Brit. J. Psychiat.

(1979), 135,457—467

Review Article
Meditation
By MICHAEL WEST
SUMMARY Meditation practices which have appeared across cultures
and at different times are briefly described, as well as the mechanics
of meditation practices in the West. The research problems which
arise in examining the effects of meditation are outlined and the
research literature reviewed under three headings: the psycho
physiological correlates of meditation; personality change associated
with learning and regularly practising meditation; the use of medi
tation as a therapy in psychiatric units, in cases of drug addiction,
insomnia and hypertension. The dangers of meditation practice and
possible explanations of the effects of meditation are described,
together with a suggestion for the direction of future research.
Meditation is being used as a clinical tool or powerful, or it can be the name of a spiritually
within psychiatric units in both Europe and revered person. The practitioner is generally
North America and efforts are now being made taught to maintain awareness of the mantra,
by a number of pressure groups to have medi excluding other thoughts, external influences
tation made available as a treatment within the and desires. Subjects of meditation can also be
National Health Service. There is also a visual (a candle flame, the picture of a teacher
persisting public interest in meditation, some or ‘¿guru',
a mandala) or repetitive movements
92,000 people in Britain having learned the can be the central experience. A simple example
technique privately. There is therefore a need of the latter is the repetitive touching of the tips
for information about what meditation is, what of the four fingers individually with the thumb.
the patterns of response to meditation practice Buddhism has amongst its meditation practices
are, whether its claimed effects can be objec one reputedly used by the Buddha on the night
tively verified, and what diagnostic groups, if he reached ‘¿Nirvana'or achieved enlighten
any, are most likely to benefit from it. ment. It consists of focussing the attention on
the breath at the point at which it enters and
Meditation leaves the nostrils. After practice of this breath
Meditation is an exercise which usually ing meditation, Zen Buddhist disciples are
involves the individual in turning attention or taught the practice of ‘¿zazen' or sitting medi
awareness to dwell upon a single object, tation, which involves maintaining ‘¿simply
a
sound, concept or experience. Historically, the quiet awareness, without comment, of whatever
goal of the exercise has been ‘¿enlightenment'or happens to be here and now' (Watts, 1962).
direct experiential knowledge of an absolute There exist a variety of other meditation
such as God, Being, Unity, Brahma or ‘¿The practices which appear in many different
One'. Meditation has been practised for at cultures. American Indians practise a form of
least 2,500 years and probably very much meditation remarkably similar to zazen. In
longer; the most common form involves Africa, in the Kalahari desert, the people of the
holding the attention on a sound or ‘¿mantra'. Kung ZHu/twasi practise a form of ritual
The mantra is often a sound perceived by the dancing (like Islamic Sufi dancing) which
teacher of meditation to be particularly suitable activates a postulated energy source and
457
458 MEDITATION: A REVIEW

produces an ‘¿ecstasy'experience (Katz, 1973). essentially non-coercive, permissive nature—.the

Many tribal groups practise such ritual dancing meditator does not have to concentrate cx
coupled with chanting to produce altered states clusively and strenuously upon his mantra.
of consciousness (Sargant, 1973). Freuchen
(1959) describes how the Eskimo would sit Research Problems
facing a large soft stone and using a small, Much of the research carried out on mcdi
hard hand-stone would carve a circle in the tation has concentrated on TM, largely because
large stone continuously to produce a trance of the availability of TM meditators and
state. partially because people who learn TM are all
These techniques of meditation are not taught in the same way, regardless of teacher or
confined to the religions of the East and of area. However, the process of learning TM
‘¿primitive' peoples, however. Meditation has subjects the individual to a variety of pressures,
long been used within the Christian religion which create difficulties for interpreting research
and many of the Christian techniques are results. Throughout the process of learning, the
identical to those used in other religions, individual's expectation of benefits is fuelled
cultures and times. and fanned. There are social pressures upon the
individual to experience and report benefits, and
Transcendental Meditation the payment of a large fee to the TM teacher is
Recently, meditation has been enthusiastically likely to deter the subject from believing he or
received in the United States of America and she has gained nothing. Within the experi
Europe by large numbers of people who have mental situation, therefore, a variety of con
seen it as an answer to the ‘¿stresses of modern founding variables are introduced. The subject
life'. One of the better known of the techniques has some predisposition to change anyway
to be introduced in the West is Transcendental (hence taking up meditation) and there is the
Meditation or ‘¿TM'.Unfortunately, enthusiasm danger that he or she will view the experiment
for TM has tended to lead to biased presen as an opportunity to prove that meditation
tations and misleading explanations. Sen works. There is also the problem that some
sational research results have failed to receive experimenters may themselves be TM teachers
the necessary critical examination and it is only or practitioners and so their motivations may
now, after some ten years of intensive research have some effect on the outcome of the experi
activity, that a clearer picture of the effects of ment. Finally, the demand characteristics of the
meditation is beginning to emerge. meditation experiment are fairly explicit, since
The technique of TM is a standardized form it is usually fairly obvious that the aim of the
of mantra meditation which has been adapted experiment is to discover the effects of medi
for Western use from an Indian technique and tation.
consists of the individual sitting upright with A partial solution to these problems has been
eyes closed, silently repeating the mantra. This the development of non-cultic techniques of
mental repetition is supposed to be effortless, meditation by psychiatrists and psychologists
the meditator neither attempting to concentrate (e.g. Benson's Relaxation Response; Benson,
on the sound nor attempting to prevent his 1975; Woolfolk's Breathing Meditation: Wool
attention from wavering. There is no need to folk, 1976) which reduce placebo and expect
prevent thoughts during TM; the meditator is ancy effects though for experimental purposes
instructed merely to ‘¿favourthe mantra' and is they cannot overcome the problems entirely.
frequently adjured to ‘¿take it easily as it comes' One of the more carefully developed and
during the period of instruction. It is recom thorough of these techniques is a taped instruc
mended that TM is practised for twenty minutes tion course called ‘¿Clinically Standardized
in the morning and twenty minutes in the late Meditation', which has been developed by
afternoon, before breakfast and the evening Carrington (1978) and which includes detailed
meal. The major difference between TM and instructions for learning and teaching the
more traditional techniques of meditation is its technique. Carrington also includes three one
 MICHAEL WEST 459
hour cassette lectures dealing with the use of later in meditation by bursts of theta. In
meditation in clinical conditions and special another careful study, Kasamatsu and Hirai
circumstances. (1966)selected
48priests
anddisciples
fromthe
Soto and Rinzai sects injapan, with meditation
Research into Meditation experience ranging from one to more than
Research into the effects of meditation to date twenty years. The EEG during Zazen (Zen
can usefully be divided into three major areas meditation) was characterized by the initial
dealing respectively with the psychophysio appearance of 11 cps alpha, followed by an
logical correlates of meditation, the effect of increase in alpha amplitude, and a decrease in
meditation on personality variables and the use alpha frequency in the central and frontal
of meditation as a therapy. Though there is a regions. Occasionally, rhythmical theta trains
tendency for some reports to fit into two cate of 6—7cps appeared. The authors reported a
gories, the experimental approaches used in direct relationship between the length of time
these categories have tended to be of a type their subjects had practised meditation and the
which is generally specific to that category. nature of the EEG changes during meditation.
However, by far the greatest research interest, Those with long experience always exhibited
as evidenced by the number of published theta trains.
reports, has been in the investigation of the Subsequent studies (Wallace et al, 1971;
psychophysiological correlates of meditation. Banquet, 1972, 1973; Williams and West,
1975) have confirmed previous findings and a
Psychophysiological Correlates of summary of work on EEG activity reveals the
Meditation following generally agreed changes during
The earliest research interest in meditation meditation:—
centred on the psychophysiological changes that
(1) On beginning meditation, alpha ampli
occurred during its practice (Das and Gastaut,
tude increases and in some cases alpha
1955; Bagchi and Wenger, 1957; Kasamatsu ci
frequency slows by 1—3
cps.
al, 1957) and subjects of the experiments were
expert practitioners, i.e. Indian yogis and Zen (2) Later in meditation, trains of theta
monks. Indeed, Bagchi and Wenger trans activity occur, often intermixed with

ported recording equipment to caves in different alpha (especially when the subjects are
areas of India so that they might gather data experienced at meditation).
from expert subjects. The techniques these (3) During deep meditation or ‘¿samadhi',
subjects practised, however, were diverse and bursts of high frequency beta of 20 to 30
the experimenters carried out different measure or 40 cps can occur.
ments on different subjects. As a result, the (4) At the end of meditation, alpha some
experiments lacked the control and sophistica times persists, even with eyes open.
tion of later work. Nevertheless, they do repre
sent an attempt to evaluate meditation in situ In 1970, when Wallace published the results
among the accomplished yogis of India and the of a study of the physiological effects of TM on
Zen masters ofJapan. fifteen subjects, his work received great publicity
The first well controlled study of meditation and subsequent publications (Wallace ci a!,
was conducted by Fenwick in 1960. Fenwick's 1971) suggested that the meditation state was
subjects were Westeners who had been taught a characterized by significant and dramatic
technique of mantra meditation (almost identi decreases in heart rate, respiration rate, oxygen
cal to TM). The subjects were asked to meditate consumption and skin conductance. With the
for thirty minutes and to drowse for thirty passing of time and the advent of more careful
minutes (randomized order of presentation). evaluations of meditation, the general trend of
The author reported that the EEG records of decreases on these parameters has been con
subjects showed an increase in alpha amplitude firmed:
at the beginning of meditation, accompanied (1) A decrease in heart rate—Wallace et a!,
460 MEDITATION: A REVIEW

1971 ; Vassiliadis, 1973; Dhanaraj and meditation results in lowered heart rate and
Singh, l975;Woolfolk, l975;West, 1978. more Sleep Stage 1 EEG during meditation
( 2) A decrease in respiration rate and
(Vassiliadis, 1973 ; Otis, 1973), and Orme
oxygen consumption—Bagchi and Wen J ohnson(1973)hasreporteddifferencesbetween
ger, 1957; Sugi and Akutsu, 1968; long-term meditators and non-meditators on
Allison, 1970; Dhanaraj and Singh, habituating the galvanic skin response. How
1973; Treichell et al, 1973; Beary et at, ever, this work is open to criticism on a number
1974; Woolfolk, 1975; Elson et at, 1977; ofmethodological points (Smith, 1975).
Malec and Sipprelle, 1977; West, 1978. West (1979) found a significant decrease in
spontaneous skin conductance responses (a
(3) A decrease in skin conductance—Bagchi
measure correlated with trait anxiety—Lader
and Wenger, 1957; Woolfolk, 1975;
and Wing, 1964) outside of meditation, in a
Walrath and Hamilton, 1975; Elson et al,
group who learned and regularly practised a
1977; West, 1978.
system of meditation for six months. Again,
However, this research has generally also this study can be criticised because no placebo
shown that the decreases in arousal observed treatment was used and indeed, no satisfactory
during meditation are not significantly different control treatment for meditation appears as yet
from decreases in arousal observed in other to have been devised. There is some support
relaxing practices. Fenwick et at (1977) used a for West's finding however in the work of
control group who listened to music for 20 Goleman and Schwartz (1976). These experi
minutes, and they compared mean oxygen menters reported that a group of experienced
consumption in this group with the consump meditators showed significantly greater increases
tion in a group of meditators practising medi in skin conductance and heart rate prior to
tation. Both groups exhibited decreases in seeing a stressful film than a control group, but
oxygen consumption, but the differences be they also showed far more rapid recovery
tween the groups were not statistically sig immediately following the stressful incident in
nificant. Treichell, Clinch and Cran (1975) also the film, as measured by spontaneous skin
failed to demonstrate a significant difference conductance responses and heart rate. After the
between groups resting and meditating. It is film was over, they did not display the signs of
perhaps noteworthy that in most within-subject tension still measurable in the control group.
comparisons, i.e. where the same subjects both The evidence suggests, therefore, that there
meditate and perform the task set in the control are decreases in arousal during meditation
condition, more significant decreases have which do not appear to be significantly different
always been found during meditation (e.g. from decreases in arousal observed during other
Wallace et at, 1971; Beary, Benson and Kiem relaxing activities. There is some slight evidence
chuk, 1974). This may be explained by the which suggests that regular meditation practice
variety of methodological artefacts associated produces decreases in arousal and arousability
with research into meditation, described above. outside of meditation itself. Studies of the effect
Very great changes in respiration and energy of meditation on scores from personality
metabolism during meditation reported by Sugi questionnaires give some support for this
and Akutsu (1968) were observed in Zen suggestion.
masters of some years' experience and, whilst
they may be indicative of the results of the long Meditation and Personality
term intensive practice of meditation, they are A cursory reading of the literature dealing
not necessarily representative of changes in the with the effects of meditation on personality
novice practitioner. would lead one to the conclusion that its
Little research has been carried out to assess practice is accompanied by decreases in neuro
the long-term psychophysiological effects of the ticism, depression, anxiety and irritability, and
regular practice of meditation. There is some increases in internal self-control, self-actualiza
evidence to suggest that regular practice of tion and happiness (Lesh, 1970; Seeman et at,
 MICHAEL WEST 461
1972 ; Shelly, 1973 ; Linden, 1973 ; Nidich ci a!, practice appears to produce. The author has
1973; Hjelle, 1974; Fehr, 1976; Fehr and examined this finding, using a larger sample of
Torber, 1976 ; Williams ci a!, 1976 ; Ferguson and subjects than has previously been used (West,
Gowan, 1976 ; Dillbeck, 1977). However, many 1978) and found that the mean neuroticism
of these studies have employed inadequate or no score of a group of people who had learned TM
controls for the effects of placebo, cognitive in one geographical area was significantly
dissonance, social pressures, demand char higher than the norm score for the general
acteristics and subjects' expectations. The usual population. Those who continued with medi
experimental paradigm has employed the tation were significantly less neurotic than those
following regimen:— who had given up their practice. The results of
Testing—Meditation instruction and prac this survey also suggested that a significant
tice—Retesting. ‘¿Controlgroups' whose mem proportion give up meditating (42.9 per cent)
bers had no training or treatment have been and that the subjective experience of meditation
used as comparisons. Not surprisingly, therefore, is similar to that of the hypnagogic state. Most
these studies have produced results showing a respondents (including those who had given up
wholly beneficial effect of meditation upon meditation) reported that psychological benefits,
personality. However, in a few studies, some of such as calmness and relief of tension, and
these problems have been partially overcome. physical benefits, such as relaxation and better
Fehr (1976) compared regular and irregular sleep resulted from their practice of meditation.
meditators' scores on the Freiburger Personality There are therefore some indications that
Inventory over one year from the date of their learning and practising meditation is associated
learning meditation. Twelve subjects dis with decreases in measured anxiety and increases
continued meditation and served as a control in subjective feelings of relaxation. These
group for the 25 subjects who persisted. This indications, coupled with the findings from
comparison is in many ways more meaningful studies examining the psychophysiological corre
than simply comparing meditators and non lates of meditation, have led some researchers to
meditators, since some baseline differences are the hypothesis that meditation is effective as a
eradicated (e.g. predisposition to change, therapy.
attraction to meditation). Fehr observed no
Meditation as Therapy
significant differences between the two groups
at baseline. After one year of practice (a (a) Meditation and drug abuse
considerably longer experimental period than in One of the reasons why meditation rapidly
most of the other experiments cited), the became an object of research interest early in
experimental group were significantly less the l970s was the widely reported finding that
nervous, depressed, tense and neurotic, and practitioners of TM stopped or dramatically
significantly more sociable and extravert. In a decreased their usage of non-prescribed drugs
similar study, Williams et al (1976) found that (Benson and Wallace, 1971; Otis, 1972;
regular meditators were significantly less neuro Shafli ci a!, 1974; Shafii ci a!, 1975). Unfortu
tic after a six month period than irregular nately, a major methodological problem was
meditators (as measured on Eysenck's PEN) overlooked in all of these studies. All
and decreases in neuroticism correlated sig practitioners of TM are required to abstain
nificantly with regularity of meditation. from using non-prescribed drugs for 15 days
In a number of studies, authors have reported prior to their learning the technique. As only
that those attracted to meditation are sig those who are less severely addicted are likely
nificantly more anxious (Rogers and Livingston, to achieve this, the samples in these studies have
1977) and neurotic (Fehr, 1976; Williams ci a!, been biased. Secondly, those who take up TM
1976) than the normal population. This and who use non-prescribed drugs like mari
interesting finding has largely been overlooked, juana and heroin may well have a predisposition
apparently in the enthusiasm over decreases in to reduce their drug usage anyway, since TM is
undesirable personality traits that meditation advertised as an alternative to drugs.
462 MEDITATION: A REVIEW

Ofthe studies reported in this area, most have Berger, 1962; Haimes, 1972; Dean, 1973).
been retrospective questionnaires, administered Details of single case studies have also been
to meditators on residential training courses published, describing the use of meditation in
where TM is practised more frequently than cases of obesity (Berwick and Oziel, 1973),
the usual twice daily and where teaching in the claustrophobia (Boudreau, 1972) and anxiety
philosophy behind TM is given. It is safe to neurosis (Girodo, 1974; Shapiro, 1976). More
assume that those who attend such courses are detailed examples of the use of meditation as an
fairly committed to the practice of TM in that adjunct to psychotherapy have also appeared
they have continued to pursue their interest (Shafii, 1973; Carrington and Ephron, 1975;
beyond simply learning the technique and Carrington, 1977).
continuing to practice. Furthermore, those who The studies evaluating the effectiveness of
go on such courses are not representative of meditation in treating psychiatric patients have
those people who take up TM and then, shortly generally failed to overcome the methodo
afterwards, give up practising the technique. logical problems which dog research in this
It may be, for example, that those who persevere area. In one sense, though, clinicians are less
with TM are the kind of people who are more strict in evaluating programmes than the
likely to decrease their drug usage anyway. experimentalist. The former tend to ask
Finally, continuing drug usage is frowned upon whether or not the patient is improved, whilst
in TM ‘¿centres'and the activity of drug abuse is the latter is perhaps more interested in isolating
condemned as a hindrance to deepening one's the factors responsible for change.
experience of TM. Indeed, those meditators Vahia et at (1973) reported a study which
who use non-prescribed drugs are seen as appears to have controlled for most (though not
presenting a threat to the public image of TM all) of the contaminating variables discussed
and there is therefore social pressure on new earlier. They report the results of a study of the
meditators to give up drug usage. That these effects of yoga and meditation in the treatment
pressures would be increased on meditation of psychoneurosis. Ninety-five out-patients,
courses is likely, and so results from retrospective diagnosed as psychoneurotic, acted as subjects
questionnaires administered on such courses are in the study; all had failed to show improvement
likely to be distorted by all these pressures. as a result of previous treatments. Half of the
Nevertheless, the possibility that meditation is patients were taught yoga and meditation, and
useful in achieving a decrease in the non they practised these techniques for one hour of
medical use of drugs (and the results of all each day for four to six weeks. The other half of
studies to date have suggested this) is one which the sample was given a pseudo-treatment,
deserves careful investigation. Accompanied by consisting of exercises resembling yoga ‘¿asanas'
the drug-user's motivation to give up using (postures) and breathing practices (‘prana
drugs, meditation may be an effective tool in the yama'). The control subjects were asked to write
treatment of what is commonly viewed as a all the thoughts that came into their minds
social ill. It may be (as Brautigam, 1971, during treatment, as a control for the medi
suggests) that the adoption of a new social role tation. This group followed the same daily
and a new self-concept of ‘¿meditator' would schedule as the experimental group. Both groups
provide the drug user with some extra moti were given the same support,reassuranceand
vation. placebo tables and were assessed clinically
before, during and after treatment.
(b) Meditation in psychiatry Following treatment, the experimental group
Meditation has become increasingly popular exhibited a significant mean decrease in anxiety,
as a therapy over the last twenty years within measured on the Taylor Manifest Anxiety
psychiatry, and a number of theoretical papers Scale. The control group exhibited no signi
have appeared in journals comparing, for ficant change on this scale. Overall, 74 per cent
example, Zen and Psychotherapy (Sato, 1958; of the experimental group were judged to be
Fromm, 1959; Becker, 1961; Van Dusen, 1961; clinically improved after treatment as against
 MICHAEL WEST 463
only 43 per cent of the control group (improve laxation to be superior to no treatment in
ment in the control group being attributed to a reducing latency of sleep onset. The meditation
combination of involvement in research and and progressive relaxation treatments did not
therapist time). The authors conclude that differ significantly in effectiveness. In a follow
meditationand yoga were significantly more up study, six months later, both the treatment
effective than a pseudotherapyin thetreatment groups showed significant improvement over
of psychoneurosis. pre-treatment levels on latency of sleep onset,
More recentinvestigations into the use of while pre-treatment and follow-upmeans for
meditation in the psychiatric setting, also the control group were not significantly differ
producingpositive results,
have been lesswell ent. Credibility of treatments was also assessed
controlledand conducted. Candelent and by asking subjects and college students to rate
Candelent (1975) and Glueck and Stroebel their belief in the potential effectiveness of the
(1975) have describedthe resultsof their treatments. These ratings also did not differ
studies of the use of meditation in psychiatric either between treatments or between subjects
hospitals and both suggest that it might be a and students.
useful therapy. Unfortunately, in both cases,
meditation was taught indiscriminately to (d) Meditation and hypertension
patients
representing
a broadrangeofdiagnostic The application of meditation as a treatment
categories. Whilst it is necessary to criticize in hypertension has received more careful
these studies for their lack of specificity with investigation than has been afforded other
regard to diagnostic groups, in one study areas in this research field. Of the studies
(Glueck and Stroebel)a comparison group, published to date, all show a positive and
whose members were unaware of theirstatus significant effect of meditation in reducing
as controls, was used and the members of this elevated blood pressure (Patel, 1973; Benson at
group continued to receive normal treatment. at, l974a; Benson at at, 1974b; Datey at a!,
Glueck and Stroebel found that when patients 1969; Patel and North, 1975; Blackwell at at,
learned and practised meditation, they showed 1976; Pollack at at, 1977) though two of these
significantly greater improvement than the (the B!ackwel! and the Pollack studies) demon
comparison group. Ultimately, improvement is strated only a short-term improvement in
the goal of any treatment and it does not symptoms. In both of these latter studies,
necessarily matter to the clinician that the significant decreases in blood pressure levels
specific agents of the improvement are un over a three month period of meditation
identified; his or her concern is often simply practice were observed, but the decreases were
with the fact of improvement (Jackson, 1967). non-significant at the end of six months. One
Not surprisingly, some attention has also possible explanation for this finding is that it is
been focussed on theeffectiveness ofmeditation merely a placebo effect, showing diminishing
in the treatment of stress-related disorders such returns over time. Alternatively, it is possible
as insomnia, hypertension and headaches (Wool that both the motivation to practise meditation
folketa!,1976;Pate!,1977;Benson,Klemchuk evoked by the experimenters in theirpatients
and Graham, 1974). and individual differences in response to
meditation could have been responsible, to an
(c) Meditation and insomnia extent, for the differing results.
Woolfo!ket at (1976)recruited24 chronic Indeed, frequency of meditation may well be
insomniacsfor theirstudy,on the basisthat a crucial factor in longitudinal studies, parti
therewas considerable evidencethatplacebos cularly as it may reflect the success of the
are ineffective in the treatment of severe experimenterin motivatingsubjects to practise
insomnia. Meditation was compared with meditation regularly. This in turn may be a
progressive relaxation and a waiting list as reflection ofthebelief oftheexperimenter inthe
treatments for insomnia and analysis of the data treatment method. In the Pate! and North
showed both meditationand progressive re study, in which patients were given a good deal
 464 MEDITATION: A REVIEW

of time, attention and motivation, the results treatment methods. Similarly, until effects
were over-ridingly positive throughout the six attributed to meditation can be distinguished
month period for which the experiment ran. from the effects of merely treating (no matter
Perhaps only some hypertensive patients will what the treatment) the answer to the research
benefit from learning and practising meditation problem will not have been found.
and others will not. There may be significant It may be argued that there are fewer
differences between these groups of patients on theoretical reasons why meditation should be
measures such as age, sex, personality, IQ or effective, in comparison with psychotherapy,
aetiology of disorder (for a discussion of this see but there are a number of explanations for the
Davidson and Schwartz, 1976). A study apparent success of meditation as a treatment
attempting to discover reliable predictors of method, some ofwhich draw upon the termino
‘¿responders' and ‘¿non-responders' to meditation logy of psychoanalysis. One such explanation is
would be of value in relation to both the that meditation is a practice where adaptive
treatment of hypertension and the use of regression takes place (Maupin, 1962; Shafli,
meditation as a therapy. 1973). Meditation may also be seen as a form of
desensitization (Tart, 1971) since some suggest
(e) The dangers of meditation that during meditation, (which is accompanied
The dangers of meditation have been referred by lower arousal) unfinished psychic material,
to by a number of authors (Otis, 1973; Benson, pre-verbal emotional trauma and life-conflicts
1975; Lazarus, 1976; Carrington, 1977). Otis are dealt with. A number of authors have
reports that five subjects suffered a re-occurrence referred to the ‘¿deautomatization' which is
of serious psychosomatic symptoms after com supposed to result from meditation practice
mencing meditation, and Lazarus reports cases (Deikman, 1963; Goleman, 1971; Carrington,
of attempted suicide, severe depression and 1977). They see meditation as a way of learning
schizophrenic breakdown following TM instruc to experience without either categorizing or
tion. Carrington believes that such cases are the experiencing in any pre-determined way, likely
result of over-meditation initially. This belief is to result from habit, set, selective inattention or
supported by the reported findings that over selective perception. This deautomatization is
meditation of, for example, three hour sessions, proposed as an explanation for the increase in
can cause serious emotional disturbance and ‘¿psychological differentiation' reported in some
hallucinations (Benson, 1975; Carrington, 1977), experimental studies of meditators (Linden,
though such over-meditation appears to be 1973; Pelletier, 1974). Measures of field
unusual. dependence—independence, such as the Em
bedded Figures Test and the Rod and Frame
Conclusions Test have shown that meditators become more
There is some evidence from psychophysio field independent following several months of
logical and personality studies that meditation meditation. The possible mechanisms mediating
practice is associated with decreases in arousal the therapeutic effects of meditation are
and anxiety, and the limited work which has reviewed in more detail by Shapiro and Giber
been carried out to assess the usefulness of (1978).
•¿ meditation as a therapy has provided grounds Whatever the explanation for the effects
for cautious optimism. Nevertheless, no satis associated with meditation practice, the un
factory experimental design has yet been trodden research ground remains extensive, but
devised which adequately tests the effectiveness the possibility that a technique exists which is
of meditation. Psychotherapy and behaviour associated with increased relaxation and de
•¿ therapy are fields where similar problems for creased anxiety is one which deserves more
research are encountered. No experimental careful study and examination. With the
paradigm has yet been proffered which satisfies advent of all new ‘¿wondercures' like meditation
entirely the demands of the researcher for an and biofeedback, initial enthusiasm can pro
objective test of the efficacy of these particular duce a plethora of hopes, claims and expecta
 MICHAEL WEST 465
tions, which later are washed away by the BLACKWELL,B., HANENSON,I., BLOOMPIELD,S., MAGEN
HElM, H., GARTSIDE, P., NIDICH, S., RoBmsoN, A. &
results of careful research. It appears that as
ZIGLER, R. (1976) Transcendental meditation in
research into meditation continues, there remain hypertension, individual response patterns. Lancet, i,
beneficial effects which may have practical 223—6.
applications. Although we know that meditation BOUDREAU, L. (1972) TM and yoga as reciprocal inhibi
may be an effective therapy, comparative ton. Journal of Behaviour Therapy and Experimental
Psychiatry, 3, 97—8.
studies have not been conducted and so our BRAUTIGAM, E. (1971) The effect of transcendental
knowledge is still limited. Indeed, if there is one meditation on drug abusers. Unpublished research
area of research into meditation which demands report. City Hospital, Malmo, Sweden.
further exploration, it is this. The importance CANDELENT, T. & CANDELENT, G. (1975) Teaching
transcendental meditation in a psychiatric setting.
of beginning to compare meditation with other
HospitalandCommuni@y
Psychiat,y,26, 156-9.
known treatment methods cannot be over CARRINGTON, P. (1977) Freedom in Meditation. New York:
emphasized, given the ever present need for new, Anchor/Doubleday.
effective treatments of psychosomatic and —¿ (1978) Clinically Standardized Meditation. Kendall Park

psychiatric illnesses. N.J.: Pace Books.

—¿ & EPHRON, H. (1975) Meditation as an adjunct to
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Michael West, B.Sc.Econ.,PhD., Social PsychologyResearch Unit, University of Kent at Canterbury, Canterbuty,
Kent

(Received 9 March; revised 26Apr11 1979)

Meditation.
M West
BJP 1979, 135:457-467.
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