OnTwoNovelGeneralizedVersionsofDiffie HellmanKeyExchange

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On Two Novel Generalized Versions of Diffie-Hellman Key Exchange

Algorithm Based on Neutrosophic and Split-Complex Integers and their
Complexity Analysis
Article · January 2025

DOI: 10.54216/IJNS.250201
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International Journal of Neutrosophic Sciences (IJNS) Vol. 25, No. 02, PP. 01-10, 2025
On Two Novel Generalized Versions of Diffie-Hellman Key Exchange

Algorithm Based on Neutrosophic and Split-Complex Integers and
their Complexity Analysis
Dima Alrwashdeh1,*, Talat Alkhouli2, Ahmed Soiman Rashed Alhawiti3, Ali Allouf4, Hussein Edduweh5,
Abdallah Al-Husban6
1
Department of Information Technology, School of Information Technology and System, the University of
Jordan, Aqaba, Jordan
2
Applied Science Department, Aqaba University College, Balqa Applied University, Jordan
3
Department of General Studies, Technical College of Haql, Tabuk, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
4
Tishreen University, Faculty Of computer engineering and automation, Latakia, Syria
5
Department of Mathematics, the University of Texas at Arlington, Arlington, TX 76019-0407, USA
6
Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science and Technology, Irbid National University, P.O. Box: 2600
Irbid, Jordan
Emails: d.rawashdeh@ju.edu.jo; Talat.khouli@bau.edu.jo; ahmed.a13@tvtc.gov.sa; Ali.allouf@gmail.com;
Husseinsaid.edduweh@mavs.uta.edu; dralhosban@inu.edu.jo
Abstract
The objective of this paper is to build the Split-Complex version of Diffie-Hellman key Exchange Algorithm,
where we use the mathematical foundations of Split-Complex Number Theory and Integers, such as congruencies,
raising a split-complex integer to a power of split-complex integer to build novel algorithms for key Exchange
depending of famous Diffie-Hellman algorithm. Additionally, we present the proposed version of the Diffie-
Hellman algorithm based on neutrosophic number theory. Also, we analyze the complexity of the novel algorithms
with many examples that explain their applied validity.
Keywords: Split-Complex Cryptography; Split-Complex Diffie-Hellman; Hellman key Exchange Algorithms;

Neutrosophic Diffie-Hellman
1. Introduction
Numerous applications of integer extension fields have recently emerged, particularly in cryptographic algorithms.
Modern methods and proposed algorithms rely on enhancing the complexity of existing security strategies by
utilizing neutrosophic number theory and Split-Complex number theory [1, 2, 5, 7]. In 2023, the Split-Complex
Number Theory was born, where Merkepci and Abobala introduced the mathematical concepts and algebraic
structures for developing a public-key encryption algorithm, specifically RSA, utilizing split-complex number
theory [2].
Since the advent of Shannon's mathematical theory of communication and the subsequent evolution of digital
systems, the paramount concern has been safeguarding the security of information transmitted through
communication channels, protecting it from tampering and eavesdropping. Consequently, the emergence of robust
encryption algorithms became imperative to shield such information. All encryption algorithms, whether
symmetric or asymmetric, rely on keys for generating cipher text. Securely generating and transmitting session
keys has always been a fundamental challenge. In 1976, researchers Diffie and Hellman proposed their renowned
1
DOI: https://doi.org/10.54216/IJNS.250201
Received: January 29, 2024 Revised: April 28, 2024 Accepted: July 20, 2024
key exchange algorithm [10-14]. In [2] Merkepci and Abobala suggested for the first time the idea of using Split-
Complex number theory in cryptography, and in [6-9] the applications of neutrosophic number theory in
generalizing classical crypto-algorithms were studied in details.
The Diffie-Hellman key exchange is a foundational cryptographic method that allows two parties to securely agree
on a shared secret key, even if they communicate over an insecure channel where others might be listening. This
shared secret key can then be used to encrypt and decrypt messages, providing confidentiality for their
communication. The magic of Diffie-Hellman lies in modular arithmetic and one-way functions:
a) Shared Public Parameters: Two parties, Alice and Bob, begin by agreeing on a large prime number (p) and a
generator (g) within a finite field. These are public values and can be known by anyone.
b) Private Keys: Alice and Bob each choose a secret, random number. Alice's is called a, and Bob's is called b.
These are kept absolutely private.
c) public Key Calculation:
 Alice calculates: 𝐴 = 𝑔𝑎 𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑝, and sends the result (A) to Bob.
 Bob calculates: 𝐵 = 𝑔𝑏 𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑝, and sends the result (B) to Alice.
d) Shared Secret Calculation:
 Alice receives B and computes 𝐵𝑎 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑝).
 Bob receives A and computes 𝐴𝑏 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑝).
Crucially, due to the properties of modular arithmetic, both Alice and Bob will arrive at the same shared secret
value
2. Main discussion
In this section, we will elucidate the rationale behind our selection of positive neutrosophic integers as the
foundation for the novel proposed algorithm. The neutrosophic integer ring (𝐼) finds applications in cryptography
due to the inherent difficulty of splitting neutrosophic positive integers. Neutrosophic integer rings make
cryptographic systems more complex because breaking down these special whole numbers is a tougher problem.
 Remark [11]
a) Let 𝑎 +𝑏𝐼, 𝑐 + 𝑑𝐼 be two neutrosophic integers, then:

𝑎 + 𝑏𝐼 ≤ 𝑐 + 𝑑𝐼 if and only if 𝑎 ≤ c, 𝑎 + 𝑏 ≤ 𝑐 + 𝑑.
b) 𝑎 + 𝑏𝐼 is called positive neutrosophic integer if 𝑎 > 0 and 𝑎 + 𝑏 > 0.
2.1. Proposed neutrosophic algorithm
The Description of neutrosophic Diffie-Hellman Algorithm:

a) Alice and Bob agree on a neutrosophic prime 𝑝 = 𝑝1 + 𝑝2 𝐼, i.e. 𝑝1 , 𝑝1 + 𝑝2 are classical primes and a base
𝑔 = 𝑔1 + 𝑔2 𝐼 > 0, i.e. 𝑔1 , 𝑔1 + 𝑔2 >0.
b) Alice chose a secret number 𝒂 = 𝒂𝟏 + 𝒂𝟐 𝑰 > 𝟎, and sends Bob 𝒈𝒂 (𝒎𝒐𝒅 𝒑).
[Remark that 𝒈𝒂 (𝒎𝒐𝒅 𝒑) = 𝒈𝒂 𝟏 (𝒎𝒐𝒅 𝒑𝟏 ) + 𝑰[(𝒈𝟏 + 𝒈𝟐 )𝒂𝟏+𝒂𝟐 (𝒎𝒐𝒅 𝒑𝟏 + 𝒑𝟐 ) − 𝒈𝒂 𝟏 (𝒎𝒐𝒅 𝒑𝟏 )].
c) Bob choose a secret number
d) Alice computes:
(𝒈𝒃 )𝒂 (𝒎𝒐𝒅 𝒑) = 𝒈𝒂𝟏 𝒃𝟏 𝟏 (𝒎𝒐𝒅 𝒑) + 𝑰[(𝒈𝟏 + 𝒈𝟐 )(𝒂𝟏+𝒂𝟐)(𝒃𝟏+𝒃𝟐) (𝒎𝒐𝒅 𝒑𝟏 + 𝒑𝟐 ) − 𝒈𝒂𝟏𝒃𝟏 𝟏 (𝒎𝒐𝒅𝒑𝟏 )].
e) Bob computes:
(𝒈𝒂 )𝒃 (𝒎𝒐𝒅 𝒑).
2
 Example
Assume that Alice and Bob have agreed on 𝒑 = 𝟑 + 𝟒𝑰, and 𝒈 = 𝟓 + 𝑰.

Alice chooses the secret neutrosophic number 𝒂 = 𝟐 + 𝟑𝑰. Alice sends Bob(𝟓 + 𝑰)𝟐+𝟑𝑰 (𝒎𝒐𝒅 𝒑) =
𝟓𝟐 (𝒎𝒐𝒅 𝟑) + 𝑰[𝟔𝟓 (𝒎𝒐𝒅 𝟕) − 𝟓𝟐 (𝒎𝒐𝒅 𝟑)] = 𝟏 + 𝟓𝑰.
Bob chooses the secret neutrosophic number 𝒃 = 𝟒 − 𝟐𝑰, and sendsAlice(𝟓 + 𝑰)𝟒−𝟐𝑰 (𝒎𝒐𝒅 𝒑) = 𝟓𝟒 (𝒎𝒐𝒅 𝟑) +
𝑰[𝟔𝟐 (𝒎𝒐𝒅 𝟕) − 𝟓𝟒 (𝒎𝒐𝒅 𝟑)] = 𝟏.
Alice computes 𝟏𝟐+𝟑𝑰 (𝒎𝒐𝒅 𝒑) = 𝟏.
Bob computes (𝟏 + 𝟓𝑰)𝟒−𝟐𝑰 (𝒎𝒐𝒅 𝒑) = 𝟏.
Thus, we observe that both parties generated the same secret key value, and therefore the neutrosophic algorithm
works correctly.
 Results
I. As we can see, the neutrosophic Diffie-Hellman algorithm involves more computational steps and
operations compared to the traditional Diffie-Hellman algorithm. While the overall complexity remains
𝑂((𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑛)^3), the neutrosophic version has a larger constant factor due to the additional modular
exponentiations and subtractions required to handle the neutrosophic parameters.
II. The neutrosophic Diffie-Hellman algorithm is a more complex version of the traditional Diffie-Hellman
algorithm. It offers potential security advantages but comes with a higher computational cost. The choice
between the two algorithms depends on the specific security requirements and computational resources
available.
2.2. Complexity Analysis compared to the classical version
Now, We will compare Diffe- Hellman and neutrosophic Diffe- Hellman by the duration needed to be broken by
using brute-force: (All are measured in seconds in the table bellow):
Table 1: Compareson between Diffe- Hellman and neutrosophic Diffe- Hellman by the duration
Classical Duration Neutrosophic Duration

Diffe- Diffe- Hellman
Hellman
For 12 bit 0.0009770393371582031 For 12 bit 0.0019540786743164062

prime primes numbers
number p p1 and p2
For 18 bit 0.001410508155822754 For 18 bit 0.002821016311645508

number p p1 and p2
For 24 bit 0.009863948822021484 For 24 bit 0.019727897644042968

number p p1 and p2
3
We can see that the neutrosophic version of Diffe- Hellman needs more time to be broken, and its complexity is
around. The complexity of the brute force attack is O(p1 * p2), where p1 and p2 are the prime numbers used in
the Neutrosophic Diffie-Hellman key exchange.
The reason for this complexity is that the attack tries all possible combinations of private keys (a1, a2) to find the
correct one that matches the shared secret. The nested loop in the code iterates over the ranges (1, p1) and (1, p2)
for a1 and a2, respectively.
The worst-case scenario occurs when the correct private key is the last combination to be tried, which would
require (p1 - 1) * (p2 - 1) iterations. Therefore, the time complexity of the attack is proportional to the product of
p1 and p2.
2.3. Side Channel attacks and proposed use of the Neutrosophic algorithm
Side-channel and fault attacks are serious threats to the security of cryptographic implementations, particularly in
hardware devices like smartcards and embedded systems. These attacks exploit physical characteristics or
unintended behavior of the hardware during the execution of cryptographic algorithms, allowing an attacker to
potentially recover sensitive information or cryptographic keys. [4]
Side-channel attacks are based on the analysis of physical effects, such as timing information, power consumption,
electromagnetic emanations, or cache behavior, which can leak information about the internal state of the
cryptographic operations. By carefully measuring and analyzing these physical effects, an attacker may be able to
deduce information about the secret keys or intermediate values used in the cryptographic computations.
Fault attacks, on the other hand, involve introducing faults or errors into the cryptographic computations, either by
exposing the device to external factors like glitches, voltage spikes, or electromagnetic pulses, or by exploiting
hardware vulnerabilities. These faults can cause the device to behave in an unintended manner, potentially
revealing sensitive information or allowing the attacker to bypass security mechanisms.
We believe that The Neutrosophic Diffie-Hellman (NDH) key exchange protocol, which is an extension of the
classical Diffie-Hellman protocol, can provide some resistance against side-channel attacks, but it does not
completely eliminate the risk.
- Complex arithmetic: NDH introduces complex number arithmetic into the key exchange process. Instead of
working with regular modular arithmetic, it operates on complex numbers modulo a complex modulus. This
increased complexity can make it more difficult for an attacker to deduce information from side-channel
leakages, as the operations involve both real and imaginary components.
- Key randomization: In NDH, the private keys used by Alice and Bob are complex numbers, with both real
and imaginary parts. This introduces an additional layer of randomness compared to the classical Diffie-
Hellman protocol, where the private keys are real numbers. The increased randomness can help obfuscate the
side-channel information, making it harder for an attacker to interpret the leakages.
- Increased computational complexity: The complex arithmetic operations in NDH are generally more
computationally intensive than the regular modular arithmetic used in classical Diffie-Hellman. This increased
computational complexity can make it more challenging for an attacker to correlate the side-channel leakages
with specific operations or intermediate values.
Figure 1. Diffe-Hellman duration for different Bit lengths
4
2.4. The flow chart of the Neutrosophic DH:
Start
Alice and Bob agree on a

neutrosophic prime 𝑝 = 𝑝1 + 𝑝2 𝐼
and a base 𝑔 = 𝑔1 + 𝑔2 𝐼 > 0
Alice chose a secret number 𝑎 =

𝑎1 + 𝑎2 𝐼 > 0
Bob choose a secret number 𝑏 =
𝑏1 + 𝑏2 𝐼 > 0
Alice sends Bob 𝑔𝑎 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑝).
Bob sends Alice 𝑔𝑏 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑝).
Alice computes:
(𝑔𝑏 )𝑎 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑝)
Bob computes:
(𝑔𝑎 )𝑏 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑝).
2.5. Split-Complex Version of DH Algorithm

We recall some basic concepts in Split-Complex Number Theory and Integers.
 Definition. [2]
Let 𝑥 = 𝑝 + 𝑞𝑗 and 𝑦 = 𝑐 + 𝑑𝑗 be two split-complex integers, where:

𝑝 and 𝑐 are real numbers.
𝑞 and 𝑑 are coefficients of the split-complex unit 𝑗, which satisfies 𝑗 2 = 1.
We say 𝑥 divides 𝑦 (denoted 𝑥 | 𝑦), if there exists another split-complex integer 𝑧 = 𝑚 + 𝑛𝑗 such that:
𝑦 is equal to the product of 𝑥 and 𝑧: 𝑦 = 𝑥 × 𝑧.
5
 Definition. [2]
Let 𝑥 = 𝑝 + 𝑞𝑗, 𝑦 = 𝑐 + 𝑑𝑗, = 𝑚 + 𝑛𝑗 be three split-complex integers, then:
I. 𝑥 ≡ 𝑦(𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑧) 𝑖𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑖𝑓 𝑧|𝑥 − 𝑦.

II. 𝑥 ≤ 𝑦 𝑖𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑖𝑓 𝑝 − 𝑞 ≤ 𝑐 − 𝑑 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑝 + 𝑞 ≤ 𝑐 + 𝑑.
 Remark
We will define the specific rules for calculating this operation, allowing us to work with complex expressions
involving split-complex numbers and exponents.
1 1
(𝑎 + 𝑏𝑗)(𝑐+𝑑𝑗) = [(𝑎 − 𝑏)𝑐−𝑑 + (𝑐 + 𝑑)𝑐+𝑑 ] + 𝑗[(𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑐+𝑑 − (𝑎 − 𝑏)𝑐−𝑑 ].
2 2
 Remark
The Diffie-Hellman (DH) key exchange algorithm is a cornerstone of modern cryptography, playing a crucial role
in secure communication over insecure channels. Its importance stems from several key factors such as: Enabling
Secure Key Exchange, Foundation for Secure Protocols, and Forward Secrecy.
However, the classical DH algorithm also has limitations, prompting the need for enhancements: Vulnerability to
Man-in-the-Middle Attacks, Computational Complexity, and Quantum Computing Threat.
3. The proposed Diffie-Hellman based on Split-Complex Number Theory
The Description of Split-Complex Diffie-Hellman Algorithm:

a) Alice and Bob agree on a Split-Complex prime 𝑝 = 𝑝1 + 𝑝2 𝑗, (it is preferred to take 𝑝1 − 𝑝2 , 𝑝1 + 𝑝2 , as
large prime numbers and a base 𝑔 = 𝑔1 + 𝑔2 𝑗.
b) Alice chooses a secret number 𝑎 = 𝑎1 + 𝑎2 𝑗, and sends Bob 𝑔𝑎 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑝). Remark that:
1 1
𝑔𝑎 = [(𝑔1 − 𝑔2 )𝑎1 −𝑎2 + (𝑔1 + 𝑔2 )𝑎1 +𝑎2 ] + 𝑗[(𝑔1 + 𝑔2 )𝑎1 +𝑎2 − (𝑔1 − 𝑔2 )𝑎1 −𝑎2 ].
2 2
c) Bob chooses a secret number 𝒃 = 𝒃𝟏 + 𝒃𝟐 𝒋 > 𝟎, and sends Alice 𝒈𝒃 (𝒎𝒐𝒅 𝒑).
d) Alice computes:
(𝒈𝒃 )𝒂 (𝒎𝒐𝒅 𝒑)
e) Bob computes:
(𝒈𝒂 )𝒃 (𝒎𝒐𝒅 𝒑).
 Example
We Assume that Alice and Bob have agreed on 𝒑 = 𝟓 + 𝟑𝒋, and 𝒈 = 𝟓 + 𝒋. Alice choose the secret Split-Complex
number 𝒂 = 𝟑 + 𝟐𝒋. And Bob Bob choose the secret neutrosophic number 𝒃 = 𝟒 − 𝟐𝒋.
𝟏 𝟏
Alice sends Bob: (𝟓 + 𝒋)𝟑+𝟐𝒋 (𝒎𝒐𝒅 𝟓 + 𝟑𝒋) = [(𝟓 − 𝟏)𝟑−𝟐 + (𝟓 + 𝟏)𝟑+𝟐 ] + 𝒋[(𝟓 + 𝟏)𝟑+𝟐 − (𝟓 − 𝟏)𝟑−𝟐 =
𝟐 𝟐
𝟏 𝟏
(𝟑𝟖𝟗𝟎 + 𝟑𝟖𝟖𝟔𝒋 )(𝒎𝒐𝒅 𝟓 + 𝟑𝒋) = [(𝟑𝟖𝟗𝟎 + 𝟑𝟖𝟖𝟔)(𝒎𝒐𝒅 𝟖) + (𝟑𝟖𝟗𝟎 − 𝟑𝟖𝟖𝟔)(𝒎𝒐𝒅 𝟖) + 𝒋[(𝟑𝟖𝟗𝟎 +
𝟐 𝟐
𝟑𝟖𝟖𝟔)(𝒎𝒐𝒅 𝟖) − (𝟑𝟖𝟗𝟎 − 𝟑𝟖𝟖𝟔)(𝒎𝒐𝒅 𝟐)] = 𝟎.
Bob sends Alice: (𝟓 + 𝒋)𝟒−𝟐𝒋 (𝒎𝒐𝒅 𝟓 + 𝟑𝒋) = 𝟐 + 𝟐𝒋.

6
Alice computes: 𝟎𝟑+𝟐𝒋 (𝒎𝒐𝒅 𝟓 + 𝟑𝒋) = 𝟎.
Bob computes: (𝟐 + 𝟐𝒋)𝟒−𝟐𝒋 (𝒎𝒐𝒅 𝟓 + 𝟑𝒋) = 𝟎.
Thus, we observe that both parties generated the same secret key value, and therefore the neutrosophic algorithm
worked correctly.
 Results
The Split-Complex Diffie-Hellman algorithm introduces additional computational complexity compared to the
traditional Diffie-Hellman algorithm, while potentially offering an additional layer of security due to the use of
split-complex numbers. The trade-off between security and computational overhead should be carefully considered
before adopting this approach in practical applications.
 Remark
The codes which have been used:
import random
import time
# Function to check if a number is prime
def is_prime(n):
if n <= 1:
return False
if n <= 3:
return True
if n % 2 == 0 or n % 3 == 0:
return False
i=5
while i * i <= n:
if n % i == 0 or n % (i + 2) == 0:
return False
i += 6
return True
# Function to compute modular exponentiation (baseêxp mod mod)
def mod_exp(base, exp, mod):
result = 1
base = base % mod
while exp > 0:
if exp % 2 == 1:
result = (result * base) % mod
exp = exp // 2
base = (base * base) % mod
return result
# Function to perform complex modular exponentiation (baseêxp mod mod)
def complex_mod_exp(base, exp, mod):
7
real = mod_exp(base.real, exp.real, mod.real)
imag = mod_exp(base.imag, exp.imag, mod.imag)
return complex(real, imag)
# Neutrosophic Diffie-Hellman key exchange
def neutrosophic_diffie_hellman(p1, p2, g1, g2, a1, a2, b1, b2):
# Check if p1 and p2 are prime
if not is_prime(p1) or not is_prime(p2):
raise ValueError("p1 and p2 must be prime numbers.")
# Compute p = p1 + p2i
p = complex(p1, p2)
# Check if g1 and g2 are positive
if g1 <= 0 or g2 <= 0:
raise ValueError("g1 and g2 must be positive numbers.")
# Compute g = g1 + g2i
g = complex(g1, g2)
# Compute gâ (mod p)
ga_mod_p = complex_mod_exp(g, complex(a1, a2), p)
# Compute g^b (mod p)
gb_mod_p = complex_mod_exp(g, complex(b1, b2), p)
# Compute (g^b)â (mod p)
gab_mod_p = complex_mod_exp(gb_mod_p, complex(a1, a2), p)
# Compute (gâ)^b (mod p)
gba_mod_p = complex_mod_exp(ga_mod_p, complex(b1, b2), p)
return gab_mod_p, gba_mod_p
# Example usage
p1 = 163 # Classical prime p1
p2 = 59 # Classical prime p2
g1 = 2 # Base g1
g2 = 61 # Base g2
# Generate 200 key pairs and test brute force attack
for _ in range(100):
# Generate random private keys
a1 = random.randint(1, p1 - 1) # Secret number a1
a2 = random.randint(1, p2 - 1) # Secret number a2
b1 = random.randint(1, p1 - 1) # Secret number b1
b2 = random.randint(1, p2 - 1) # Secret number b2
# Calculate the shared secret
8
alice_result, bob_result = neutrosophic_diffie_hellman(p1, p2, g1, g2, a1, a2, b1, b2)
# Perform brute force attack
start_time = time.time()
found_key = False
for i in range(1, p1):
for j in range(1, p2):
# Calculate the shared secret using the brute forced private key
test_alice_result, test_bob_result = neutrosophic_diffie_hellman(p1, p2, g1, g2, i, j, b1, b2)
# Check if the calculated shared secret matches the original shared secret
if test_alice_result == alice_result and test_bob_result == bob_result:
found_key = True
end_time = time.time()
time_taken = end_time - start_time
execution_times.append(time_taken)
print("Brute force attack successful!")
print("Private key found: (", i, ",", j, ")")
print("Time taken:", time_taken, "seconds")
break
if found_key:
break
else:
end_time = time.time()
time_taken = end_time - start_time
execution_times.append(time_taken)
print("Brute force attack failed.")
print("Time taken:", time_taken, "seconds")
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
bits = [12, 18, 24]
p_times = [0.0009770393371582031, 0.001410508155822754, 0.009863948822021484]
p1_p2_times = [0.0019540786743164062, 0.002821016311645508, 0.019727897644042968]
plt.plot(bits, p_times, marker='o', label='Classical Diffe-Hellman Duration')
plt.plot(bits, p1_p2_times, marker='x', label='Neutrosophic Diffe-Hellman Duration')
plt.xlabel('Bit Length')
plt.ylabel('Duration')
plt.title('Diffe-Hellman Durations for Different Bit Lengths')
plt.legend()
plt.show()
9
4. Conclusion
In this paper, we have introduced for the first time the neutrosophic and Split-Complex versions of the Diffie-
Hellman algorithm. As we demonstrated in both enhanced algorithms, the complexity increased due to the
additional computational operations, thereby providing more secure secret keys compared to the traditional Diffie-
Hellman algorithm. This was achieved by utilizing extensions of integer numbers in cryptography. We propose
utilizing the enhanced algorithm to secure online file transmission by employing the improved secret key as an
encryption key for an algorithm such as AES-128.
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on Refined Neutrosophic Integers Fusion and El Gamal Algorithm ", Fusion: Practice and Applications,
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Diagonalization Problem and Applications to Public Key Asymmetric Cryptography", Journal of
Mathematics, Hindawi, 2023.
[3] S. A. Aparna J R, "Image Watermarking using Diffie Hellman Key Exchange," in International
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[4] https://www.bsi.bund.de/EN/Themen/Unternehmen-und-Organisationen/Informationen-und
Empfehlungen/ Kryptografie/ KI-in-der-Kryptografie/ki-in-der-kryptografie_node.html. Last visted:
6/17/2024.
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2×2 Fuzzy Matrices with Rational Entries Based on The Algebra of Neutrosophic Integers and El-
Gamal Crypto-System", Neutrosophic Sets and Systems, vol.54, 2023.
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On Two Novel Generalized Versions of Difﬁe-Hellman Key Exchange

Article · January 2025

Talat Al-Khouli Ali Allouf

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On Two Novel Generalized Versions of Diffie-Hellman Key Exchange

Keywords: Split-Complex Cryptography; Split-Complex Diffie-Hellman; Hellman key Exchange Algorithms;

a) Let 𝑎 +𝑏𝐼, 𝑐 + 𝑑𝐼 be two neutrosophic integers, then:

2.1. Proposed neutrosophic algorithm

The Description of neutrosophic Diffie-Hellman Algorithm:

Assume that Alice and Bob have agreed on 𝒑 = 𝟑 + 𝟒𝑰, and 𝒈 = 𝟓 + 𝑰.

Classical Duration Neutrosophic Duration

For 12 bit 0.0009770393371582031 For 12 bit 0.0019540786743164062

For 18 bit 0.001410508155822754 For 18 bit 0.002821016311645508

For 24 bit 0.009863948822021484 For 24 bit 0.019727897644042968

Figure 1. Diffe-Hellman duration for different Bit lengths

Alice and Bob agree on a

Alice chose a secret number 𝑎 =

Alice sends Bob 𝑔𝑎 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑝).

Bob sends Alice 𝑔𝑏 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑝).

(𝑔𝑎 )𝑏 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑝).

2.5. Split-Complex Version of DH Algorithm

Let 𝑥 = 𝑝 + 𝑞𝑗 and 𝑦 = 𝑐 + 𝑑𝑗 be two split-complex integers, where:

Let 𝑥 = 𝑝 + 𝑞𝑗, 𝑦 = 𝑐 + 𝑑𝑗, = 𝑚 + 𝑛𝑗 be three split-complex integers, then:

I. 𝑥 ≡ 𝑦(𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑧) 𝑖𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑖𝑓 𝑧|𝑥 − 𝑦.

3. The proposed Diffie-Hellman based on Split-Complex Number Theory

The Description of Split-Complex Diffie-Hellman Algorithm:

(𝒈𝒂 )𝒃 (𝒎𝒐𝒅 𝒑).

Bob sends Alice: (𝟓 + 𝒋)𝟒−𝟐𝒋 (𝒎𝒐𝒅 𝟓 + 𝟑𝒋) = 𝟐 + 𝟐𝒋.

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