1)About research skills and methodologies, have heard the term “research onion”.

2)Developed By Saunders et al in 2007

3) Breaking into bite-sized chunks

4)Research Onion:

• Describes the Different decisions you’ll need to make when developing a Research
Methodology. (dissertation-A long essay on the particular subject eg: Collage degree, thesis
or any other formal research project)
• If you work from the outside of the onion inwards, you’ll face a range of choices that progress
from high-level and philosophical to tactical and practical in nature and mimics the general
structure for the Methodology chapter
• Saunders’ research onion is certainly not perfect, it’s a useful tool for thinking
holistically about methodology
• At a minimum, it helps you understand what decisions you need to make in terms of your
Research Design and methodology.

5)The layers of Saunders’ research onion

The onion is made up of six layers, which we’ll peel back one at a time:

1. Research philosophy

2. Research approach

3. Research strategy

4. Choices

5. Time horizon

6. Techniques & procedures

1. Research Philosophy: (First Layer)

• The research philosophy is the foundation of any study as it describes the set of beliefs the
research is built upon.
• Described from either an ontological(Ontology is concerned with what is true or
real) or epistemological POV.
• In simple terms, ontology is the “what” and “how” of what we know – in other words, what
is the nature of reality and what are we really able to know and understand. For example,
does reality exist as a single objective thing, or is it different for each person? Think about the
simulated reality in the film The Matrix.
• Example: Matrix film(Reality vs. Illusion: The film explores the nature of reality and questions
what is real. The Matrix represents a simulated reality, prompting viewers to consider the
implications of technology and perception.
• Epistemology is about “how” we can obtain knowledge and come to understand things – in
other words, How can we figure out what reality is, and what the limits of this knowledge are.

Three of the main research philosophies:

 • Positivism

• Interpretivism

• Pragmatism

These three are good Starting Point

Research Philosophy 1: Positivism

• Positivist research takes the view that knowledge exists outside of what’s being studied
• Research takes place objectively, and it cannot include opinions or personal viewpoints
• It states that there is only one reality and that all meaning is consistent between subjects.
• Here Knowledge Acquired only through Empirical Research( based on measurement and
observation)
• Or viewed as posteriori knowledge (not reliant on human reasoning but instead is gained from
research)
• knowledge can only be true, false, or meaningless (If not true or false, then no longer holds
grunts DISMISSED)
• Eg: whether God exists or not? Positivism takes a look from the empirical POV,

Answer: Irrelevant , where it cannot be conclude as true/false so its meaningless.

Research Philosophy 2: Interpretivism

Interpretivism emphasises the influence that social and cultural factors can have on an
individual.
• Focuses on people’s thoughts and ideas, in light of the socio-cultural backdrop.
• Researcher needs to Play Active Role in this study to get the holistic view of
(Participant and their actions, thoughts and meanings)
• Example: If you were studying psychology, you may make use of a case study in your
research which investigates an individual with a proposed diagnosis of schizophrenia.
• The interpretivist view would come into play here as social and cultural factors may
influence the outcome of this diagnosis, you may find that the individual originates
 from India, where schizophrenic symptoms like hallucinations are viewed positively,
as they are thought to indicate that the person is a spirit medium.
• Where researcher would make use of the patient’s point of view, as well as your own
interpretation when assessing the case study.

Research Philosophy 3: Pragmatism

when you’re designing your research methodology, the first thing you need to think about is which
philosophy you’ll adopt, given the nature of your research.

• Highlights the importance of using the best tools possible to investigate phenomena.
• Its Approach research is from a practical point of view, where knowledge is not fixed,
but instead is constantly questioned and interpreted.
• pragmatism consists of an element of researcher involvement and subjectivity,
specifically when drawing conclusions based on participants’ responses and
decisions.
• It is not committed to one specific philosophy
• It is foundation of any research project and reflects the ontological and
epistemological assumptions of the researcher.
• Eg: Trolley problem, which is a set of ethical and psychological thought experiments.
participants have to decide on either killing one person to save multiple people or
allowing multiple people to die to avoid killing one person.
• such as the one person or the group of people being family members or loved ones.
Where here we can able to alter to suit the researcher’s needs is an example of
pragmatism
• (the outcome of the person doing the thought experiment is more important than
the philosophical ideas behind the experiment.)

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

2) Onion Layer 2: Research Approach

Peel off the next layer

• Broader method you’ll use for your research – inductive or deductive.

• To identify the Research Approach ,which Inform the decisions you take in terms of
data collection and analysis in your study
• Inductive approaches entail generating theories from research, rather than starting
a project with a theory as a foundation.
• Used in the study of an isolated Community, we have very little knowledge about this
community so research would have to be conducted to gain information on the
community, thus leading to the formation of theories.
• Deductive approaches, on the other hand, begin with a theory and aim to build on it
(or test it) through research.
• Deductive approach would be taken when investigating changes in the physical
properties of animals over time, as this would likely be rooted in the theory of
evolution.
• The starting point is a well-established pre-existing body of research.
 • Closely linked to research approaches are Qualitative and Quantitative research.
• Qualitative research focuses on textual, visual or audio-based data – Inductive Approach
• Quantitative research tends to reflect a deductive approach, usually informed by positivist
philosophy.
• The reason here we are using deductive approach is (Quotative) begins with the theory from
foundation and progress through hypothesis testing.
• Simpler, A wide theory is applied to particular context, event or observation to see whether
these fit in with the theory

Right Approach Steps:

1) Type of research youre going to conduct

whether your research will build on something that exists? or whether you’ll be
investigating something that cannot necessarily be rooted in previous research.

Former (First item in the list) -Deductive approach

Latter(last item in the list)- Inductive Approach

Onion Layer 3: Research Strategy

This layer of the research onion details how, based on the aims of the study, research can be
conducted.

That outside of the onion, these strategies are referred to as Research Designs.

Stratergy:

• Experimental research

• Action research

• Case study research

• Grounded theory
 • Ethnography

• Archival research

Strategy 1: Experimental research

• It asses the Relationship Between the Variables

• Experimental research involves manipulating one variable (the independent variable) to
observe a change in another variable (the dependent variable)
• The purpose of the Experimental research is to Support refuse or Validate the Research
Hypothesis
• This research strategy follows the principles of the scientific method and is conducted within
a controlled environment
• Deductive In nature- Experimental research aims to test existing theories rather than create
new ones
• Aligns with the Positivist Research Philosophy (it assumes that knowledge can only be studied
objectively and in isolation from external factors such as context or culture.)
• Eg: If you had a hypothesis that a certain brand of dog food can raise a dogs’ protein levels,
you could make use of experimental research to compare the effects of the specific brand to
a “regular” diet.

To test if a specific brand of dog food increases protein levels in dogs, you can set up an
experiment with two groups:
1. Control Group: This group eats their regular diet with no changes.
2. Experimental Group: This group is fed the specific brand of dog food you want to test.
After a set period, measure the protein levels in both groups. By comparing the results, you
can see if the specific dog food made a difference.
 Strategy 2: Action research

The simplest way of describing action research is by saying that it involves learning through…
wait for it… action.
• Action research is conducted in practical settings such as a classroom, a hospital, a
workspace, etc – as opposed to controlled environments like a lab.
• helps to inform researchers of problems or weaknesses related to interactions within
the real-world.
• qualitative studies and is rarely seen in quantitative studies(as you can see in the
above examples, action research makes use of language and interactions rather than
statistics and numbers)
• Strong Focus on the Participants PAR(the people involved in the issue being studied,
which is why it’s sometimes referred to as “participant action research” or PAR.)

Example:

Participatory Action Research (PAR) is a way to create solutions by working directly with a
community. Here’s how it works simply:

1. Researcher Idea: A researcher comes up with an idea to help the community, like a new
therapy or farming method.

2. Community Involvement: The community helps implement this idea, providing input and
support.

3. Feedback: After trying the idea, the researcher and community discuss what worked and what
didn’t.

4. Adjustments: Based on the feedback, changes are made to improve the intervention.

5. Repeat: This process continues until the solution fits the community’s needs perfectly.

In this way, both the researcher and the community collaborate to solve a problem
effectively.
Stratergy 3: Case Study Research is a detailed examination of one specific subject, like a person, group,
event, or issue. Here’s a simplified breakdown:

1. In-Depth Study: It focuses on understanding the subject deeply in its real-life context, rather
than trying to apply findings broadly.

2. Qualitative Approach: Case studies are usually qualitative, meaning they gather rich,
descriptive data rather than just numbers.

3. Context Matters: Researchers consider the social and cultural background of the subject to
better understand the findings.

4. Interpretive Perspective: The researcher’s views and insights play a key role in analyzing the
case.

Example: If studying the political views of a specific group, the research would consider
the current political climate and other factors influencing their opinions.

In short, case studies help us understand complex issues by looking closely at specific
examples.

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Stratergy 4: Grounded Theory is a research approach that focuses on letting data shape new theories.
Here’s a simple breakdown:

1. Data-Driven: Instead of starting with a theory, you gather and analyze data to develop a new
theory or framework based on what you find.

2. Useful for New Topics: This method is great for exploring issues that haven’t been studied
much before.

3. Qualitative Focus: Grounded theory is mainly qualitative, though it can use quantitative data
too. It looks for patterns and common themes in the data.

4. Inductive Approach: Researchers don’t try to fit findings into existing theories; they let the
data guide them.

Example: If you were studying the mythology of an unknown culture using artifacts, you wouldn’t start
with any preconceived ideas. Instead, you’d let the information you gather shape your understanding
and theories.

In essence, grounded theory is about building knowledge directly from the data itself.

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Stratergy 5: Ethnography is a research method focused on observing people in their everyday

environments to understand their cultural interactions. Here’s a simple overview:

1. Natural Observation: Ethnographers watch people in their normal settings to see how they
live and interact.

2. Understanding Experiences: The goal is to capture participants’ subjective experiences and

understand the world from their perspective.
 3. Cultural Focus: Ethnographers study behaviors, language, and interactions within a specific
cultural group.

4. In-Depth Insight: For example, if studying a mental health discussion board, you would analyze
the interactions to learn about the participants’ experiences.

5. Immersion: If researching an isolated Amazonian tribe, you would live among them to gain a
deeper understanding of their social behaviors, rather than just observing from afar.

Ethnography typically uses a qualitative, inductive approach and often aligns with an interpretivist
philosophy, though there can be exceptions, like quantitative ethnography. In essence, it’s about
deeply understanding a culture by immersing yourself in it.

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Streatergy 6: Archival Research involves using existing materials to gather information and draw
conclusions. Here’s a straightforward summary:

1. Existing Data: This method relies on documents and records that are already available, like
manuscripts, letters, or official records.

2. Historical Focus: It’s particularly useful for studying historical topics, allowing researchers to
analyze past events or beliefs.

3. Example: If you wanted to explore beliefs about supernatural phenomena in the medieval
period, you would look at manuscripts and records from that time to gather your data.

4. Choosing the Right Strategy: There are many research strategies to choose from, and the best
one depends on your research goals and philosophy.

In essence, archival research helps you understand the past by analyzing existing documents and
records.

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

LAYER 4:Choices in research refer to how many types of data you'll use: qualitative, quantitative,
or both. Here’s a simple breakdown:

1. Mono Method: You use just one type of data—either qualitative or quantitative. For example,
if you’re studying community opinions about a pizza restaurant, you might only gather
qualitative data through interviews.

2. Mixed Methods: You combine both qualitative and quantitative data. Using the pizza example,
you could interview people (qualitative) and also conduct a survey to find out how many
people eat certain types of pizza (quantitative).

3. Multi-Method: You use multiple approaches beyond just one of each type. For instance, if
studying a culture's archives, you might apply two qualitative methods (like thematic and
content analysis) alongside quantitative methods to analyze numerical data.

In essence, the choice of methods depends on how you want to gather and analyze your data for your
research.
LAYER5: TIME HORIZON
What’s that far in the distance? It’s the time horizon. But what exactly is it? Thankfully, this one’s pretty
straightforward.

Time Horizon in research refers to when you plan to collect your data. There are two main options:

1. Cross-Sectional: You collect data at one specific point in time. For example, if you want to
study the language of memes as it was used in 2020, you would gather data from that year
only. This approach gives you a snapshot of the language at that moment.

2. Longitudinal: You collect data over multiple points in time. For instance, if you want to study
how meme language evolves, you might gather data weekly or monthly over several months
or years. This approach helps you track changes and trends over time.

When choosing a time horizon, consider your research goals and how much time you have to complete
your study, especially if it’s for a thesis or dissertation.

Eg:

Imagine that you’re wasting time on social media and think, “Ooh! I want to study the language of
memes and how this language evolves over time”. For this study, you’d need to collect data over
multiple points in time – perhaps over a few weeks, months, or even years. Therefore, you’d make use
of a longitudinal time horizon. highly beneficial when studying changes and progressions over time.

you wanted to study the language used in memes at a certain point in time (for example, in 2020),
you’d make use of a cross-sectional time horizon. This is where data is collected at one point in time,
so you wouldn’t be gathering data to see how language changes, but rather what language exists at a
snapshot point in time. The type of data collected could be qualitative, quantitative or a mix of both,
as the focus is on the time of collection, not the data type.

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

LAYER6: Techniques and Procedures are the final layer of the research onion, where you make
practical choices about how to conduct your research. Here’s a simple breakdown:

1. Data Collection Methods: Decide how you’ll gather your data. Will you use surveys,
interviews, observations, or another method?

2. Sampling: Choose how you’ll select participants. Options include:

o Snowball sampling: Participants refer others.

o Random sampling: Everyone has an equal chance of being selected.

o Convenience sampling: You select participants who are easy to reach.

3. Data Analysis: Determine how you’ll analyze the data to answer your research questions. This
could involve content analysis, statistical methods, or other techniques.

4. Materials Preparation: Set up what you need for your study, like writing questions for surveys
or interviews.

It's crucial that these choices align with all the previous layers of the onion—your research philosophy,
approach, strategy, choices, and time horizon.
Example: If you're using a deductive, quantitative approach, you might choose surveys to collect
numerical data instead of interviews, which are more qualitative. Your decisions should support your
overall research goals.