1.

Introduction: Emergence of Pakistan

 Pakistan came into existence on 14th August 1947 after the partition of the Indian
subcontinent into two sovereign states: Pakistan and India.
 Initially, Pakistan comprised two separate regions: West Pakistan and East Pakistan.
 In December 1971, East Pakistan separated and became an independent state, Bangladesh.

2. Location of Pakistan

 Geographical Coordinates:

o Pakistan is located between latitudes 24° 35' north and 37° 05' north.
o It extends from longitude 61° east to 78° east.

 Total Area:
o The total area of Pakistan is 796,096 square km.
o Pakistan stretches over 1600 km from north to south and about 885 km from east
to west.

3. Bordering Countries

 Northern Borders:
o Pakistan shares a 585 km border with China.
 Western Borders:

o A 2252 km border with Afghanistan is known as the Durand Line.

o Wakhan Corridor in Afghanistan separates Pakistan from Tajikistan in the
northwest.
o Pakistan also has a common border with Iran to the southwest.

 Eastern Borders:

o Pakistan shares a long border with India.

 Southern Borders:

o The Arabian Sea forms Pakistan’s southern border.

 Summary of Borders:

o Pakistan’s borders with Afghanistan and India are longer than those with Iran and
China.

4. Provinces of Pakistan
  Pakistan is divided into four provinces: Punjab, Sindh, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, and
Balochistan.

5. Strategic Importance of Pakistan’s Location

 Key Position in South Asia:

o Pakistan enjoys a strategically important position both economically and

geopolitically in South Asia.

 Limited Land Links:

o Large mountain ranges and climatic conditions restrict land links to the north and
north-west.

 Key Routes for Trade and Communication:

o The Khyber Pass provides a vital route to Afghanistan.

o The Karakoram Highway has improved communication with China.

 Seaports and Trade:

o Karachi and Gwadar seaports serve as important trading points for landlocked
northern and northwestern regions.

 Central Coastline:

o Pakistan’s coastline on the Arabian Sea serves as a central hub for maritime trade
with South Asia, the Far East, and the Middle East.

6. Role of Pakistan’s Air Routes

 Air Routes Between East and West:

o Some international air routes between West and East pass through Pakistan due to
its central position.

 Importance of Jinnah Terminal, Karachi:

o Jinnah Terminal in Karachi holds significant potential as an international airport,

though underutilized due to Dubai’s dominance in the region.

7. Pakistan and China’s Growing Trade Relations

 Economic Influence of China:

 o China has become a global economic power and a significant trading partner for
Pakistan.
o China is investing in 70 countries across Asia, Europe, and Africa, focusing on
improving trade connections.

 Influx of Chinese Goods:

o Pakistan has increased trade with China, but the inflow of low-cost Chinese goods
has led to increased competition for Pakistan’s domestic industry.

8. China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC)

 Belt and Road Initiative (BRI):

o The Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) involves building motorways, railways, pipelines,
ports, and bridges to speed up international trade and communication.

 CPEC Overview:

o An economic corridor is being developed to connect Kashgar (China) with Gwadar

(Pakistan).
o Gwadar will be home to a new deepwater port, playing a crucial role in Pakistan-
China trade.

The Natural Topography of Pakistan

1. Pakistan’s Topographical Divisions

Pakistan is divided into six major topographical areas:
1. Northern and North-Western Mountains
2. Western Mountains
3. Balochistan Plateau
4. Potwar Plateau and Salt Range
5. Indus Plain
6. Desert Areas

The Northern and North-Western Mountains

1. Three Major Mountain Ranges

1. Karakoram Range
2. Himalayas
3. Hindu Kush Range

a) Karakoram Range

 Average Altitude: Approximately 6000 m.

 Location and Extent:
Extends over 400 km from Hunza to the Shyok River, with the western end in Pakistan. The
range runs east-west, creating rugged, sharp peaks and deep valleys.
  Notable Features:
o K-2, the second-highest peak in the world (8611 m).
o Main form of precipitation is snow due to altitude.
o Glaciers are common in the upper regions.
 Human Activity and Population:

o Low population density due to harsh climate.

o Semi-nomadic way of life.
o Agriculture is possible in valleys with abundant water (main crops: apples, barley,
millet).
o Cattle breeding is common.

 Tourism and Development:

o Famous among scientists and mountaineers.

o Karakoram Highway has boosted cultural and economic progress.

b) The Himalayas

 Average Altitude: About 4000 m.

 Location and Extent:
Located south of the Karakoram Range, stretching 2500 km east-west.
 Divisions of the Himalayas:

o Siwaliks: Low-altitude hills (600-1200 m) near Attock.

o Lesser/Outer Himalayas: Medium altitude (1800-4500 m), includes Pir Panjal range.
o Central Himalayas: Lies mostly in Kashmir with higher peaks like Nanga Parbat
(8126 m).

 Notable Features:

o Glaciers and snow-capped peaks are characteristic.

o Popular tourist destinations include Murree, Nathia Gali, Ghora Gali.

c) The Hindu Kush Range

 Average Altitude: About 5000 m.

 Location and Extent:
The range runs north-south along the borders of Pakistan, Afghanistan, and China.
 Notable Features:

o Tirich Mir, highest peak (7690 m).

o Significant historical and military passes, such as Shandur Pass, Shangla Pass, and
Lawarai Pass.

 Human Activity:

o Limited vegetation except for areas like Swat, Kohistan, Panjkora Valley, and Dir.
o Rice cultivated on terraced fields in Swat, Chitral, and Dir.

The Mountain Valleys

Several valleys in the Northern Mountains are popular tourist destinations:

  Swat (Hindu Kush)
 Chitral (Hindu Kush)
 Dir (Hindu Kush)
 Gilgit (Karakoram)
 Hunza (Karakoram)
 Baltistan (Karakoram)
 Murree & Gallies (Himalayas)
 Kaghan (Himalayas)

Geological Hazards in the Mountains

 Landslides: Movement of rocks and soil down slopes.

 Avalanches: Huge masses of snow moving down the slopes.

Importance of the Northern Mountains

1. Water Supply: Snow-capped peaks melt in summer, supplying water to the Indus River and
its tributaries, irrigating the Indus Plain.
2. Climate Regulation: The mountains protect Pakistan from the cold winds of Central Asia,
keeping temperatures in the upper Indus Plain above freezing point.
3. Historical Passes: Important passes connect Pakistan to China and Afghanistan.
4. Resources:

o Minerals, timber, fruits.

o Provide raw materials for industries (furniture, paper, chipboard, etc.).

5. Natural Border: Form a natural border with China and Central Asia.
6. Tourism: Scenic beauty supports a robust tourism industry, a key source of local income in
summer.

People and Economy in the Northern Mountains

1. Harsh Living Conditions:

o Variations in topography lead to difficult living conditions, limiting movement and

communication.
o Low economic growth and high population growth hinder per capita income
improvement.

2. Agriculture:

o Subsistence farming is common (wheat, rice, barley, maize).

o Agriculture is practised on terraced fields.
o In winter, people engage in small-scale industries (carpet making, handicrafts).

3. Mineral and Industrial Development:

o Minerals are unexplored.

o Potential for hydroelectric power, but capital and skilled labour are lacking.

4. Tourism:
 o Popular among tourists, but sometimes exceeds the infrastructure capacity.
o Improved road transport may enhance tourism and resource exploration.

Environmental Issues in the Northern Mountains

1. Deforestation and Soil Erosion:

o Deforestation and overgrazing lead to soil erosion.

2. Increased Deforestation:

o Demand for firewood and construction has raised deforestation levels.

3. Impact of Roads:

o Road construction has accelerated deforestation and increased landslide risks.

4. Water Pollution:

o Pollution of streams by waste and sewage has led to waterborne diseases

(dysentery, cholera, etc.).

Glaciers of the Northern Mountains

1. Major Glaciers:

o Baltoro Glacier: 58 km
o Batura Glacier: 58 km
o Siachen Glacier: 78 km (one of the largest in the world).

2. Glacial Action:

o Glaciers cause erosion, transportation, and deposition of soil and rocks.

o Glaciated landscapes show U-shaped valleys, snowfields, and cirques (e.g., Saif ul
Muluk Lake).

Drainage Features of the Northern Mountains

1. Indus River System:

o The Indus originates from Lake Manasarovar in the Karakoram and is fed by glaciers
from the Karakorams and Hindu Kush.
o Important tributaries include the Ravi, Jhelum, Chenab, Sutlej, and Beas from the
Himalayas.
o The rivers form features like gorges, waterfalls, and rapids during their journey
through the mountains.

1. Western Mountains

 The Western Mountains consist of several parallel ranges.

 They are generally lower in height than the Northern Mountains.
1.1 Mountain Ranges in the Western Mountains:

 Safed Koh Range:

o Height: Up to 4712 metres.

o Location: South of the Kabul River.
o Physical Features: Snow-capped peaks, limestone ridges.
o Importance: Kurram Pass provides a route into Afghanistan.

 Waziristan Hills:
o Height: Up to 3513 metres.
o Location: Between the Kurram and Gomal Rivers.
o Physical Features: Highly mineralized zone, devoid of vegetation.
o Importance: Forms a barrier between Pakistan and Afghanistan. Contains the Bannu
Valley (important military centre).
 Sulaiman Range:

o Height: Up to 3383 metres (highest peak: Takht-i-Sulaiman).

o Location: West of River Indus in southern Punjab.
o Physical Features: Composed of limestone, sandstone, and shaly rocks.
o Importance: Separates the Balochistan plateau from the Indus plain; blocks western
depressions from reaching central Pakistan.

 Kirthar Range:

o Height: Up to 2174 metres.

o Location: West of the River Indus in Sindh.
o Physical Features: Drained by the Hab and Lyari rivers, low vegetation due to limited
rainfall.
o Importance: Forms a border between the Sindh plain and the Balochistan plateau.

2. Passes of the Western Mountains

 Khyber Pass: Wide enough to allow troop passage; leads to the Vale of Peshawar.
 Kurram Pass: Provides a route into Afghanistan.
 Tochi Pass: Connects Ghazni in Afghanistan to Bannu.
 Gomal Pass: Connects Afghanistan to the Derajats.
 Bolan Pass: Connects Karachi-Sibi plain to Quetta.

3. Valleys of the Western Mountains:

 Kohat Valley:

o Location: At the end of the Kurram Pass.

o Physical Features: Springs and limestone ridges.
o Economic Activity: Cultivated using irrigation (wheat, rice, and sugarcane are grown).

 Vale of Peshawar:
 o Drained by the Rivers Kabul and Swat.
o Physical Features: Fertile, alluvial plain irrigated by canals from the Warsak Dam on
the Kabul River.

 Bannu Valley:

o Location: East of the Waziristan Hills, near the Tochi Pass.

o Physical Features: Low-lying basin bordered by hills and mountains, drained by
streams with braided channels.
o Economic Activity: The Kurram Dam on the Kurram River is the main source of
irrigation.

4. Economic Activities and Lifestyle in the Western Mountains:

 Climate and Relief:

o The region is mostly bare of vegetation due to harsh climate and rugged landscape.
o Farming is not supported by the climate and relief.

 Transportation:

o Limited transportation facilities due to mountainous terrain.

o Only a few urban centers, like Peshawar and Kohat, are accessible by air or rail.
o Main roads (metalled) are few, while most roads are unmetalled.
o The Bolan Pass provides road and rail links between Quetta and Punjab/Sindh, with
trains passing through 21 tunnels.

 Infrastructure and Living Conditions:

o The rugged landscape increases the cost of providing infrastructure (water,

transport, electricity, and communications).
o Few industrial, educational, or mining projects exist, adversely affecting the lifestyle
of the inhabitants.
o Lifestyle: A nomadic lifestyle is common, with sheep and goat rearing being the
main occupation.
o Population Density: Less than 100 persons per square kilometer.

 Mineral Resources:

o The region has abundant mineral resources but they remain unexplored due to the
difficulty of extraction.

Mountain Building Process & Fold Mountains

Definition of Tectonics:

o The term "tectonics" is derived from the Greek word "tekton," meaning builder.
o Plate Tectonics Theory explains Earth's surface made of rigid lithospheric plates
floating on the asthenosphere (a soft layer of the mantle about 35 km below the
crust).
 o Movement in the asthenosphere causes constant motion of these plates, explaining
processes like continental drift, mountain formation, earthquakes, and volcanic
activity.
o Most tectonic activity occurs at the plate edges or margins.

Mountain Formation:

o A mountain is defined as an elevated area of ground higher than 1000 meters.

o Mountains are formed over millions of years as sections of Earth's crust are thrust,
folded, and broken, pushing up rocks to form new mountains.
o Fold Mountains in Pakistan:

 To the north, northwest, and west of Pakistan are three ranges of fold
mountains.
 These mountains formed from the squeezing and folding of the Earth's
plates, which raised the sediment layers from the Sea of Tethys.
 Sedimentary layers mainly consist of sandstone, with some areas
containing limestone, formed from the accumulation of shells and bones of
sea creatures.
 Earthquakes occurred during this process due to the weakening of the
Earth's crust, though volcanoes, typically associated with fold mountains,
are absent in the Himalayas.

Effects of Weathering and Sedimentation:

 Since their formation, weathering by rain, wind, and ice has worn away the rocks of these
mountains.
 Rivers have deposited large amounts of sediment into the plains, with some deposits
estimated to be 2000 meters deep.

Earthquakes:

Causes of Earthquakes:

o Earthquakes occur due to the movement of Earth's tectonic plates, which build up
stress until it is released in the form of an earthquake.
o On October 8, 2005, a devastating earthquake with a magnitude of 7.6 hit the India-
Pakistan border, affecting northern Pakistan, Kashmir, Afghanistan, and northern
India.
o Northern Pakistan, including Kashmir, lies in the collision zone of the Eurasian and
Indian tectonic plates, making the area prone to earthquakes.

Physical Impacts of the 2005 Earthquake:

o The earthquake caused landslides, deep cracks, and faults in northern Pakistan.
o Heavy snowfall and rainstorms deepened these cracks, altering the landscape.
o Volcanic eruptions in some areas released toxic chemicals, contaminating the soil
and groundwater.

Human Impacts:
 o Extensive loss of life and destruction of infrastructure (buildings, roads, bridges,
hospitals, schools, etc.).
o Many areas, like Balakot, were almost completely destroyed.
o Survivors faced harsh conditions, leading to mass migration to lowland areas and
government relief camps.
o Economic and emotional losses resulted in widespread social problems, including
disease outbreaks due to poor living conditions.

Economic Impact:

o The earthquake severely burdened Pakistan’s economy by necessitating emergency

relief and rehabilitation measures.
o Tourism was halted, and foreign loans increased Pakistan's debt burden.
o Inflow of humanitarian aid provided some relief to the economic strain.

The Balochistan Plateau:

Location & Physical Features:

o The Balochistan Plateau, covering 347,190 sq. km, is located in southwestern

Pakistan with elevations between 600 and 3010 meters.
o The region contains numerous topographical features like the Zhob and Loralai
basins, surrounded by mountain ranges like the Toba Kakar and Sulaiman Ranges.

Northern Balochistan Basins:

o Rivers form narrow channels during infrequent rainfalls, depositing gravel, sand,
and silt.
o Alluvial fans are formed in the piedmont plains from river deposition.

Western Balochistan Basins:

o This region has basins between mountain ranges like the Chagai Hills, Ras Koh,
Siahan, and Central Makran.
o The area is barren with very little vegetation and rainfall.
o The basins are inland drainage areas where water gathers in temporary lakes
(hamuns) that dry up, leaving salt pans, like Hamun-i-Mashkel in the Kharan Desert.

Coastal Areas:

o The eastern coastal area is the Lasbela Plain, marked by gravel and sand dunes.
o The western part is the Makran Coast, where mountain ranges project into the sea,
forming a narrow coastal plain.
o Rivers like the Hab, Porali, Hingol, and Dasht flow into the Arabian Sea.

Water Resources in Balochistan:

 Water Scarcity:
 o Balochistan faces a scarcity of drinking and irrigation water due to the lack of a
major water source.
o The province relies on small water schemes like the karez system, flood diversion
channels, and a limited number of tubewells.

Economic Potential of Balochistan:

Agriculture and Livestock:

o About 67% of Balochistan’s labor force is engaged in crop farming and livestock
raising.
o The per capita income in Balochistan in 2018 was US$4628, higher than in Khyber
Pakhtunkhwa and Sindh, but lower than Punjab.

Natural Resources:

o The Balochistan Plateau is rich in mineral resources, especially in the Chagai Hills,
which contain deposits of copper, gold, and sulfur.
o Exploration of these resources is ongoing.

Transport & Communication:

o The road network has improved significantly in the 21st century, enhancing the
province’s connectivity.
o The Makran Coastal Highway links Karachi with Gwadar Port, potentially boosting
economic development.

Economic Wealth of Balochistan

a) Mineral Resources

Richness in Minerals:

1. Balochistan is abundant in mineral resources.

2. The Saindak Copper-Gold Project is a significant mineral project.

Coal Mines:

1. Balochistan has numerous coal mines.

2. Over 80% of the population in certain areas is employed in coal mining.
3. A significant portion of the coal is sold to factories in Punjab.

Potential Mineral Resources:

1. Antimony and Gold deposits have been identified in Punjgore and Kharan districts.
 Natural Gas and Crude Oil:

1. Balochistan has appreciable deposits of crude oil and natural gas.

2. Approximately 46% of Pakistan’s gas supply comes from Sui, located at the edge of
the Lower Indus Plain.

b) Agriculture

i) Fruit Production:

Main Fruits Grown:

1. Dates, grapes, apples, almonds, apricots, plums, peaches, melons, and

pomegranates are the primary fruits produced.

Fruit Trade:

1. About 75% of total fruit production is transported to other provinces.

2. Karachi is the largest market for Balochistan’s fruits.

Export:

1. Apples, grapes, apricots, melons, peaches, plums, and pomegranates are exported
to the Gulf States.

ii) Vegetable Seed Industry:

Climatic Suitability:

1. The uplands of Balochistan, with their long, cold winters, are ideal for growing
vegetable seeds.
2. Warm, dry summers promote extensive flowering and high-quality seed formation.

iii) Livestock and Products:

Nomadic Livestock Farming:

1. Due to scarce rainfall and irrigation, nomadic farming is common.

2. Key products include wool, goat hair, and skins.

Exports:

1. Livestock products are exported after fulfilling domestic requirements.

2. A government grading scheme ensures quality exports.
c) Fishing

Fishing Ports:

1. Balochistan has three main fishing ports: Gwadar, Pasni, and Ormara.
2. Most of the catch is consumed locally; around 30% is exported to EU countries.

Export Markets:

1. Additional export markets include Japan, China, Malaysia, South Korea, Sri Lanka,
Singapore, and the USA.

Future Prospects
Mineral Resources:

1. Further exploration of Balochistan's mineral resources is ongoing, such as in the

Saindak Copper-Gold Project.

Livestock:

1. Sheep and goat products are exportable, though there is room for improvement in
quality and quantity.

Gwadar Deep-Sea Port:

1. The port is being developed under the Belt and Road Initiative.
2. Plans include 100 berths for container ships, capable of handling 400 million tonnes
of cargo per year.
3. Infrastructure development includes a new international airport and a six-lane
expressway linking the port to the Makran Coastal Highway.

Fish Processing:

1. New technology and higher standards in fish processing have opened up additional
export markets.

The Potwar Plateau and the Salt Range

Location:

1. Located south of Islamabad, between the River Indus and River Jhelum.
2. Features open, undulating land with flat areas.
 Elevation:

1. Average height is 300-600 metres.

2. Residual hills, like Kala Chitta and Khairi Murat, rise to over 1000 metres.

Topography:

1. The region is characterized by badland topography, with ridges, ravines, and

troughs due to erosion by water.
2. The Soan River dominates the drainage system, forming gullies and alluvial plains
used for agriculture.

Key Topographical Features of the Potwar Plateau:

Residual Hills:

1. These are hard, resistant rocks left behind after erosion.

Ravines and Rivers:

1. Small rivers erode land, forming ravines, particularly during the rainy season.

Troughs and Depressions:

1. Formed by the erosion of softer rocks by wind and water.

Dissected and Faulted Land:

1. The land shows cracks from the uplift of the Northern Mountains during the
mountain-building process.

Deep Ravines:

1. Running water carves deep ravines in less resistant rock.

The Salt Range

Location:

1. Covers Jhelum, Chakwal, Kalabagh, and Mianwali districts.

2. Named for the salt mines located at Khewra, about 160 km from Islamabad.

Elevation:

1. Ranges between 750-900 metres; Sakesar Peak is the highest point at 1527 metres.

Mineral Composition:

1. Rich in rock salt, gypsum, and limestone.

 Scenic Beauty:

1. Lakes such as Kallar Kahar and Khabeki are popular tourist attractions.

Economic Activity and Lifestyle in the Potwar

Plateau
Non-Metallic Minerals:

1. The region is rich in limestone, marble, rock salt, clays, dolomite, and soapstone,
essential for cement, ceramics, and chemical industries.

Oil and Gas Fields:

1. Oilfields are located here, and the Attock Oil Refinery processes oil extracted from
the Potwar Plateau.

Agriculture:

1. Farming relies on rainfall; crops include wheat, maize, barley, and gram.

Accessibility:

1. The region is well-connected by road, rail, and air.

2. Urban settlements like Rawalpindi/Islamabad, Chakwal, and Jhelum are developed,
with a higher population density.

The Indus Plain

 Location and Overview

o The River Indus and its tributaries drain most of Punjab and central Sindh.
o The Indus Plain is divided into the Upper Indus Plain (north) and Lower Indus Plain
(south).
o In the Upper Indus Plain, the main tributaries (including the Beas which joins Sutlej
in India) join together by the Panjnad.
o The Panjnad flows 72 km before joining the Indus near Mithankot.
o The general slope of the plain towards the sea is gentle with a gradient of 1 metre
per 5 kilometres.
o Below Mithankot in Sindh, the Indus flows as a massive river till it meets the Arabian
Sea.

Natural Topographical Features of the Indus Plain

Active Flood Plains

o Narrow strips on either side of the river, locally known as bet or khaddar land.
o Inundated almost every year, rich in alluvium, featuring meanders, oxbow lakes,
and levees.
o Indus floodplain is around 40 km wide in the Lower Indus Plain, making it an
important farming area.
 Old Flood Plains

o Located between the alluvial terraces and active flood plains.

o Flooded only during heavy monsoon rainfall.
o Covered with old alluvium, featuring abandoned channels, meander scars, and
remains of oxbows.

Alluvial Terraces

o Higher ground areas between rivers formed by the erosion of old alluvium.
o Prominent terraces in Upper Indus Plain include Sandal Bar, Ganji Bar, Nili Bar, and
Kirana Bar.
o The terraces are flat, south-west sloping, and suitable for agriculture with irrigation.

Piedmont Plains

o Located at the foothills of the Sulaiman, Kirthar, and Himalayan Mountains.

o Characterized by alluvial fans formed by the slow-moving rivers and streams from
these ranges.
o Agricultural plains like Derajat (Sulaiman Piedmont plain) are significant in the
region.

Tidal Delta

o Located south of Thatta, forming a fan-shaped Indus Delta where the river meets
the Arabian Sea.
o Contains tidal flats and mangrove swamps.
o Low population density due to swampy land, saline soil, and low annual rainfall.
o The delta is shrinking due to reduced water and sediment flow from upstream,
causing sea intrusion.

Rolling Sand Plains and Cuestas

o Located in the Lower Indus Plain, featuring cuestas like Rohri Cuesta and Ganjo
Takkar Cuesta.
o These ridges of limestone provide a firm foundation for constructing barrages and
add to the scenic landscape.

Economic Activities in the Indus Plain

Agriculture

o The Indus Plain is the most productive region of Pakistan, contributing more than
80% of cultivated land.
o The flat and fertile land supports crops like cotton, rice, sugarcane, and wheat.
o The extensive canal irrigation system is crucial for farming.
 Industrial and Infrastructure Development

o Industrial goods are produced using local raw materials (cotton, sugar, chemicals)
and have a domestic and foreign market.
o The region has a dense transport network (road, rail, air) and electricity supply in
both urban and rural areas.

Upper Indus Plain

 Location: Northern part of the Indus Plain.

 Rivers: Indus and its major tributaries (Jhelum, Ravi, Sutlej, Chenab) form the Panjnad.
 Topography: Nearly flat, undulating plain with south-west slope.
 Features:

o Erosion and deposition are common, with deposition increasing southwards.

o Meanders, oxbow lakes, braided channels, levees, and alluvial terraces are present.
o Piedmont Plains with alluvial fans to the north and west.

 Agriculture: Ideal due to the well-developed canal irrigation system.

Lower Indus Plain

 Location: Southern part of the Indus Plain.

 River: The Indus flows alone into the Arabian Sea through its distributaries.
 Topography: Nearly flat undulating plain with a southward slope.
 Features:

o Deposition is the main process.

o Meanders, oxbow lakes, and braided channels are present.
o Alluvial terraces are absent as the river flows alone.
o Piedmont Plains to the west.

 Agriculture: Excellent due to irrigation.

Desert Areas of Pakistan

Overview of Desert Regions

 Pakistan is home to three distinct desert areas:

o Sindh Sagar Doab or Thal Desert: Located between the River Indus and the River
Jhelum.
o Thar Desert (South-Eastern Desert): Situated in south-eastern Pakistan, comprising
three main subdivisions:
 Cholistan
 Nara
 Tharparkar (Thar)
o Kharan Desert: Another significant desert region.
Environmental Characteristics

 Role of Winds: Winds are the primary agents shaping the landscape of desert areas,
continually altering the environment.
 Main Features:
o Presence of sand dunes
o Erosion of rocks
o Sparse vegetation
 Climatic Conditions:

o Scanty rainfall
o Low water table

Formation of Sand Dunes

Definition and Formation

 Sand Dune: A mound or ridge of sand formed when obstacles disrupt the flow of moving
sand, leading to deposition.
 Accumulation Process: Sand collects behind both low and large obstacles, allowing dunes to
grow and shift over time.

Types of Sand Dunes

 Predominantly longitudinal dunes due to the prevailing wind direction, although some
latitudinal dunes can also be observed.

Impact of Irrigation

 Irrigation has enabled the reclamation of certain desert areas for agricultural use.

Desert Landscape and Life

Cholistan Desert

 Represents a typical desert landscape, where life is heavily influenced by the harsh
environment.
 Challenges for Inhabitants:

o Scarcity of water
o Constant erosion from strong winds

 Settlement Patterns:

o The arid conditions discourage settled agriculture, leading desert inhabitants to

adopt nomadic lifestyles, migrating with livestock.

Human Activities
  Cultural Aspects: Photograph depicts women selling milk in Cholistan, alongside a resting
camel and folded tents.

Topographical and Relief Features of the Thar Desert

Geographical Characteristics

 Sand Plains (Pattis): Strips of sand shaped by wind action.

 Gently Undulating Plains: Soft hills and valleys formed by wind erosion.
 Sand Dunes: Both longitudinal and latitudinal ridges of sand.
 Interdunal Valleys: Areas between sand dunes filled with silty and clayey sediments,
beneficial for cultivation.
 Barren Rock Formations: Result from water scarcity.
 Weathering Effects: Visible cracks in rocks due to weathering processes.
 Rolling Sand Hills: Characteristic of the Thar Desert terrain.

Agricultural Potential

 Desert areas can be transformed into productive land through irrigation.

 The Thar Desert has seen significant agricultural conversion through canals from the Sukkur
Barrage on the Indus River.

Water Conservation Techniques

Underground Water Storage

 Locally crafted underground tanks made from local materials to store rainwater.
 Construction Method:

o A cemented, dish-shaped yard collects rainwater during the annual rainy season.
o Water seeps through a small hole into the tank below.

 Water Preservation: The tank maintains cool temperatures to minimize evaporation,

ensuring relatively pure water is accessible through a lid for drinking and cooking purposes.