PV Systems NED

Download as pdf or txt
Download as pdf or txt
You are on page 1of 60

11/23/2023

Lecture on Lecture’s Outline


PV System, Net-metering and Wiring and • About ASURE Centre
PV Panels Testing • PV System
• Parts of Solar Module
• Solar PV System design
Trainer • Net-metering and Wiring
Dr. Muhammad Mohsin Aman • PV Panels Testing as per IEC 61215 standard
Director • Cable Sizing
Centre of Advanced Studies in Renewable Energy, • Experiments
NED University of Engineering and Technology.

1 2
1

1 2

My Introduction
• Dr. Muhammad Mohsin Aman

Associate Professor (Department of Electrical Engineering)


Co-Chairperson (Department of Electrical Engineering)
Director (Centre of Advanced Studies in Renewable Energy)
NED University of Engineering and Technology, Karachi, Pakistan),
Certified (ISO 50001 EnMS, Lead Energy Auditor)
Senior Member (IEEE),
Professional Engineer (PEC),
Member Local Council IEP,
Member Local Council IEEEP

3 4

3 4

About ASURE Centre About ASURE Centre


• ASURE Centre - Centre of Advanced Studies in Renewable • What do we do?
Energy 2. Load Assessment and Energy Audit
• What do we do? 3. System Studies
1. Testing of Solar Panels ▪ Load Flow Studies and Short Circuit Studies
• PV-IV Curve at STC, ▪ Protection Coordination Study
• EL Test, ▪ Reactive Power Capability
• PID Test, ▪ Arc Flash Analysis
• PV/IV curve on-site, ▪ Motor Starting Analysis
• LID test,
• Peel-off test,
• Mechanical load test

5 6

5 6

Dr. Muhammad Mohsin Aman 1


11/23/2023

Exercise
• Site Assessment
1. Download Magnetic Compass
2. Find-out the dimension of the area.
3. Mark hindrances
4. Find-out the dimension of hindrances.

About Earth

7 8

7 8

About Earth About Earth


• The Sun, the Moon, the planets, and the stars all rise in • Earth spins -- toward the east.
the east and set in the west. And that's because Earth spins -- • Earth takes 12 months to orbit the sun . It's called a year.
toward the east.

West

East

9 10

9 10

About Earth About Earth


• The red pointer in a compass is a magnet and it's being • East-north-west-south (ENWS)
attracted by Earth's own magnetism (sometimes called
the geomagnetic field—"geo" simply means Earth).
• Earth's magnetic north pole is actually the south pole of the
magnet inside Earth

11 12

11 12

Dr. Muhammad Mohsin Aman 2


11/23/2023

Days of the year


• All days of the year are not equal in length (day and night).
• Every country has its own seasons – summer, winter, autumn,
spring.
• Twice a year, halfway between summer and winter, the Sun
rises exactly in the east and sets exactly in the west (well,
Days of the year nearly exactly, in both cases).
• On the days when this happen, day and night are very nearly
equal in length, and that time of year is therefore called
"equinox."
• One equinox happens in the fall ("autumnal equinox") and
one in the spring ("vernal equinox," "ver" is Latin for spring).
• Spring equinox on March 20
• Autumnal equinox on September 22
13 14

13 14

Days of the year


Autumn (Fall) Equinox in between June to December • As fall advances towards winter, the location of sunrise moves
Spring Equinox in between December to June towards the south, as does the location of sunset.
• The steepness of the curve traced by the Sun does not change,
nor does the rate ("speed") with which the Sun appears to
move along it, but the length of the curve changes, it becomes
shorter.

16

15 16

Days of the year Solstice


• Around December 21 --the "winter solstice" halfway between • Solstice refers to a day with either the longest day or the
the equinox dates (typically, September 23 and March 21) shortest.
sunrise and sunset are as far south as they can go (at any one • The two solstices in a year are:
location). 1. Winter solstice on December 22
• As a result, the Sun has its shortest path for the year, the day is 2. Summer solstice on June 21
at its shortest and night is at its longest. Other days of that • As the earth orbits around the sun in an elliptical path, its tilted
season are short, too, which is one reason for the colder axis results in the sunlight reaching the earth’s surface at
weather in winter. various angles. This is the reason why the length of days and
nights vary and are not the same anywhere in the world. In this
article, we look at the various differences between equinox and
solstice.

17 18

17 18

Dr. Muhammad Mohsin Aman 3


11/23/2023

Equinox
• Equinox refers to a day with an equal duration of day and
night. We have two equinoxes in a year which are:
1. Spring equinox on March 20
2. Autumnal equinox on September 22

19 20

19 20

Hemisphere
• Hemi= Half
• Sphere is a 3D shape

Hemisphere

• a hemisphere is a three-dimensional shape that is half of a


sphere with one flat, circular side, which also known as a face.

21 22

21 22

Hemisphere Hemisphere
• Other examples of hemispheres include a football, and an earth • a

23 24

23 24

Dr. Muhammad Mohsin Aman 4


11/23/2023

Hemisphere Hemisphere
• The Northern Hemisphere is the half of Earth that is north of • Pakistan lies in the northern hemisphere.
the Equator.
• For other planets in the Solar System, north is defined as being
in the same celestial hemisphere relative to the invariable
plane of the solar system as Earth's North Pole.

25 26

25 26

Hemisphere
• In the northern hemisphere, the sun rises from the east and set
on the west but the trajectory of the sun is more towards the
south. Therefore, the general rule for solar panel placement is,
solar panels should face true south (and in the southern, true
north).

Latitude and Longitude

27 28

27 28

Latitude and Longitude Latitude and Longitude


• Any point on Earth can be defined by the intersection of its • Latitude is measured as the angle from the equator, to the
lines of latitude and longitude. Earth’s center, to your position on the Earth’s surface (Figure).
It is expressed as degrees north or south of the equator (0
degree), with the poles at a latitude of 90 degree. Thus the
poles are referred to as high latitude, while the equatorial
region is considered low latitude.
• The latitude of a point on the Earth’s surface is determined by
the angle (ø) between the point and the equator, passing
through Earth’s center.

29 30

29 30

Dr. Muhammad Mohsin Aman 5


11/23/2023

Latitude Longitude
• Lines of equal latitude are always the same distance apart, and • Longitude measures the distance east or west of an imaginary
so they are called parallels of latitude; they never converge. reference point, the prime meridian (0 deg), which is now
However, the circles created by the parallels of latitude do get defined as the line passing through Greenwich, England.
smaller as they approach the poles. • Your longitude represents the angle east or west between your
location, the center of the Earth, and the prime meridian.

31 32

31 32

Placement of Solar Panels


• A solar panel will harness the most power when the Sun's rays
hit its surface perpendicularly.
• Some solar arrays follow the Sun using solar tracking systems
which significantly increase energy production.
• In the northern hemisphere, the general rule for solar panel
Placement of Solar Panels placement is, solar panels should face true south (and in the
southern, true north).

33 34

33 34

Placement of Solar Panels


• This diagram depicts the relationship between the hour angle
and local solar time in the Northern Hemisphere.
• Note that the solar irradiance pattern is same as solar path.

PV Systems

35 36

35 36

Dr. Muhammad Mohsin Aman 6


11/23/2023

PV systems PV systems
• The two general categories of PV systems are grid-connected • Types of photovoltaic systems
PV systems and off-grid PV systems. a. PV direct;
• Grid-connected PV systems are further split into b. PV stand-alone;
1. Distributed PV Systems and c. Grid TIE without battery;
2. Central PV systems, d. Grid TIE with battery backup
• while off-grid PV systems can be separated into
1. stand-alone systems (with or without battery) and
2. mini- or micro-grids.

37 38

37 38

PV systems PV systems
• Types of photovoltaic systems • This is a typical layout of the solar system integrated with the
a. PV direct; grid.
b. PV stand-alone;
c. Grid TIE without battery;
d. Grid TIE with battery backup

39 40

39 40

PV systems PV systems
• This is a typical layout of the solar system integrated with the • The power generation unit of a PV
grid. plant is the PV array, which
consists of the PV modules.
• A PV module, in turn, consists of
several PV cells connected in series
and/or parallel.

41 42

41 42

Dr. Muhammad Mohsin Aman 7


11/23/2023

PV systems PV systems
• A battery is required to store the energy, generated by sun. • Traditionally solar cells are connected in series within a
• An inverter is required to convert the direct current from the module and these modules make a serial connection known as
PV modules into alternating current which can be injected into as a “string”, and strings are then connected in parallel (maybe
the grid. with their own MPPT) feeding a single inverter.
• For off-grid PV systems with batteries, a charge controller is • Since strings are vulnerable to a single failure, modules are
required to protect the battery from over- and undercharge. often equipped with micro-inverters which are then (grid-)tied
in parallel, instead of the single large inverter.

43 44

43 44

PV systems PV systems
• Micro-inverters are themselves more prone to failure than the
solar panels, so an alternative is to go for a DC-DC conversion
before DC-AC conversion.

45 46

45 46

PV systems PV systems
• In the configuration below, each string can have a different • Sometimes multiple strings are connected in parallel, into one
numbers of panels and each string can face different inverter input. To do this each string must have the same
directions. You could even have a different type of panel for number of panels and they must be identical brands and
each string. This is because each inverter input is connected to models.
a separate Maximum Power Point Tracker (MPPT). The
MPPTs optimize each input separately.

47 48

47 48

Dr. Muhammad Mohsin Aman 8


11/23/2023

PV Module
• A PV module consists of several PV cells connected in series
and/or parallel.
• For example, Interconnection of 36 cells
• This gives an open-circuit voltage of about 21V under standard
test conditions, and an operating voltage at maximum power
PV Modules and operating temperature of about 17 or 18V.

49 50

49 50

How much current and voltage does one solar


PV Module
cell give?
• Interconnection of 72 solar cells: • Roughly a single solar cell produces only about 1/2 (.5) of a
volt.
• However, a typical 12-volt panel about 25 inches by 54 inches
will contain 36 cells wired in series to produce about 17 volts
peak output (0.472V per cell).
• If the solar panel can be configured for 24-volt output, there
will be 72 cells so the two 12-volt groups of 36 each can be
wired in series, usually with a jumper, allowing the solar panel
to output 24 volts.
• When under load (charging batteries for example), this voltage
drops to 12 to 14 volts (for a 12-volt configuration) resulting
in 75 to 100 watts for a panel of this size.

51 52

51 52

How much current and voltage does one solar How much current and voltage does one solar
cell give? cell give?
• One solar cell can produce = 0.5 volts • However, it depends on the type of solar cell, size,
• So a 18-volt ideal solar panel will have 36 solar cells. irradiance and temperature.
• However, when the load is added voltage is drop to 12 to 14V. • Perfect answer. Look at a datasheet, count the number of
• Assuming 320 watts of solar panel with 72 solar cells. cells, then assuming they are all in series divide the maximum
power point voltage by the number of cells and the maximum
• Therefore, generated voltage = 0.5 x 72 = 36 volt power point current is the cell current,
• Active power generated P = VI • This is usually defined at standard test conditions of 1000
• 320 watts = 36 volts x I W/m2 (a very bright day) and 25C (modules are usually 30C
• So, the current supplied by the solar panel, I = 320 / 36 = 8.88 or so above ambient at 1000 W/m2).
Amps. • Current will approximately vary linearly with irradiance,
voltage will depend logarithmically with irradiance and fall
about 0.4%/K away from 25C.
• A typical data-sheet
53 54

53 54

Dr. Muhammad Mohsin Aman 9


11/23/2023

A typical PV Module
• Layers of a PV modules are shown below:

Module Materials

55 56

55 56

Front Surface Materials Front Surface Materials


• The front surface of a PV module must have a high • An alternative technique to reduce reflection is to "roughen" or
transmission in the wavelengths which can be used by the texture the surface. However, in this case the dust and dirt is
solar cells in the PV module. more likely to attach itself to the top surface, and less likely to
• For silicon solar cells, the top surface must have high be dislodged by wind or rain. These modules are not therefore
transmission of light in the wavelength range of 350 nm to "self-cleaning", and the advantages of reduced reflection are
1200 nm. In addition, the reflection from the front surface quickly outweighed by losses incurred due to increased top
should be low. surface soiling.
• While theoretically this reflection could be reduced by
applying an anti-reflection coating to the top surface, in
practice these coatings are not robust enough to withstand the
conditions in which most PV systems are used.

57 58

57 58

Front Surface Materials Front Surface Materials


• In addition to its reflection and transmission properties, the top • There are several choices for a top surface material including
surface material should be impervious to water, should have acrylic, polymers and glass.
good impact resistance, should be stable under prolonged UV • Tempered, low iron-content glass is most commonly used as it
exposure and should have a low thermal resistivity. Water or is low cost, strong, stable, highly transparent, impervious to
water vapor ingress into a PV module will corrode the metal water and gases and has good self-cleaning properties.
contacts and interconnects, and consequently will dramatically
reduce the lifetime of the PV module.
• In most modules the front surface is used to provide the
mechanical strength and rigidity, therefore either the top
surface or the rear surface must be mechanically rigid in order
to support the solar cells and the wiring.

59 60

59 60

Dr. Muhammad Mohsin Aman 10


11/23/2023

Front Surface Materials Encapsulant


• Low-iron glass is a type of high- • An encapsulant is used to provide adhesion between
clarity glass that is made from the solar cells, the top surface and the rear surface of the PV
silica with very low amounts of module.
iron. • The encapsulant should be stable at elevated temperatures and
• This low level of iron removes high UV exposure. It should also be optically transparent and
the greenish-blue tint that can be should have a low thermal resistance.
seen especially on larger and
thicker sizes of glass.
• In fact, modifying the iron
content can increase the light
transparency by 5 to 6 percent.
• Low-iron glass is used for
aquariums, display cases, some
windows, and other applications
where clarity is desired. 61 62

61 62

Encapsulant Rear Surface (Back side of solar cells)


• EVA (ethyl vinyl acetate) is the most commonly used • The key characteristics of the rear surface of the PV module
encapsulant material. EVA comes in thin sheets which are are that it must have low thermal resistance and that it must
inserted between the solar cells and the top surface and the rear prevent the ingress of water or water vapour.
surface. This sandwich is then heated to 150 °C to polymerize • In most modules, a thin polymer sheet, typically Tedlar, is
the EVA and bond the module together. used as the rear surface.

63 64

63 64

Rear Surface (Back side of solar cells) Rear Surface (Back side of solar cells)
• Some PV modules, known as bifacial modules are designed to • a
accept light from either the front or the rear of the solar cell. In
bifacial modules both the front and the rear must be optically
transparent.

65 66

65 66

Dr. Muhammad Mohsin Aman 11


11/23/2023

Frame Junction Box


• A final structural component of the module is the edging or • The junction box is a small weatherproof enclosure located
framing of the module. behind the panel.
• A conventional PV module frame is typically made of • It securely attaches the cables required to interconnect the
aluminium. panels.
• The frame structure should be free of projections which could
result in the lodgement (urdu: ‫ )مسکن‬of water, dust or other
matter.

67 68

67 68

Junction Box Solar MC4 and HC4 Connectors


• The junction box is necessary as it is the central point where • MC4 connectors special weather-resistant plugs and sockets.
all the cells sets interconnect, and hence must be protected • The MC4 stands for a multi-contact 4mm diameter connector.
from moisture and dirt. The connectors must be very robust, secure, UV resistant and
• The junction box also houses the bypass diodes which are maintain a good connection with minimal resistance at both
needed to prevent back current which occurs when some cells low and high voltages up to 1000V.
are shaded or dirty. • Solar MC4 connectors – Male and female with internal
crimped terminals

69 70

69 70

Solar MC4 and HC4 Connectors Solar MC4 Connectors


• The design of the connectors is for use with the standard 4mm • Using MC4 connectors, you may connect the panels in series
or 6mm double-insulated solar DC cable, with tinned copper as well as in parallel.
multi-strand core for minimum resistance.

71 72

71 72

Dr. Muhammad Mohsin Aman 12


11/23/2023

Solar MC4 Connectors Disconnecting Tool for MC4 Connectors


• Using MC4 connectors, you may connect the panels in series • This is an MC4 disconnect tool.
as well as in parallel.
• How to Use

73 74

73 74

Roof Entry Gland


• Sometimes you would like to terminate (divert) the solar panel
cable or bring the solar cable inside the house, inside the car
from the roof of the car, inside the travel trailer from the roof.
Roof entry gland is used.

Roof Entry Gland

75 76

75 76

Roof Entry Gland


• Roof Entry Glands are used as a sealing and termination
device to ensure that the characteristics of the enclosure which
the cable enters can be maintained adequately.
• Cable glands are known as ‘mechanical cable entry devices’
that are utilized in conjunction along with wiring and MC4
connectors. Series and Parallel Connection of
• Cable glands may be used on all types of electrical power, PV Module
control, instrumentation, data and telecommunications cables.

77 78

77 78

Dr. Muhammad Mohsin Aman 13


11/23/2023

Series and Parallel


• Consider three 175W, 19.06V and 9.18Amp solar panels. We
are required to connect them in series as well as in parallel.
• Compare the output characteristics.

79 80

79 80

Series and Parallel


• The big thing to remember here is; when you wire solar
panels in…
1. Series you add the voltages together.
2. Parallel you add the amperages together.

• Practically solar modules are connected in series-parallel both


and forms a string.

81 82

81 82

Series and Parallel


• It’s important to understand that wiring your solar panels in
parallel requires more equipment.
• For the previous example, you may calculate cable size,
breaker size and number of MC4 connectors.

Series and Parallel Strings


A Comparison

83 84

83 84

Dr. Muhammad Mohsin Aman 14


11/23/2023

String Combiner Box


• The Combiner Box is a connection between the PV panels and
the Grid Tied Inverter.
• It provides independent cut off between the panels and the
Grid tied Inverters, it facilitates surge arrestors for lightning
protection and fuses.
String Combiner Box

85 86

85 86

String Combiner Box String Combiner Box


• Combiner box consist of Fuses, • a
Circuit Breakers and Surges
arrestors.

87 88

87 88

String Combiner Box String Combiner Box


• 1 String Combiner Box • 6-String Solar PV Combiner Box 63A Circuit Breakers Surge
Lightning Protection for home solar system panel Array PV
Junction BOX

89 90

89 90

Dr. Muhammad Mohsin Aman 15


11/23/2023

DC Surge Protector
• It is mainly applicable for the Direct Current surge protection
and over voltage protection in the fields of low voltage DC
power supply.

DC Surge Protector
DC 48V 40kA 2P UL
Certified Surge
Protection Device

91 92

91 92

DC Surge Protector Surge Protection Device


• Type 1 would be located at the main incoming position and • SPD is designed to limit transient over-voltages of
protects against a direct lightning strike. atmospheric origin and divert current waves to earth, so as to
• Type 2 would be at the distribution board and protects limit the amplitude of this overvoltage to a value that is not
against indirect lightning strikes. hazardous for the electrical installation and electric switchgear
• Type 3 would be fitted to a final circuit or at an item of and control-gear.
equipment to protect locally against switching over-voltages, • SPD eliminates over-voltages
that is the kind of overvoltage that may be caused by large 1. in common mode, between phase and neutral or earth;
inductive loads such as motors and air conditioning. 2. in differential mode, between phase and neutral.
• In the event of an overvoltage exceeding the operating
threshold, the SPD
1. conducts the energy to earth, in common mode;
2. distributes the energy to the other live conductors, in
differential mode.

93 94

93 94

8/20 µs Terminology Types of SPD


• The 8/20 µs test wave shape is the most common current • The three types of SPD
waveform used to define ratings of surge protection devices. It 1. Type 1 SPD: 10/350
is defined in many international standards. 2. Type 2 SPD: 8/20
• Under this test wave shape, the current rises from 10% of peak 3. Type 3 SPD: 1.2/50+8/20
to 90% of peak in 8 microseconds and falls to 50% of peak in
20 microseconds.

95 96

95 96

Dr. Muhammad Mohsin Aman 16


11/23/2023

Type 1 SPD Type 2 and 3 SPD


• The Type 1 SPD is recommended in the specific case of • Type 2 SPD:
service-sector and industrial buildings, protected by a lightning • The Type 2 SPD is the main protection system for all low
protection system or a meshed cage. voltage electrical installations. Installed in each electrical
• It protects electrical installations against direct lightning switchboard, it prevents the spread of overvoltages in the
strokes. It can discharge the back-current from lightning electrical installations and protects the loads.
spreading from the earth conductor to the network conductors. • Type 2 SPD is characterized by an 8/20 µs current wave.
• Type 1 SPD is characterized by a 10/350 µs current wave.
• Type 3 SPD:
• These SPDs have a low discharge capacity. They must
therefore mandatorily be installed as a supplement to Type 2
SPD and in the vicinity of sensitive loads.
• Type 3 SPD is characterized by a combination of voltage
waves (1.2/50 μs) and current waves (8/20 μs).
97 98

97 98

SPD Installation SPD Installation

99 100

99 100

SPD with Solar System


• It is compulsory to install SPD (surge protection devices) at
the ac output of a single phase and three-phase solar inverters.
• The surge protection module will protect the inverter from
high voltages that might be detrimental for the MOSFET and
IGBT (internal semiconductors).
SPD with Solar System • SPDs are installed with din-rail mounting.

101 102

101 102

Dr. Muhammad Mohsin Aman 17


11/23/2023

Single-phase 220-240VAC off-grid/hybrid


Three-phase 380/415VAC system
system
• Single-phase 220-240VAC off-grid/hybrid system • The 3 phase Type 2 surge protector is available from our
online shop, please visiti the following link

103 104

103 104

Average Solar Panel Size


• When we say “solar panel,” what we’re talking about typical
60 or 72 cells silicon photovoltaic panel for residential use.
• These days, most home solar panels are about 65 inches high
by 39 inches wide, or 5 and a half feet tall and a little more
than 3 feet wide:
Solar Panel Size, Weight and
Efficiency

105 106

105 106

Average Solar Panel Size Average Solar Panel Size


• Manufacturers also make solar panels with 72 cells, which are
aligned in 6 columns of 12 cells each.
• 72-cell solar panels are also 39 inches wide, but average about
78 inches long. These larger panels are mostly used for
commercial and industrial solar installations, but are
increasingly popular on homes.

107 108

107 108

Dr. Muhammad Mohsin Aman 18


11/23/2023

How much energy does a solar panel produce


Average Solar Panel Size
per square foot?
• Since the first solar panels were created in 1954, the cells have • The average-sized solar panel takes up an area of 17.6 square
become more efficient and changed shape from round to feet and produces 265 watts under direct sunlight.
square, which means the energy-generating portion of the • 256W=17.6 Sq. Feet=1.7 Sq. meter
panel takes up a larger portion of the total surface area. These • That translates to just over 15 watts per square foot.
changes have caused a big increase in solar panel power output

109 110

109 110

How much energy does a solar panel produce


Physical Size of Solar Panels and Roof
per square foot?
• Solar panels for households typically come in the standard • A 5kW solar system may produce enough energy to power
dimensions of 1.70m x 1.00m, that’s around 1.7m2 for every your home, but you may not have enough roof space for a
panel installed. However, the wattage output (W) of the panels system of that size.
will likely vary between 250W and 360W for a more efficient • As a guide, you’ll need 4 x 250W panels, or 3 x 330W for
module. every 1kW of your solar system.
• If you’re considering a 5kW system, that’s between 15 and 20
solar panels that will require anywhere between 25.5 – 34m2
of roof space.
• Literature recommend, a distance between panel rows of at
least 1.5 times panel height.

111 112

111 112

Physical Size of Solar Panels and Roof


• a

Nameplate Rating
(PV module)

113 114

113 114

Dr. Muhammad Mohsin Aman 19


11/23/2023

PV modules Data Sheet PV module Data Sheet


• Photovoltaic modules are composed of PV cells connected in • Before selecting a PV module, the module datasheet should be
series and/or parallel to obtain the desired power output of the carefully consulted.
module. • This will contain all relevant specifications, both electrical and
• This section provides some examples of PV modules currently mechanical.
on the market. • The international standard EN 50380: Datasheets and
• Currently, more than 2000 different module models with Nameplate Information for Photovoltaic Modules specifies
different technologies are available. what information a module datasheet should provide.
• Selecting the correct module for a system is a major decision
and it is important to get it right. Mistakes can be expensive!
• The choice should not only be informed by the cost, but also
by quality, performance, efficiency, electric parameters (e.g. I-
V curve) and the environment in which the modules will be
installed.
115 116

115 116

A typical Datasheet

117 118

117 118

Technology Technology
• Single Cell
• Half Cut cell

119 120

119 120

Dr. Muhammad Mohsin Aman 20


11/23/2023

Technology Half-Cut, Bi-facial and PERC


• Innovations in solar panel technology in the form of bifacial
solar panels and PERC solar cells have increased the
efficiency of silicon solar panels.
• Similarly, using half-cut cells in photovoltaic solar panels can
increase energy output.
• Half-cut solar cells are essentially the same silicon solar cells –
except that they’ve been cut in half with a laser cutter. This
means that instead of the usual 60 cells found in a
conventional solar panel, one with half-cut cells would have
120.

121 122

121 122

Benefits of half-cut cells


• Compared to conventional solar cells, half-cut cells provide
the following benefits:
1. High durability means low chances of cracks
2. Reduction in power loss: Current in solar cells is
transported via thin metal ribbons crossing their surface
and connecting them to neighboring wires and cells. By Design
halving each solar cell, current generation per cell is also
halved. The reduced amount of current flowing within the
(A typical Datasheet of PV Module)
solar panel also reduces resistive losses.
3. Less power loss due to shading: Power flow when cells
are partially in shadow. Over 30% of the energy is lost
when one cell is in shadow. With Half cut only 15% is
lost.

123 124

123 124

Design

Mechanical Parameters
(A typical Datasheet of PV Module)

125 126

125 126

Dr. Muhammad Mohsin Aman 21


11/23/2023

Mechanical Parameters

Operating Parameters
(A typical Datasheet of PV Module)

127 128

127 128

Operating Parameters

Electrical Characteristics
(A typical Datasheet of PV Module)

129 130

129 130

Electrical Characteristics STC


• STC stands for Standard Test Conditions
• The electric output performance of crystalline silicon and thin
film PV modules are generally measured under standard test
conditions (STC).
• STC is an industry-wide standard to indicate the performance
of PV modules and specifies a cell temperature of 25°C and an
irradiance of 1000 W/m2 with an air mass 1.5 (AM1.5)
spectrum.
• These correspond to the irradiance and spectrum of sunlight
incident on a clear day upon a sun-facing 37°-tilted surface
with the sun at an angle of 41.81° above the horizon.
• However, these conditions are rarely encountered in the real
world.
131 132

131 132

Dr. Muhammad Mohsin Aman 22


11/23/2023

NOCT NOCT
• NOCT stands for Nominal Operating Cell Temperature • The Nominal Operating Cell Temperature (NOCT) is defined
• A PV module will be typically rated at 25 °C under 1 kW/m2. as the temperature reached by open circuited cells in a module
However, when operating in the field, they typically operate at under the conditions as listed below:
higher temperatures and at somewhat lower insolation • Irradiance on cell surface = 800 W/m2
conditions. • Air Temperature = 20°C
• In order to determine the power output of the solar cell, it is • Wind Velocity = 1 m/s
important to determine the expected operating temperature of • Mounting = open back side.
the PV module.

133 134

133 134

Temperature Ratings
• Temperature coefficient of the Voc, Isc and Pmax measures the
change in open circuit voltage, short-circuit current and
Maximum power output values respectively of the PV module
when the temperature increases (or decreases)

Temperature Ratings
(A typical Datasheet of PV Module)

135 136

135 136

Temperature Ratings Temperature Ratings


• Each type of solar cell has its own temperature • For more material on this subject, the international
coefficient. During this measurement, the temperature standard IEC 60904-10:2009 Photovoltaic devices – Part 10:
coefficients of current (α), voltage (β) and peak power (δ) are methods of linearity measurement provides for measurement
determined. methods related to solar PV module temperature coefficients
• For this test, the following equipment setup is needed: and different irradiance levels.
1. a radiant source (usually solar simulator)
2. equipment to vary the temperature of the solar module
3. accurate temperature monitoring
4. equipment to measure the voltage and current of the
solar module
• The resulting coefficients are applicable at the same
irradiance level at which the measurement was made.

137 138

137 138

Dr. Muhammad Mohsin Aman 23


11/23/2023

Problem Solution
• Consider a 60cell module of 260W. The temperature • With the solar module reaching 65°C, the power loss of
coefficient of the maximum output power (Pmax ) at STC is - this module is:
0.41%/°C. • 65°C – 25°C = 40°C, which is the temperature difference
• Calculate the solar module power loss when the solar cells between the module’s Pmax at STC and the hypothetical
inside a solar module reach 65°C. example temperature of 65°C reached by the cells
• 40°C x -0.41% = -16.4%, which means that the module loses
16.4% in power output when the cells reach 65°C
• Solar module power loss: -16.4% x 260W = 42.64W. The
maximum power this module will operate at 65°C is: 217W.

139 140

139 140

Mechanical Loading
• ML tests have long been hailed as the de-facto tests for
evaluating the mechanical strength of solar modules,
especially with IEC 61215 having included the 5,400 Pa
(front) and 2400Pa (rear) requirement for passing the standard.

Mechanical Loading
(A typical Datasheet of PV Module)

141 142

141 142

Understanding Pressure Understanding Pressure

143 144

143 144

Dr. Muhammad Mohsin Aman 24


11/23/2023

Mechanical Loading Problem


• In a Mechanical load test, a calculated weight is placed • Consider a solar panel with the area mentioned in nameplate,
uniformly on a flat solar module on a standard mounting find out
system, with 5,400 Pa of weight force placed on top to put 1. The per square meter weight for performing ML test
stress on the solar module, as shown in Figure 1. 2. The maximum weight which can be placed on the top of
the solar panel.

145 146

145 146

IV Curve

IV Curve

147 148

147 148

IV Curve of a Solar Cell IV Curve of a Solar Cell


• The IV curve of a solar cell is the superposition of the IV • Consider a IV curve:
curve of the solar cell diode in the dark with the light-
generated current.
• The light has the effect of shifting the IV curve down into the
fourth quadrant where power can be extracted from the diode.
• Illuminating a cell adds to the normal "dark" currents in the
diode so that the diode law becomes:

• where IL = Light generated current.

149 150

149 150

Dr. Muhammad Mohsin Aman 25


11/23/2023

IV Curve of a Solar Cell IV Curve of a Solar Cell


• a • a

151 152

151 152

IV Curve of a Solar Cell IV Curve of a Solar Cell


• The greater the light intensity, the greater the amount of shift • Since the cell is generating power, the convention is to invert
in IV curve the current axis.

the output current when light generated


current IL =0.5A

153 154

153 154

IV Curve of a Solar Cell IV and PV Curve


• The equation for the IV curve in the first quadrant is: • Plotting the above equation gives the IV curve below with the
relevant points on the curve labeled.

• The exponential term is usually >> 1 except for voltages below


100 mV. Therefore, the -1(I0) term in the above equation can
usually be neglected.
• Further, at low voltages, the light generated current
IL dominates the I0 (...) term so the -1 term is not needed under
illumination.

• Figure shows the Current-Voltage (IV) cure of a solar cell. To


get the maximum power output of a solar cell it needs to
operate at the maximum power point, PMP.
155 156

155 156

Dr. Muhammad Mohsin Aman 26


11/23/2023

IV and PV Curve IV and PV Curve – An experiment


• The power curve has a maximum denoted as PMP where the • When a PV panel receives solar radiation, it produces power,
solar cell should be operated to give the maximum power the product of current and voltage.
output. • To find the highest possible power output for a panel under a
• It is also denoted as PMAX or maximum power point (MPP) certain set of conditions (amount of sunlight, temperature,
and occurs at a voltage of VMP and a current of IMP. etc.), the resistance in the circuit can be changed
systematically by small increments, as shown in Table.

157 158

157 158

IV and PV Curve – An experiment IV and PV Curve – An experiment


• The values in Table 1 were • In this example, the short circuit
obtained by using a current, Isc = 0.124 A (or current
potentiometer to vary the when V = 0), and open circuit
resistance in the PV circuit, voltage, Voc = 6.407 V (or voltage
which directly affects the when I = 0).
voltage and current in the • The MPP can also be found as the
circuit. point at which the product of the
• The changing resistance current and voltage equal the greatest
affects the overall power value.
output of the panel. • The power calculation shows that
• The results are tabulated in the MPP has a voltage of VMPP =
table under a specific 4.934, a current of IMPP = 0.100 A,
radiations and temperature. with the power, P = 0.491 W.

159 160

159 160

IV and PV Curve – An experiment IV and PV Curve – An experiment


• This data can be visualized more clearly • The current is plotted in amps (A)
in a graph. Graphing the current and on the left y-axis. The voltage is
voltage creates a curve that is referred to plotted in volts (V) on the x-axis.
as an I-V curve. The blue line in the On this same graph, the power for
Figure 2 graph is an I-V curve. each current-voltage combination
is plotted in pink.
• The power is plotted in watts (W)
on the right y-axis. This power
curve clearly shows the maximum
power point.
• A red line identifies the voltage
and current associated with the
maximum power point.

161 162

161 162

Dr. Muhammad Mohsin Aman 27


11/23/2023

Tier 1 Solar Panel


• The Tier 1 ranking scale is orchestrated by Bloomberg New
Energy Finance Corporation and is used to rank solar panel
manufacturers in terms of their bank-ability or financial
stability.
• Bloomberg defines a Tier 1 solar manufacturer as “those
which have provided products to five different projects which
Tier 1 Solar Panel have been financed non-recourse by five different (non-
development) banks in the past two years”

163 164

163 164

Recourse vs. Non-Recourse Loans Tier 1 Solar Panel


• A recourse loan allows a lender to pursue additional assets • The term “Tier 1” does not mean their solar panels as being of
when a borrower defaults on a loan if the debt's balance a high quality (not necessarily).
surpasses the collateral's value. A non-recourse loan permits • One may quite rightly make an assumption that a Tier 1
the lender to seize only the collateral specified in the loan ranking has more to do with financial stability rather than
agreement, even if its value does not cover the entire debt. product quality… and the answer is yes.
• But Tier 1 shows a good quality, how?

165 166

165 166

Tier 1 Solar Panel How can our customer identify Tier 1?


• Can a bank would not fund a large-scale project worth say • By labelling?
$200 million dollars? If the product used was likely to fail in
the short-term thus, inadvertently, a Tier 1 solar panel is a high
quality panel or should we say a solar panel that is designed to
produce power for as long as the expected lifespan which is
around 25 years.
• The other reason why one can make the assumption that a Tier
1 solar panel is a quality panel is based on the criteria set by
Bloomberg in that only solar panel manufacturers
that own their own manufacturing facility can be included for
review. If a solar company outsources the manufacturing of its
panels then it will not be included on the Tier 1 list.

167 168

167 168

Dr. Muhammad Mohsin Aman 28


11/23/2023

Net Metering
• Net metering Pakistan is an electricity policy for consumers,
who own / plan to setup a Renewable Energy facility, which
allows them to produce electricity (using solar) for their own
use and supply the excess produce to the national grid setting-
off units of electricity consumed during off-peak hours or at
times when the production from RE facility is not enough to
Net Metering meet the consumer load. The consumer will either pay reduced
utility bill or get paid for access energy exported to the grid.

169 170

169 170

Net Metering
• NEPRA, in September 2015, issued its net-metering
regulations that allow the DISCOs in Pakistan to purchase
excess units of electricity produced by the consumers, and net
them off against the units consumed from the grid. As per
these regulations, any customer of the national grid (having
three-phase connection) can avail net-metering facility for
small-scale (1kW to 1MW) Renewable Energy installations. Net Metering in KE
Renewable Energy is a long-term power solution. The Solar
PV Technology gives access to affordable electricity supply
during system life. Residential and commercial customers can
switch their electricity load to Renewable Energy (RE) and can
slash their power bills.

171 172

171 172

Net Metering in KE Net Metering in KE


• What is net metering? • Q 5. Who is eligible for net metering?
• Net metering is a billing mechanism whereby KE consumers • Eligibility criteria is as follows:
are given credit for the electricity they add to the grid
generated through Solar or Wind Power.
Connection Type 3 phase
• How does net metering work? Consumer Categories
Residential, Commercial, Industrial,
Bulk, General Services
• Consumers generate electricity through solar/wind and
Supply Voltage Level 400 V – 11 kV
generation from this system is more than what is required by
Solar PV range 1 kW – 1000 kW
the consumer. Without net metering, this excess generation
PV Maximum Limit 1.5 x Sanctioned Load
goes to the grid unaccounted for and there is no benefit to the
consumer. KE as the electric utility installs a bidirectional
meter at the consumer’s premise which can record this excess
generation and gives credit to the consumer on monthly bill.
173 174

173 174

Dr. Muhammad Mohsin Aman 29


11/23/2023

Net Metering in KE Net Metering in KE


• Q 6. How is it possible to meter my export? • Q 12. Can I add more solar panels to any existing system?
• KE will install a new bi-directional meter at the consumer’s • You will have to submit application through AEDB approved
premise which is capable of recording both import and export vendor to KE Net Metering Facilitation Center for extension of
of units. solar PV size. KE will evaluate the application and forward it
to NEPRA for issuance of Generation License after which they
• Q 11. Is there any limit to the solar PV system size? may enhance the existing system.
• Under NEPRA’s Net Metering regulation, the eligible PV • In case it is found that any consumer has enhanced the system
system sizes are in the range of 1 kW to 1000 kW. However, a without prior intimation and GL issuance, the consumer will
consumer is not allowed to install Solar PV system sizes be liable to discontinuation of net metering service and
greater than 1.5 times of sanctioned load. appropriate legal action will be taken.

175 176

175 176

Net Metering in KE Net Metering in KE


• Q 13. Can I change my Inverter? • What action will be taken if any irregularity found at DG
• You need to inform KE about inverter replacement and KE facility?
will first verify the onsite installations and inverter • In case any discrepancy found during survey or any abnormal
functionality and then you’ll be able to use it. trend in import/export like:
• During routine inspection, if found specification of PV system ✓ PV system extension without getting the load extension license
including inverter different from the one mentioned in GL then ✓ Earthing system not working within the prescribed range.
appropriate legal action will be taken against the connection. ✓ Inverter malfunctioning
This may lead to disconnection of system.
✓ Any other technical parameters that may hinder KE services or
against the Generation License issued to DG by NEPRA
KE shall serve a notice to consumer to immediately disconnect its
generation from utility system till the resolution of issue. In case
of illegal or uninformed extension of PV system, KE shall reserve
the right to revert the entire sum of generated units during such
177 period. 178

177 178

Net Metering in KE Net Metering in KE


• Q 16. How much net metering is allowed in Karachi? • Q 18. Can my exported units be adjusted against a
• The total capacity of DG is restricted to a maximum of 15% of different meter on the same premise?
the distribution transformer capacity. This is to ensure voltage • No, this is not possible.
regulation in the network and will be enhanced as further
network studies are completed. Net Metering connectivity • Q 20. What is the electric grid?
exceeding 15% of the individual PMT / Feeder may only be
allowed based on a detailed load flow study. • The electric grid is the system of electric distribution lines that
electric distribution companies use to deliver electricity to
• Q 17. If I have multiple meters at my location, how am I their customers. If a consumer generates excess electricity, it is
supposed to apply? exported to the electric grid.
• Only one net metering connection is allowed on one consumer
number based on its sanctioned load. For separate meters,
separate applications will be required.
• It must also be ensured that the internal distribution system for
each meter is separate.
179 180

179 180

Dr. Muhammad Mohsin Aman 30


11/23/2023

Can KE disconnect my Net Metering Service? Net Metering in KE


• Net Metering Service may be disconnected, and appropriate • Q 26. Can the Solar PV system panels be located on an
legal action may be taken against the consumer in case of adjacent plot applying for net metering? Or solar panels
following conditions: on a rented roof top space at a neighbor’s building, while
✓ If PV system is not in compliance with technical requirements the inverter is located at the applying person’s premise?
✓ Extension of PV system as against the Generation license • No, the solar panels have to be located within the same
issuance, premises as the meter for which net metering is allowed.
✓ Change of inverter without informing KE
✓ Theft of electricity • Q 27. Is there a max export limit for a consumer?
✓ Distribution of Electricity to any other premises, or Any other • For Net Metering Consumers, currently there are no limits to
form of misconduct or illegal use of Net Metering connection the kWh exported back to the grid except for maximum
✓ After disconnection, KE may also proceed for cancellation of allowed PV capacity i.e 1.5 x Sanctioned load.
Generation License through NEPRA. Furthermore, KE can
discontinue the service on account of any routine maintenance
on the network. 181 182

181 182

Net Metering in KE Net Metering in KE


• Q 28. What if I have 2 meters installed and now I want to • Q 31. Is net metering available with PV/Solar system OR
consolidate them both on one meter for net metering? with other sources, Like Self generation with Gas OR HFO
• You can apply directly to the IBC for the consolidation of the (Heavy furnace oil) Generators?
meters. • As per NEPRA Regulations, net metering is available for Wind
/ Solar PV systems only.

• Q 30. I live in an apartment/multistorey building can I • Q 33. I do not have the KE bill on my name, how am I
avail net metering facility? supposed to apply for net metering?
• Yes, provided you are a 3 phase consumer and rooftop space • While applying for net metering, both the applicant name in
available under your ownership. the forms and the name on the KE bill should be same. The
consumer should initiate the Change of Name process at the
concerned IBC and submit the net metering application at the
facilitation center after the name on the bill is updated.
183 184

183 184

Net Metering in KE Net Metering in KE


• Q 34. I have a negative balance on my bill, how can I claim • Q 35. I am a tenant and wish to install rooftop solar PV
this amount? (Photo Voltaic) system; am I allowed?
• In case of negative balance, the consumer can opt for • You can apply for Net Metering Connection on behalf of the
reimbursement on quarterly basis through written application owner; however the application will be submitted and
or directly via email at netmetering@ke.com.pk, requesting connection will be provided in the name of the owner
refund process. Cheque will be issued in the name of appearing on K-Electric Bill.
consumer as beneficiary.
• Q 38. Does KE have the right to change the rates for
compensation of Net Metering Units?
• Yes, for consumers who do not have ToU (Time of Use or
Time of Day) based billing, the current Net Metering
mechanism is only an interim solution. Once ToU will be
implemented, Net Metering will be processed under the new
regime.
185 186

185 186

Dr. Muhammad Mohsin Aman 31


11/23/2023

Net Metering in KE Net Metering in KE


• Q 39. How do I know what type of a meter is installed, and • Q 40. My location already has an AMR (Automatic Meter
if it is capable of Net Metering? Reading – Smart Meter) installed, will this meter be
• Currently, only ISKRAEMECO MT382 meters are used for replaced?
Net Metering. Other meters are not used for Net Metering • No, if an AMR Smart Meters is installed, meter change is not
purposes. required, and neither will the consumer be charged for it. Once
the Generation License is received, Net Metering will be
initiated.

• Q 42. To facilitate my net metering case, if any


modification /upgradation required in KE’s infrastructure,
who will be responsible to pay the cost?
• As per NEPRA regulation, consumer (DG) will be responsible
for any cost incurred by KE in providing, operating, or
maintaining interconnection point.
187 188

187 188

How will I be compensated for my export i.e. How will I be compensated for my export i.e.
unit sales to KE? unit sales to KE?
• Consumer is billed for the gross unit sales by KE to consumer • Taxation:
(which is your consumption from KE), all taxes etc. are • For sales by KE to consumer:
applied on this unit. The consumer sales to KE (which is your 1. Taxes are applied on the gross units.
export) is credited in the consumer’s bill at the prevailing tariff • For sales by consumer to KE:
rate. However, following additional aspects need to be 1. Residential: No Taxes
considered: 2. Commercial & Industrial: GST will be charged as per
1. Taxation applicable category. Income tax will be deducted.
2. Sales by Consumer to KE

189 190

189 190

How will I be compensated for my export i.e.


Net Metering in KE
unit sales to KE?
• Sales by Consumer to KE: • Q 44. How can I see the units exported on my meter?
• If unit sales by consumer is lower than sale by KE to • The AMR (bi-directional Smart meter) installed on your
consumer: premises is capable of recording imports and exports
• Same rate/logic as of consumption from KE will be applied on separately. The digital screen on the meter displays the
the exported amount information and the codes on the bottom left of the screen
• If unit sales by consumer is higher than sale by KE to describe what the numbers refer to:
consumer:
• On sales in excess of consumption units i.e. Units exported by
consumer above the units consumed: Pre-determined National
Average Purchase notified by NEPRA (National Electric
Power Regulatory Authority) price will be applied

191 192

191 192

Dr. Muhammad Mohsin Aman 32


11/23/2023

Net Metering in KE Net Metering in KE


• To simplify these two codes are required by the consumer • Q 45. How am I supposed to read the Net Metering bill?
• 1.8.0 -> Total Energy Consumed & • The units exported by the consumer is mentioned as ‘Import
• 2.8.0 -> Total Energy Exported by the consumer Energy Off Peak’ and ‘Import Energy Peak’ and benefit of
• These two codes are automatically displayed on the screen. these units is displayed in the bill calculation area as “Net
The consumer will have to wait for these two codes to be Metering Benefit”
displayed on the meter screen.

193 194

193 194

Electroluminescence (EL) Test


• Electroluminescence is a diagnostic process in which a camera
capable of detecting near-infrared light is used to take image of
a module.
• This procedure reveals a wide range of module defects, from
casting the ingots to damage caused during transport.
PV Panels Testing • Electroluminescence is used for quality assurance during the
as per IEC Standards manufacturing of the modules to find micro-cracks. These tiny
cracks in the cells can lead to electrical insulation across entire
segments of the panel.
• EL measurements are useful when conducting incoming goods
inspections at the building site. Damages in the form of micro-
cracks arising from transportation and rough installation
processes are among the greatest risks for PV.

195 196

195 196

Electroluminescence (EL) Test Power at STC (Standard Test Conditions) Test


• Panel manufacturer claims maximum power output at
photovoltaic module. PV Lab operates a Class AAA sun
simulator for conducting all its power tests in measurements.
Low level of uncertainty is only possible when Class AAA
simulator is used.
• This test is crucial to draw solid conclusion and serves to
validate modules performance as claimed by the manufacturer.
• Power loss from LID and PID effect also uses the same
simulator.

197 198

197 198

Dr. Muhammad Mohsin Aman 33


11/23/2023

Power at STC (Standard Test Conditions) Test Power at STC (Standard Test Conditions) Test

199 200

199 200

Power at low irradiance Test Wet-leakage test


• Power at low irradiance is defined to be the output at an • The test measures insulation resistance between the inner
insolation of 200 W/m2. This figure can serve as a reference circuit and a water bath module is placed during testing.
point for a high-quality module and are consulted when • This test is relevant from a safety viewpoint.
comparing modules in order to make the transparent bedding
material can be released using a investment decisions. Power
yields at low irradiance also form the basis for decisions by
banks to provide financing for a system.

201 202

201 202

Hot Spot Test (HS) Test Potential Induced Degradation (PID) Test
• A thermographic camera is used to capture thermal images of a • Potential induced degradation, or the voltage dependent ageing
module. These images can reveal defects at soldering points, of photovoltaic modules, is a type of power degradation that
inactive regions in cells and formation of Hot Spots due to generally appears on the negative side of the module string and
defective bypass diodes which can lead to irreversible damage can affect almost any type of photovoltaic module.
to the module. • Power loss from PID effect must be minimum and a power
loss of 5% should not be exceeded in measurements before
and after this period.

203 204

203 204

Dr. Muhammad Mohsin Aman 34


11/23/2023

Peel-off test Peel-off test


• This test aims to measure the adhesion of the bedding material
(generally EVA) to glass.
• The peel-off test is valuable, because a peel-off force that is
too low can indicate either that the production process was
carried out with non-optimal parameters, or that materials past
their expiry date have been used.

205 206

205 206

IV Strings Test Static Mechanical load test (MQT 16)


• I-V curve tracers are specialist types of test equipment that • The purpose of this test is to determine the ability of the
sweep an electrical load connected to the solar PV module or module to withstand a minimum static load. MQT 16 verifies
string and measure both the current and voltage at multiple minimum test loads. It verifies the manufacturer’s defined
points during the sweep. design load as per IEC (61215-2).

207 208

207 208

Static Mechanical load test (MQT 16)

Cable Selection and Sizing

209 210

209 210

Dr. Muhammad Mohsin Aman 35


11/23/2023

Cable Construction: Cable Construction:


• The general constructional elements of cables are given below. • Insulation: To insulate the conducting part of the cable from
• Core: The conducting part of the cable is called core all cables the surrounding, we insulate the cable.
have one or a no. of cores of stranded Cu or Al conductors • The most commonly used insulating compounds are PVC,
having highest conductivity. XLPE & EPR.
• Generally, there are one, two, three or four cores. • For most application, PVC & XLPE is used, because of
economical reason (EPR is more expensive than XLPE).
• XLPE & EPR have the advantage over PVC is that they permit
the conductors to operate a higher temperature (850 to 900 C)
than those of PVC (700 C).

211 212

211 212

Cable Construction: Cable Construction


• The other insulating materials in use are rubber, poly-ethylene • Metallic Lead Sheath:
(PE), poly-propylene (PP) asbestos, glass, quartz & silicone • Metallic sheath usually lead or lead alloy is used to prevent the
rubber. entry of moisture or for protecting the cable from chemical
• VIR (vulcanized India Rubber) insulation is used for small attack while buried directly in hostile ground conditions e.g. in
wiring such as lighting & minor power installation. The chemical & refine ring plants.
dielectric strength of VIR is b/w 10 and 20 kV/mm & the • Bedding:
dielectric constant is about 2.5. The maximum permissible 1. Over the metallic sheath comes a layer of bedding which
temperature is 480 C. cosmists of paper tape, compounded with a fibrous
material. Also come times fute strands or hession tape
(strong course cloth of fute) is also used for bedding.
2. The purpose of bedding is to protect the metallic sheath
from mechanical injury from the armouring.
3. Bedding also protects the metallic lead sheath material
from corrosion.
213 214

213 214

Cable Construction Cable Construction


• Armoring: • Fibrous Material:
• Armoring is provided to avoid mechanical injuring to the cable • In 3 core cables, it is necessary to fill the interestial spaces
& it consists of one or two layers of galvanized steel wires with jute or paper for two reasons.
(GSWA) aluminum wires (AWA), tinned copper wire braid 1. To ensure good circularity & dimensional accuracy of the
(TCuWB) or two layers of steel tape. finished cable.
• Serving: 2. To prevent internal passage within the cable along which
• Over & above armouring a layer of fibrous material is again flammable gases could travel when used in hazardous
provided which is a similar to that of bedding but now it is areas.
called serving. This is provided to protect the cable against in-
either elements & corrosion.
• For situations where resistance to heat, oil & flames is
necessary it is the practice to use special elastomerics, like
EPR, EVA etc.
215 216

215 216

Dr. Muhammad Mohsin Aman 36


11/23/2023

Cable Sizing
• For finding a right cable, following factors are considered:
1. Rated or Nominal Current
2. Correction Factors
• Depth of laying
• Ambient temperature
• Grouping Factor
Cable Sizing 3. Design Current
4. Core material
5. Method of laying
6. Voltage Drop calculations
7. Short Circuit bearing capacity

217 218

217 218

Rated or Nominal Current Rated or Nominal Current


• To find the rated or nominal current, following factors are • The temperature reached by a cable is also affected by the
considered: following operating conditions:
1. Load Assessment 1. Whether the cable is surrounded by the room air or is
2. Load calculations (in terms of Power-Watt) enclosed in a conduit or duct.
3. Utilization Factor 2. The closeness to other cables which may cause heat to
4. Diversity Factor build up, due to induced currents.
5. Voltage level 3. The temperature of the ambient of surrounding air.
6. Line current calculations

219 220

219 220

Current Carrying Capacity of a Cable Correction Factors


• The current carrying capacity of the cable is given by: • Correction factors are applied to situations which inhibit a
𝐼𝑛 cable from dissipating its heat caused by the normal flow of
𝐼𝐶𝐶𝐶 =
𝐶𝐹 current through it. Therefore, the following correction factors,
• Where if applicable, are applied:
1. In=rated or nominal current 1. Ambient temperature, Ca
2. ICCC= current carrying capacity of the cable 2. Grouping, Cg: This factor is used where mineral insulated
3. CF= correction factor cables are installed on perforated cable tray.
3. Thermal insulation, Ci: Where a cable is in contact with
thermal insulation

221 222

221 222

Dr. Muhammad Mohsin Aman 37


11/23/2023

Current Carrying Capacity of a Cable Voltage Drop of the Conductor


• Ca= Correction factor for the ambient temperature • When choosing a cable for a particular job, it is necessary to
• Cc= Correction factor for the type of protective device used take into account not only the maximum current the conductor
• Cg= Correction factor for grouping of circuits/cables will have to carry, but also the drop in voltage that will occur
𝐼𝑛 when the current is flowing.
𝐼𝐶𝐶𝐶 =
𝐶𝐹1 × 𝐶𝐹2 × 𝐶𝐹3

223 224

223 224

Voltage Drop Calculations Voltage Drop Calculations


• The voltage drop (in mV or volts or percentage) of any • The values detailed in the Tables are given in mV/A/m,
insulated cable depends upon (volts/1000 per ampere per metre),
1. the route length under consideration (in meters), • And the nominal maximum acceptable volt drop specified by
2. the required current rating (in amperes) and the IEE Regulations is 2.5% of the system voltage, i.e.
3. the relevant total impedance per unit length of the cable. 1. For 415 3 phase system, this is 0.025 x 415 = 10.5V
• The maximum impedance and voltage drop applicable to each 2. For 240V single phase system, this 0.025 x 240 = 6.0V
cable at maximum conductor temperature and under a.c.
conditions is given in the tables.
• For cables operating under dc conditions, the appropriate
voltage drops may be calculated using the formula.
VDC=2 x route length x current x resistance x 10(-3).

225 226

225 226

Problem Solution
• Consider a three-phase load, the requirement for a load of • The rating tables(Appendix 4) in the IEE Regulations indicate
100A to be transmitted over a route length of 150m, the cable that a 35mm2 copper conductor PVC SWA PVC 3C cable
to be clipped to the wall and close protection provided. would be suitable for the loading required, but the voltage drop
• Select the appropriate cable size which can satisfy the voltage must be checked.
drop. • Volt drop = K x current x length
• Hint: Use three or Four Core Cable Three phase A.C. = 1.1 x 100 x 150 millivolts
= 1.1 x 100 x 150 volts/1000
= 16.5 volts
• where K = 1.1 mV/A/m from cable tables (Three or Four Core
Cable Three phase A.C.)
• This shows that 35mm2 cable is not acceptable as per IEE
wiring regulations.

227 228

227 228

Dr. Muhammad Mohsin Aman 38


11/23/2023

Solution Solution

229 230

229 230

Solution
• Let as per IEE Regulations, the allowable total volt drop =
10.5 volts for three phase.
10.5 = 𝐾 × 100 × 150
• Therefore K = 10.5/100 x 150= 0.7mV/A/m

• Reference to the voltage drop tables indicates that the cable Short Circuit Capacity of Cable
size with a voltage drop of 0.7mV/A/m OR LESS could be
used, therefore 70mm2 copper conductor multicore PVC is a
right choice.

231 232

231 232

Short Circuit Capacity of Cable Short Circuit Capacity of Cable


• During short circuit condition, surge of current flow will • t = short circuit duration (s)
caused temperature rise on the cable. So, we shall consider the • Fault clearing time in seconds, this is generally taken as 0.2
short circuit condition. seconds for motors and transformer feeders, 0.6 for plant
• The following formula calculate the minimum size of feeders, 1.0 second for incoming feeder.
conductor depend on short circuit current and the fault
duration.
𝐼2𝑡
𝐴=
𝑘
• A = Minimum cross-sectional area of the cable (mm2)
• i = Short circuit current value (A)
• t = short circuit duration (s).
• k = short circuit temperature rise constant

233 234

233 234

Dr. Muhammad Mohsin Aman 39


11/23/2023

Short Circuit Capacity of Cable Short Circuit Capacity of Cable


• k = short circuit temperature rise constant. The factor k is • a
dependant on the cable insulation, allowable temperature rise
under fault conditions, conductor resistivity and heat
capacity. Typical values of k are:
• Value of k as per BS 7671 shall be taken as,
1. k=94 for XLPE insulated AL cables,
2. k=143 for XLPE insulated Cu cables and
3. k=76 for PVC insulated AL cables.

235 236

235 236

Allowable Short Circuit Currents for


Problem
Insulated Copper Conductor?
• For a copper cable, allowable let-through fault current varies
with material of insulation material. Different material will
allow and withstand a temperature without damage or
deteriorate cable life time. In this aspect, thermosetting has a
better performance than thermoplastic.
• Applied cable short circuit rating formula and coefficient
constant (k) for different insulation type, allowable short
circuit currents is a below:
1. For thermoplastic insulation: Isc (kA) = 143 x S
2. For thermosetting insulation: Isc (kA) = 176 x S

237 238

237 238

Short Circuit Capacity of Cable


• Short-circuit ratings are not published
for individual cables in any official
documents, because of the large
number of the cable types and sizes
involved and the fact that they have
to be related to the duration of short
circuit which applies to the particular DC Solar Cables
circuit.
• Figure 1 illustrates a typical example
of the graphs available from
manufacturers to provide information
on a basis of a maximum conductor
temperature with a range of durations.

239 240

239 240

Dr. Muhammad Mohsin Aman 40


11/23/2023

Tinned copper DC Solar Cables


• Tinned copper • Following types of DC solar cables exist:
is primarily used for 1. PVC
protection against 2. XLPE
oxidation and corrosion. 3. XLPO
• In climates where
copper has long-term
exposure to water, the
oxygen will combine
with the metal and form
copper oxide,
weakening the bonds of
the metal. It is worse if
the wire is in contact
with salt water.
241 242

241 242

PVC Insulation XLPE and XLPO


• PVC is the most widely used insulation material in power • XLPE is a type of XLPO. If the vendor specified XLPO cable,
cables. This is because PVC insulated cable is it might actually be XLPE (or it might not).
1. A cost-effective material for electrical and physical • XLPE can withstand temperatures up to 90C ambient, XLPO
protection for standard low voltage building cables, and can withstand temperatures to 120C ambient.
2. has a small bending radius, and hence is very easy to • 90C rating is more than adequate inside of switchgear, which
install in narrow places. is designed to be 40C max.
• The 120C rating is technically better but is irrelevant in this
application. They are likely offering it due to supply chain
• Applications for PVC cables include general low voltage issues.
cabling such as lighting and general building use. However, • XLPE provides greater tensile strength, elongation and impact
standard PVC has certain limitations. 1) Standard PVC has a resistances compared with PVC. This cross linking process
maximum operating temperature of 70°C and 2) it is not as also enhances the material's resistance to oil and chemicals
hardy a material when it comes to resistance to water and even at elevated temperature; this makes XLPE a popular pick
environmental stress cracking (ESC). as insulation for LSZH Flame Retardant or Fire Resistant
243 244
cables.

243 244

Develop basic Solar PV System design

245 246

245 246

Dr. Muhammad Mohsin Aman 41


11/23/2023

Solar PV System design Some Facts


• Following factors helps in Solar PV System design • Roof should be strong enough to hold weight of the PV
1. Site Assessment (roof assessment) Module – ( 14.7 Kg/m2).
2. True North or True South • The age of the tiles or roof cladding and if there is a risk of
3. Optimum utilization of space (roof) damage during installation.
4. Shading Analysis • Weight of solar system include weight of solar panels,
5. Optimum tilt structure, kerb blocks, wire and cable tray.
6. Battery calculations
7. Grid/ Off-grid • The weight of kerb block is around 45kg.
8. Inverter Size calculations • Solar Panels should always be south facing to have maximum
9. Cable Size Calculations irradiance
• Locate the array at a distance away from the object that is
atleast 1.5 to twice the height of the object to avoid shading
effect.
• Tilt angle of the array should be as per latitude of the site.
247 • Karachi latitude : 24.6 248

247 248

Purlin and Rafter


• Purlin and rafter are the basic members of any roof structure.
They are the load transmitting members of the steel roof.
• Many clay plates or asbestos sheets shall be fixed to purlins
• And purlins shall be fixed to rafters.

Roof Structure

249 250

249 250

251 252

251 252

Dr. Muhammad Mohsin Aman 42


11/23/2023

Purlin and Rafter Purlin and Rafter


• They transmit the live load, dead load, wind load (which is • Placements-The roof truss is supported on the columns and the
considerable in large steel structures with low permeability) rafter is supported on the roof truss upon which the purlins are
and other loads acting on them to the roof truss situated below bolted/welded and upon the purlins lies the final covering
them which eventually transfers the load to the columns and material which may be asbestos sheet or cement asbestos
then eventually to the foundation. sheet. Also note here that the rafters are present only where the
• So basically, purlin and rafter are like two-way reinforcements truss are not present to support the purlins.
of the roof .
• Purlins are one which are parallel to the ridge line or we can
say they run along the span of the roof while rafters are
perpendicular (plan) to the ridge line of the roof truss .

253 254

253 254

Purlin and Rafter


• Points where the roof truss are present looks something like
this.

Solar Structure

255 256

255 256

Solar Structure Solar Structure


• The capacity of solar Photo Voltaic Power plants are • Module mounting structures are made of three types of
increasing day by day. The industry is witnessing intense materials.
competition in the solar field and several bidders are • They are
compromising on the quality of the solar PV module 1. Hot Dip Galvanized Iron,
mounting structures. It is of paramount importance to 2. Aluminum and
understand the various aspects and the types of mounting 3. Mild Steel (MS).
structures.
• The mounting structures are used to support the solar PV
modules. Since the solar PV modules are built to last for 25
years, it is very important to choose the solar PV module
mounting structure as it has to support the solar PV module for
25 years.

257 258

257 258

Dr. Muhammad Mohsin Aman 43


11/23/2023

Solar Structure
• Galvanized iron: In galvanizing zinc coating is applied to
iron or steel to prevent it from rusting. There are several
methods of galvanising. The most common method employed
in module mounting structure is the hot dip galvanization. In
hot dip galvanization, the material to be galvanized is
submerged in molten zinc at a temperature of around 449 °C. Mounting of Solar PV Module
In solar PV module mounting structure, iron is used for
galvanizing process.
Mounting Structures
• Mild Steel: Mild Steel is made by melting iron ore and coal
together in a furnace. Once the melting is done, it is moved to
another furnace to burn of any impurities.
• Aluminium: Aluminium is a silvery white, soft, flexible
material. It is very resistive to corrosion and does not corrode
easily. Compared to galvanised iron, this is light weight and
cost-effective. 259 260

259 260

Mounting of Solar PV Module Mounting Mounting of Solar PV Module Mounting


Structures Structures
• There are several types of roof and the solar PV module • Metal Sheet: Metal sheets are common among the factories
mounting structure has to be built, keeping the roof type in and industries.
mind. The types of roofs are described here. • Asbestos Sheet: Asbestos sheets have become obsolete now.
• Flat Roof Mounted: The solar PV module mounting structures However, there are few places where asbestos sheets are still
are placed on a flat roof. The roof could be RCC. being used.

261 262

261 262

Mounting of Solar PV Module Mounting Mounting of Solar PV Module Mounting


Structures Structures
• Ground Mounted • RCC roof:

263 264

263 264

Dr. Muhammad Mohsin Aman 44


11/23/2023

Mounting of Solar PV Module Mounting


Aggregate: Sand and Bajri
Structures
• RCC denotes Re-in forced Cement Concrete in which cement, • What is an Aggregate?
sand (fine aggregate) and Bajri (coarse aggregate) are laid with • Aggregates are the important constituents of the concrete
the help of mild steel. This is most important part of the which give body to the concrete and also reduce shrinkage.
structure. Aggregates occupy 70 to 80 % of the total volume of concrete.
• Generally, 1:2:4 (cement: fine: coarse) and 1:1.5: 3 (cement: So, we can say that one should know definitely about the
fine: coarse) ratios of RCC are used in construction work. aggregates in-depth to study more about concrete.

265 266

265 266

Aggregate: Sand and Bajri RCC 1:2:4


• What is fine Aggregate?? • Where cement concrete 1:2:4 is used; it means 1 part of
• When the aggregate is sieved through a 4.75 cement 2 parts of fine aggregate/coarse sand and 4 parts of
mm sieve, the aggregate passed through it coarse aggregate. This ratio of cement concrete gives high
called as fine aggregate.
strength of cement concrete and is recommended for following
• Silt and clay have also come under this
category.
works.
• What is Coarse Aggregate??
• For general RCC work in buildings
• When the aggregate is sieved through a 4.75
• Bed plates
mm sieve, the aggregate retained is called • Lintels
coarse aggregate. • RCC shelves
• Gravel, cobble and boulders come under this • Pavement etc.
category.
• The maximum size aggregate used may be
dependent upon some conditions.
• In general, 40 mm size aggregate used for
normal strengths and 20mm size is used for
high strength concrete. 267 268

267 268

Mounting of Solar PV Module Mounting


RCC 1:1.5:3
Structures
• Where cement concrete 1:1.5:3 is used; it means 1 part of • Slope Roof Mounted: The slope mounted is mounting the solar
cement 1..5 part of fine aggregate/coarse sand and 3 parts of PV module in sloppy regions. It can be a Concrete RCC roof,
coarse aggregate. This ratio of concrete also gives very high metal roof or an asbestos roof.
strength of cement concrete and is recommended for following • It should be ensured that the roof should be at least 0.7m thick
works. to go ahead with the solar PV installation.
• Structure carries in heavy loads
• Important RCC structure such as columns, beams, slabs,
cantilever, Chhajja, porch, and balcony etc.
• Minimize the effects of earth quake.
• Gives more strength accordingly if Tor or Ribbed steel is
used with cement concrete 1:1.5:3.

269 270

269 270

Dr. Muhammad Mohsin Aman 45


11/23/2023

Solar Structure Types


• Normally 14 Gauge or 16 Gauge solar structure is used.
• Gauge of material represent the thickness of metal
• C-channel and L type structures are used.
• Galvanized C channel or perforated C channels are different
option in C channel.
Solar Structure Types • C channel structure has flexibility.

271 272

271 272

Solar Structure Types


• L type structure is also used, this is a kind of prepared solution
and easy to mount, but offer less flexibility.
• L2 is commonly used.
• L3 structure has a length of 10.5 feet
• L3 structure is preferable if space is less.

274

273 274

Solar Structure Types Mounting Structure Base


• Following points must be remember: • The mounting structure base has to be strong enough to carry
1. Nut bolts should be galvanized. the entire load of the solar pV module mounting structure,
2. Use galvanized washer • In case of slope roofs and ground mounting, the base has to be
3. Use four nuts at the end of the foot or use a separate bolt drilled into the roof. In case flat roofs, the base can be drilled
4. Use Stainless Steel rawal bolts into the roof or can be concelaed with a concrete.
5. Use silicon before rawal bolt
6. Corrosion of structure
7. Use galvanized stand, else use paint- paint of powder
coating paint.
8. Additional protection of panels, tensioner

275 276

275 276

Dr. Muhammad Mohsin Aman 46


11/23/2023

C channel solar structure C channel solar structure


• Galvanized C channel • Galvanized C channel
• Perforated C channels • Perforated C channels
• C channel has an advantage that we do not need to have a • C channel has an advantage that we do not need to have a
wholes on the C-channel whole on the C-channel
• L2
• L3 if space is less, length is 10.5 feet

277 278

277 278

Increase the life of structure


• Use good quality of nut bolts
• Repeat paint
• You may use liquor/varnish on each nut bolts to avoid rust

Ground Mounted Structure

279 280

279 280

Selecting solar mounting structures 1. Geological survey


• Choosing the right mounting system for your project is a four- • The first step is to carry out a survey of the geology of the land
step process that involves where the PV system will be installed. A bore test and tests to
1. selection, understand the soil conditions are essential to understanding
2. design, and the best type of foundation to use. You need to assess:
3. installation. 1. Ability to excavate the site
2. The acidity of the soil, as this will determine whether you
need to use a protective coating
3. N values: which measure the relative density of sandy soil
and the consistency of clay soils
4. Presence of groundwater
5. Soil forces
• These variables demonstrate how different sites can require
different mounting structures. Measuring them will help you to
determine the best type of structure for a specific site’s soil
281 conditions. 282

281 282

Dr. Muhammad Mohsin Aman 47


11/23/2023

2. Plant design 3. Ground mounting structure types


• Once you understand the geology and topography of the site, • The different options for mounting structures take into account
you can begin to design the PV plant with the most appropriate the soil quality and other conditions at the installation site.
structure. These include:
• Whether you decide to install the panels at a fixed tilt or install 1. Ballast: If the soil conditions are not suitable for
trackers to move the panels throughout the day to track the sun excavation or drilling, a ballast mounting system can use
will also affect the structure. a pre-cast concrete block that is fastened to the ground.
• In complex terrain, you will naturally need to have different This mounting structure is often used for residential
lengths for the foundation piles. You can easily account for systems.
that in the topography analysis in RatedPower’s pvDesign
software.

283 284

283 284

3. Ground mounting structure types 3. Ground mounting structure types


• These include: • These include:
2. Helical piles: In sites with weak granular soils, helical piles are 3. Pole mounting: Unlike ballast mounts, pole mounts do
driven deep into the ground and attached to the PV panels. They can not require leveling the land or installing complex
withstand uplift forces caused by the soil expanding or by strong
winds as the helixes in the poles keep them fixed in place. Helical
foundations. Pole mounting installs steel poles with
plates provide strong load-bearing capacity, so they do not need to be concrete anchors to support the panels. Depending on the
as long as other types of driven piles, reducing costs. soil and weather conditions, some installations can require
special adjustments to ensure the poles remain in place.
Multipole mounting installs panels in a single line
horizontally rather than separately, providing an
advantage for large installations as all panels can be
adjusted at once.

285 286

285 286

3. Ground mounting structure types 3. Ground mounting structure types


• These include: • These include:
4. Ground screws: Also called earth screws, these are suited 5. Concrete foundations: Repurposed brownfield sites,
to sites where the soil is compacted, contains heavy clay, capped landfills, and designated wetland sites are ideal for
or is rocky close to the surface. Screws have lower torque ground-mounted solar arrays, but they require foundation
when driven into the ground and they are less likely to designs to be minimally invasive. These kinds of sites can
break in harder soil. Screws are easy to adjust in low use concrete foundation racking systems that do not
gradients so that mounting frames can be installed level disturb the ground underneath.
and require less complicated earthwork and engineering.
But screws may not go deep enough for sites with steep
gradients and are not suitable for less stable soils.

287 288

287 288

Dr. Muhammad Mohsin Aman 48


11/23/2023

Pile Foundation
• Pile foundation, a kind of deep foundation, is actually a
slender column or long cylinder made of materials such as
concrete or steel, which are used to support the structure and
transfer the load at desired depth by either end bearing or skin
friction.

Pile Foundation

289 290

289 290

Casting of Foundation Pile Foundation Casting- Activities


• Casting of foundation mean completion of all substructure work • Pile Marking
which is below the ground.
• This would include excavation and concreting of all foundations and • Pile Drilling
the work for superstructure above the ground to commence. • Diameter and Depth Checking of each pile
• This is also referred to as completion of plinth work by some
builders.

291 292

291 292

Pile Foundation Casting- Activities Pile Foundation Casting- Activities


• Pile Alignment • QC checking
• Piles Alignment in a row

293 294

293 294

Dr. Muhammad Mohsin Aman 49


11/23/2023

Pile Foundation Casting- Activities Pile Foundation Casting- Activities


• Casting • Copping
• Pile holding rods • Applying Curing compound

295 296

295 296

What is Concrete Curing Compound?


• Curing is essential for the hydration of cement in concrete
making. So, to maintain required moisture content, some
precautions are applied.
• Concrete curing compound is a compound which helps to
prevent the loss of moisture content from the concrete. So,
concrete is properly cured which results the full development Module Mounting Structure (MMS)
of strength of concrete. Installation in Solar plant
• Types of Concrete Curing Compounds
1. Synthetic resin compound
2. Acrylic compound
3. Wax compound
4. Chlorinated rubber compound

297 298

297 298

Module Mounting Structure Module Mounting Structure


• Start with preparation of foundation
• Decide the method of foundation, once these things have been
done starting working on module mounting structure

299 300

299 300

Dr. Muhammad Mohsin Aman 50


11/23/2023

Module Mounting Structure Module Mounting Structure

301 302

301 302

Module Mounting Structure Module Mounting Structure


• Measure Inclined Angle using Inclinometer • Torque Wrench

303 304

303 304

Module Mounting Structure Module Mounting Structure

305 306

305 306

Dr. Muhammad Mohsin Aman 51


11/23/2023

Module Mounting Structure Module Mounting Structure

307 308

307 308

Module Mounting Structure Module Mounting Structure

309 310

309 310

Bracing Module Mounting Structure


• Bracing, which provides stability and resists lateral loads, may
be from diagonal steel members or, from a concrete 'core'. In
braced construction, beams and columns are designed under
vertical load only, assuming the bracing system carries all
lateral loads.
• Longitudinal Bracing is extending lengthwise of the structure,
or parallel to its center line.

311 312

311 312

Dr. Muhammad Mohsin Aman 52


11/23/2023

Module Mounting Structure

Other Accessories

313 314

313 314

Anchor bolts
• Anchor bolts are designed to attach structural elements to
concrete.
• In our industry, anchor bolts are typically used to attach steel
to concrete. One end is embedded into the concrete, while the
opposite end is threaded to attach structural support.

315 316

315 316

Types of Rawl bolt Points to consider


• Rawl anchor bolts are used primarily to install structures to • A broken solar panel or panels along with water can energize
concrete, brick, block, and stone. the frame!- A life threatening risk
• Rawl Anchor Bolts are quick and simple to use through bolts,
drop-in anchors with internal thread, Safety Plus anchors for
highest loads, and cutting-edge concrete screw bolts.

317 318

317 318

Dr. Muhammad Mohsin Aman 53


11/23/2023

Tilt Angle
• Solar irradiance reaching to the earth has different components
including direct radiation, reflected radiation and diffuse
irradiation. However, most of the contribution or percentage is
due to the direct radiation.
• Therefore the direction of the solar panel must be
perpendicular to the sun rays.
Tilt Angle

319 320

319 320

Tilt Angle Tilt Angle


• The total or global solar radiation striking a collector has two • The “tilt angle” or “elevation angle” describes the vertical
components, direct beam radiation and diffuse radiation. angle of your solar panels, measured from x-axis (ground).
Additionally, radiation reflected by the surface in front of a
collector contributes to the solar radiation received.
• But unless the collector is tilted at a steep angle from the
horizontal and the ground is highly reflective (e.g., snow), this
contribution is small.

321 322

321 322

Tilt Angle Optimum Tilt Angle


• Problem: Path of sun is not fixed, there is a variation always • Optimum tilt angle (throughout the year) = latitude angle at
w.r.t. days, months and seasons. that point (Fixed structure)
• Winter tilt angle = Latitude angle +15 degree (Movable
structure).
• Summer tilt angle = Latitude angle - 15 degree (Movable
structure)
• Spring: Tilt the panels to your latitude.
• Fall: Tilt the panels to your latitude.

323 324

323 324

Dr. Muhammad Mohsin Aman 54


11/23/2023

Latitude Tilt Angle


• Latitude is an angle (defined below) which ranges from 0° at • a
the Equator to 90° (North or South) at the poles.
• Note that latitude angle is also counted from x-axis

325 326

325 326

How to find South?


• Magnetic north by using magnetic compass

How to find South?

327 328

327 328

How to find South? How to find South?


• Which pole of a compass needle points to a south pole of a • It has been known that south-facing solar panel (In the
magnet? Northern Hemisphere) can get the most out of sunshine.
• North Pole • And when it comes to orienting solar panels, most people will
• Because opposite poles attract. simply choose the south which the compass points to.
• The side of the compass needle marked as "North", colored as
red or both is actually the North Pole of the compass.
• The red needle points to the geographic North Pole of the
earth. In another word, south magnetic pole of the earth must
be located in the geographic North Pole.

329 330

329 330

Dr. Muhammad Mohsin Aman 55


11/23/2023

How to find South? How to find South?


However, this approach is absolutely wrong. • Now, the questions are:
• Because you will only be able to find out the magnetic south • How can we ascertain the true solar south?
with it. • What’s the difference between “True Solar South” and
• Actually, In any PV system related project, we tend to set up “Magnetic South”?
solar panels to face the solar south rather than the magnetic • This can be easily understood with the help of the following
south. image (pic.1):
• Although doing this only brings about a 3% improvement in
energy collection, it will be a big deal if your solar array is
huge or your extreme condition requires getting as much
energy conversion as possible.

331 332

331 332

How to find South? How to find South?


• In fact, There is a giant magnet in the earth. Its magnetic South
Pole is around the Earth’s South Pole, while its magnetic
North Pole is around the Earth’s North Pole (Refer to pic.2).
• This big magnet rotates along with the Earth. However, its axis
is not aligned with the Earth’s, although they are pretty close
to each other. The declination is approx. 14 degree.
• For better understanding: When the compass needle points at
the south, it is actually aligning with the Magnetic South Pole
and not the true South Pole.

333 334

333 334

How to find South? Method #1: The shortest shadow method


• The shadow of an object will be shortest when the Sun is
highest at noon, and at this moment, the direction of the
shadow line is the true solar south.
• This method involves simply finding out the shortest shadow
at noon according to this theory.

335 336

335 336

Dr. Muhammad Mohsin Aman 56


11/23/2023

Location of ASURE centre

Azimuth Angle

337 338

337 338

Azimuth Angle Azimuth Angle


• It is always not possible to mount or place the solar panels • Move the panel horizontally. This angle is known as Azimuth
towards the south due to the shading or due to the structure of angle.
the building. • Azimuth Angle: The horizontal orientation of your panels (in
• For example just in the direction of south there is a shade of a relation to the equator, in this case).
tree or a wall or water tank, now what should we do? • The azimuth angle is like a compass direction with South = 0°
and North = 180°.
• Some authors uses vice versa, but we will follow first one.

339 340

339 340

Azimuth Angle Azimuth Angle


• The azimuth angle is the compass direction from which the • At solar noon, the sun is always directly south in the northern
sunlight is coming. The azimuth angle varies throughout the hemisphere and directly north in the southern hemisphere.
day as shown in the figure below. • At the equinoxes, the sun rises directly east and sets directly
west regardless of the latitude, thus making the azimuth angles
90° at sunrise and 270° at sunset.
• In general however, the azimuth angle varies with the latitude
and time of year and the full equations to calculate the sun's
position throughout the day are given on the following page.

341 342

341 342

Dr. Muhammad Mohsin Aman 57


11/23/2023

Altitude Angle
• Solar altitude refers to the angle of the sun relative to the
Earth's horizon. Because it's an angle, you measure solar
altitude in degrees.
• The value of the solar altitude varies based on the time of day,
the time of year and the latitude on Earth. Regions close to the
equator have a higher solar altitude than regions near the
Altitude Angle Earth's poles.

343 344

343 344

Altitude Angle Altitude Angle


• The altitude of the Sun is simply a measurement of how high it • As you can see from the picture, the altitude of the Sun is
appears above the horizon, in terms of an angular related to the length of the stick and the length of the stick’s
measurement. shadow by the formula:
• If the Sun were directly overhead, it would be at an altitude of ℎ
tan 𝜃 =
90o (since a full circle is 360o, and from the horizon to 𝑙
directly overhead is one-quarter of a full circle). • or, the altitude of the Sun can be determined by taking the
inverse tangent of the ratio of the height of the stick to the
length of its shadow:

• 𝜃 = tan−1 𝑙

345 346

345 346

Experiment Zenith Angle


• In order to complete this project, you will need a meter stick or • The zenith angle is the angle between the sun and the vertical.
some other object and a tape measure. The zenith angle is similar to the elevation angle but it is
• At least every other week, as close to noon as possible, go measured from the vertical rather than from the horizontal,
outside on a sunny day (or any day during which you can see thus making the zenith angle = 90° - elevation.
your shadow).
• Holding the meter stick (or any object) upright, mark the end 𝛾 = 90° − 𝜃
points of its shadow.
• Measure the length of the shadow.
• Based on this length and the height of the object casting the
shadow, you can determine the altitude of the Sun.

347 348

347 348

Dr. Muhammad Mohsin Aman 58


11/23/2023

Spacing between the panels


• Consider a system:

Shading and Spacing between the


panels
• where:
• z - distance between rows (m),
• α – tilt angle or latitude of the location
• β – altitude angle or the angle of incidence of sunlight on the
winter solstice.
• L – is the length of the panel.
349 350

349 350

Spacing between the panels Spacing between the panels


• Approximate value of is on December 22nd of every year, and • Now,
given by: 𝑋
sin 𝛼 =
⇒ X = 𝐿 × sin 𝛼
𝐿
𝑋
tan 𝛽 =
𝑌
𝐿 × sin 𝛼 𝐿 × sin 𝛼
⇒Y= =
tan 𝛽 tan 90° − 𝛼 + 23.27°
• We have made some assumptions and exclude days, azimuth
etc, therefore we will increase the Y by 20% as a
compensation.
• We can use above empirical formula for roof top solar.

351 352

351 352

Example: Example
• Calculate the minimum distance between the panels at location • Knowing the minimum angle of incidence of sunlight during
A where the latitude (𝛼) = 12.9 degree. the year, it is possible to determine the distance between
• During the winter solstice (December 22), the sun is at its successive rows of photovoltaic panels.
zenith over the Tropic of Capricorn. At that time, location A • (𝛼) = 12.9 degree.
has the lowest angle of incidence of sunlight during the year, • The height of the selected panel is 2000 m.
which is calculated according to the formula:
𝛽 = 90° − 𝛼 + 23.27° = 53.83° 𝐿 × sin 𝛼
Y = 1.2 × = 394𝑚𝑚
tan 90° − 𝛼 + 23.27°

353 354

353 354

Dr. Muhammad Mohsin Aman 59


11/23/2023

Thankyou

355

355

Dr. Muhammad Mohsin Aman 60

You might also like