (–)
input terminal via a Rƒ – R2 voltage divider
network, again producing negative feedback.
• This closed-loop configuration produces a non-
inverting amplifier circuit with very good stability,
a very high input impedance, Rin approaching
infinity, as no current flows into the positive input
terminal, (ideal conditions) and a low output
impedance, Rout as shown below.
Non-inverting Operational Amplifier
Configuration
 Amplifier Configuration Explanation
• In the previous Inverting Amplifier tutorial, we said
that for an ideal op-amp “No current flows into the
input terminal” of the amplifier and that “V1 always
equals V2”.
• This was because the junction of the input and
feedback signal ( V1 ) are at the same potential.
• In other words the junction is a “virtual earth”
summing point. Because of this virtual earth node the
resistors, Rƒ and R2 form a simple potential divider
network across the non-inverting amplifier with the
voltage gain of the circuit being determined by the
ratios of R2 and Rƒ as shown below.
Non-inverting Operational Amplifier
Gain
 Explanation
• We can see from the equation above, that the overall
closed-loop gain of a non-inverting amplifier will always be
greater but never less than one (unity), it is positive in
nature and is determined by the ratio of the values
of Rƒ and R2.
• If the value of the feedback resistor Rƒ is zero, the gain of
the amplifier will be exactly equal to one (unity). If
resistor R2 is zero the gain will approach infinity, but in
practice it will be limited to the operational amplifiers
open-loop differential gain, ( AO ).
• We can easily convert an inverting operational amplifier
configuration into a non-inverting amplifier configuration
by simply changing the input connections as shown.
Non-inverting amplifier
Thanks