CHAPTER 1

Numeration Systems
SCOPE AND SEQUENCE

1-1 History of Numeration System

1-2 Rounding Off Numbers and Significant Digits

1-3 Greatest Common Factor

1-4 Least Common Multiple

1-5 Fractions

1-6 Decimals

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

At the end of the chapter, the students will be able to:

1. Recount the history of Numeration System;

2. Report the appropriate digits in rounding off numbers and handling significant figures;

3. Find the greatest common factor (GCF) of a set of numbers;

4. Find the least common multiple (LCM) of a group of numbers;

5. Perform operations involving fractions; and

6. Perform operations involving decimals.

Lesson 1-1 History of Numeration System

No one knows exactly when ordered numeration systems began, but counting has
been around for tens of thousands of years. A notched baboon bone dating back 35,000 years
was found in Africa and was apparently used for counting. In the 1930s, a wolf bone was
found in Czechoslovakia with 57 notches in several patterns of regular intervals. The bone
was dated as 30,000 years old and is assumed to be a hunter's record of his kills.

The earliest recorded numbering systems go back at least 3000 B.C., when Sumerians
in Mesopotamia were using a numbering system for recording business transactions, and
Egyptians and people in ancient India were also using numbering systems around the same
time. The decimal or base 10 numbering system goes back to at least 1800 B.C., and decimal
systems were common in European and Indian cultures from at least 1000 B.C. One of the
most important innovations in western culture was the development of the Hindu-Arabic
notation system (1, 2, 3, ... 9), which is the international standard today.

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 The Hindu-Arabic system had been around for at least 2,000 years before the
Europeans heard about it, and it has many important innovations. One of these was the place-
holding concept of zero. Although the concept of zero as a null placeholder had appeared in
many cultures in different forms, the first actual written zero as we know it today appeared
in India in 876 A.D. The Hindu-Arabic system was brought into Europe in the tenth century
with Gerbert of Aurillac (945-1003), and it slowly and steadily began to replace Roman
numerals (I, II, III, IV...) in Europe, especially in business transactions and mathematics. By
the sixteenth century, Europe was well versed in the far simpler and more economical
Hindu-Arabic system of notation, though Roman Numerals were still used, and are even used
today.

Numeration systems continue to be invented to this day, especially when companies

develop systems of serial numbers to identify new products. The binary (base 2), octal (base
8), and hexadecimal (or base 16) numbering systems used in computers were extensively
developed in the late 1950s for processing electronic signals in computers.

EXTEND YOUR KNOWLEDGE

For further reading, you may visit the following websites:

a. Numeration Systems - History - Numbering, Base, Hindu, and Arabic - JRank Articles
http://science.jrank.org/pages/4778/Numeration-Systems-
History.html#ixzz3yyzIAAID (Retrieved July 2018)

b.http://science.jrank.org/pages/4778/Numeration-Systems-History.html
(Retrieved July 2018)

c. http://faculty.atu.edu/mfinan/2033/section5.pdf (Retrieved July 2018)

d.http://www.math.chalmers.se/Math/Grundutb/GU/MAN250/S04/Number_Syste
ms.pdf (Retrieved July 2018)

1-2 Rounding Off Numbers and Significant Digits

Rules for Rounding Off Numbers

Rule 1: Determine what your rounding digit is and look at the digit to the right of it
(highlighted digit).If the highlighted digit is 1, 2, 3, 4 simply drop all digits to the right of
rounding digit.

Example:

3.423 may be rounded off to 3.42 when rounded off to the nearest hundredths place.

3.423 may be rounded off to 3.4 when rounded off to the nearest tenths place

3.423 may be rounded off to 3 when rounded off to the nearest units place.

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Rule 2: Determine what your rounding digit is and look at the digit to the right of it
(highlighted digit).If the highlighted digit is 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 add one to the rounding digit and
drop all digits to the right of rounding digit.

Example:

2.786 may be rounded off to 2.79 when rounded off to the nearest hundredths place.

2.786 may be rounded off to 2.8 when rounded off to the nearest tenths place.

2.786 may be rounded off to 3 when rounded off to the nearest units place.

2.856 may be rounded off to 2.9 when rounded off to the nearest tenths place.

Exception to Rule 2: When the first digit dropped is 5 and there are no digits following or
the digits following are zeros, make the preceding digit even (i.e., round off to the nearest
even digit).

Example:

2.315 and 2.325 are both 2.32 when rounded off to the nearest hundredths place.

Rounding and Significant Digits

Another consideration in rounding is when you have to round to "an appropriate

number of significant digits". What are significant digits? Well, they are sort of the
"interesting" or "important" digits. For example,

3.14159 has six significant digits (all the numbers give you useful information)

1000 has one significant digit (only the 1 is interesting; you don't know anything for
sure about the hundreds, tens, or units places; the zeroes may just be placeholders;
they may have rounded something off to get this value)

1000.0 has five significant digits (the ".0" tells us something interesting about the
presumed accuracy of the measurement being made: that the measurement is
accurate to the tenths place, but that there happen to be zero tenths)

0.00035 has two significant digits (only the 3 and 5 tell us something; the other zeroes
are placeholders, only providing information about relative size)

0.000350 has three significant digits (that last zero tells us that the measurement was
made accurate to that last digit, which just happened to have a value of zero)

1006 has four significant digits (the 1 and 6 are interesting, and we have to count the
zeroes, because they are between the two interesting numbers)

560 has two significant digits (the last zero is just a placeholder)

560. (notice the "point" after the zero) has three significant digits (the decimal point
tells us that the measurement was made to the nearest unit, so the zero is not just a
placeholder)

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 560.0 has four significant digits (the zero in the tenths place means that the
measurement was made accurate to the tenths place, and that there just happen to be
zero tenths; the 5 and 6 give useful information, and the other zero is between
significant digits, and must therefore also be counted)

If you need to express your answer as being "accurate to" a certain place, here's how the
language works with the above examples: Copyright © Elizabeth Stapel 2000-2011 All
Rights Reserved

3.14159 is accurate to the hundred-thousandths place

1000 is accurate to the thousands place

1000.0 is accurate to the tenths place

0.00035 is accurate to the hundred-thousandths place

0.000350 is accurate to the millionths place (note the extra zero)

1006 is accurate to the units place

560 is accurate to the tens place

560. is accurate to the units place (note the decimal point)

560.0 is accurate to the tenths place

Here are the basic rules for significant digits:

1) All nonzero digits are significant.

2) All zeroes between significant digits are significant.
3) All zeroes which are both to the right of the decimal point and to the right of all
non-zero significant digits are themselves significant.

Here are some rounding examples; each number is rounded to four, three, and two
significant digits.

• Round 742,396 to four, three, and two significant digits:

742,400 (four significant digits)

742,000 (three significant digits)
740,000 (two significant digits)

• Round 0.07284 to four, three, and two significant digits:

0.07284 (four significant digits)

0.0728 (three significant digits)
0.073 (two significant digits)

• Round 231.45 to four, three, and two significant digits:

231.5 (four significant digits)

231 (three significant digits)
230 (two significant digits)

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 The real question comes in how to round answers to the "appropriate" number of
significant digits. The idea is this: Suppose you measure a block of wood. The length is 5.6
inches, the width is 4.4 inches, and the thickness is 1.7 inches, at least as best you can tell
from your tape measure. To find the volume, you would multiply these three dimensions, to
get 41.888 cubic inches. However, can you really, with a straight face, claim to have measured
the volume of that block of wood to the nearest thousandth of a cubic inch? Not hardly! Each
of your measurements was accurate (as far as you can tell) to two significant digits: your
tape was marked off in tenths of inches, and you wrote down the closest tenth of an inch that
you could see. Therefore, you cannot claim five decimal places of accuracy, because none of
your measurements exceeded two digits of accuracy. You can only claim two significant
digits in your answer. In other words, the "appropriate" number of significant digits is two,
and you would report (in your physics lab report, for instance) that the volume of the block
is 42 cubic inches, approximately.

Rounding Addition

How do you round when they give you a bunch of numbers to add? You would add (or
subtract) the numbers as usual, but then you would round the answer to the same decimal
place as the least-accurate number.

• Round to the appropriate number of significant digits:

13.214 + 234.6 + 7.0350 + 6.38

Looking at the numbers, the second number, 234.6, is only accurate to the tenths
place; all the other numbers are accurate to a greater number of decimal places.
Therefore, my answer will have to be rounded to the tenths place:

13.214 + 234.6 + 7.0350 + 6.38 = 261.2290

Rounding to the tenths place: Copyright © -2011 All Rights Reserved

13.214 + 234.6 + 7.0350 + 6.38 = 261.2

Here is another example:

• Round 1247 + 134.5 + 450 + 78 to the appropriate number of significant digits.

Looking at each number, final answer should be rounded off to the nearest tens
place, because 450 is only accurate to the tens place. First, add in the usual way:

1247 + 134.5 + 450 + 78 = 1909.5

...and then round the result to the tens place:

1247 + 134.5 + 450 + 78 = 1910

Rounding Multiplication

How do you round, when they give you numbers to multiply (or divide)? You would
multiply (or divide) the numbers as usual, but then you would round the answer to the
same number of significant digits as the least-accurate number.

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 • Simplify, and round to the appropriate number of significant digits:

16.235 × 0.217 × 5

First, note that 5 has only one significant digit, so the final answer should be
rounded off to one significant digit. The product is:

16.235 × 0.217 × 5 = 17.614975

...but since it can only claim one accurate significant digit, 17.614975 is rounded to
20, which is accurate to one significant digit.

16.235 × 0.217 × 5 = 20

• Find the product of 0.00435 and 4.6 to the appropriate number of digits.

First, multiply the two numbers:

0.00435 × 4.6 = 0.02001

By looking at the original numbers, it is noticeable that 4.6 has only two significant
digits, so 0.02001 should be rounded off to two significant digits. The 2 is the first
significant digit, so the 0 following it will have to be the second significant digits. In
other words, the answer should be reported as:

0.00435 × 4.6 = 0.020

The answer should not be 0.02, because 0.02 has only one significant digit; namely,
the "2". The trailing zero in 0.020 indicates that "this is accurate to the thousandths
place, or two significant digits", and is therefore a necessary part of the answer.

Just remember the difference:

For adding, use "least accurate place".

For multiplying, use "least number of significant digits".

EXERCISES

1. Round 785.840783 to the nearest digit and determine the number of significant figures:
Nearest Rounding Off Significant Figures

a. Hundreds

b. Tens

c. Thousandths

d. Ten Thousandths

e. Hundred
Thousandths

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2. Perform the following operations and report the final answer to its appropriate
significant digits.

a. 1.5 + 2.8 c. 3.89 x 8.765

b. 2.35 + 9.765 d. 53.7 x 45.891

EXTEND YOUR KNOWLEDGE

For further reading, you may visit the following websites:

a. https://www.e-education.psu.edu/egee102/node/1899 (Retrieved July 2018)

b. http://www.purplemath.com/modules/rounding2.htm (Retrieved July 2018)

c. http://tournas.rice.edu/website/documents/SignificantFigureRules1.pdf
(Retrieved July 2018)

d.
http://www.flinders.edu.au/slc_files/Documents/Red%20Guides/Rounding%20nu
mbers.pdf (Retrieved July 2018)

1-3 Greatest Common Factor

Factors shared by two or more whole numbers are called common factors. The
largest of the common factors is called the greatest common factor, or GCF.

Factors of 24: 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 12, 24

Factors of 36: 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 9, 12, 18, 36
Common Factors: 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 12
The greatest common factor (GCF) of 24 and 36 is 12.

Example 1 shows three different methods for finding the GCF.

1. Finding the GCF
Find the GCF of each set of numbers.
A. 16 and 24
Method 1: List the factors.
Factors of 16: 1, 2, 4, 8, 16 List all the factors.
Factors of 24: 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 12, 24 Highlight the GCF.
The GCF of 16 and 24 is 8.

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B. 12, 24, and 32
Method 2: Use prime factorization.
12 = 2 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 3 Write the prime factorization of each number.
24 = 2 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 3
32 = 2 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 2 Find the common prime factors.
2⋅2=4 Find the product of the common prime factors.
The GCF of 12, 24, and 32 is 4.
C. 12, 18, and 60
Method 3: Use a ladder diagram.
Begin with a factor that divides into
each number. Keep dividing until the three
numbers have no common factors.
𝟐⋅𝟑=6 Find the product of the numbers you divided by.
The GCF is 6.

EXERCISES

1. Find the GCF of each set of numbers.

a. 5 and 15 c. 42, 64, and 80

b. 21 and 49 d. 54, 102, and 156

EXTEND YOUR KNOWLEDGE

For further reading, you may visit the following websites:

a. http://library.vcc.ca/learningcentre/pdf/vcclc/MathBasics-GCFandLCM.pdf
(Retrieved July 2018)

b.https://www.monet.k12.ca.us/documents%5Cmath%5Ck6%5CMath%20Content
%5CGCF%20and%20LCM%5CMicrosoft%20PowerPoint%20-%20GCF%20and.pdf
(Retrieved July 2018)

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1-4 Least Common Multiple
The smallest common multiple of two or more whole numbers is called the least
common multiple or LCM.

1. Find the least common multiple (LCM).

Method 1. Use a number line.
A. 6 and 9
Use a number line to skip count by 6 and 9.

The least common multiple (LCM) of 6 and 9 is 18.

Method 2: Use a list.
B. 3, 5, and 6
3: 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18, 21, 24, 27, 30, 33, . . . List multiples of
5: 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, . . . 3, 5, and 6.
6: 6, 12, 18, 24, 30, 36, . . . Find the smallest number that is in all the lists.
LCM: 30

Method 3: Use prime factorization.

C. 8 and 12
8 = 2⋅2⋅2
12 = 2 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 3 Write the prime factorization of each number.
Line up the common factors.
2∙2∙2∙3 To find the LCM, multiply one
LCM: 24 number from each column.

D. 12, 10, and 15

12 = 22 ⋅ 3 Write the prime factorization of each
10 = 2 ⋅ 5 number in exponential form.
15 = 3⋅5
To find the LCM, multiply each prime factor
22 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 5 once with the greatest exponent used in any
22 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 5 = 60 of the prime factorizations

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EXERCISES

1. Find the LCM of each set of numbers.

a. 15 and 25 c. 54, 84, and 100

b. 20 and 120 d. 52, 106, and 156

EXTEND YOUR KNOWLEDGE

For further reading, you may visit the following websites:

a. http://library.vcc.ca/learningcentre/pdf/vcclc/MathBasics-GCFandLCM.pdf
(Retrieved July 2018)

b.https://www.monet.k12.ca.us/documents%5Cmath%5Ck6%5CMath%20Content
%5CGCF%20and%20LCM%5CMicrosoft%20PowerPoint%20-%20GCF%20and.pdf
(Retrieved July 2018)

1-5 Fractions
OPERATIONS WITH FRACTION

ADDING AND SUBTRACTING FRACTIONS

Rule for Adding/Subtracting Fractions and Mixed Numbers:

• Change any whole or mixed numbers to improper fractions.

• Fractions cannot be added/subtracted unless they have the same
denominator. We usually try to find the Least Common Denominator
(LCD). **
• Change each fraction to an equivalent fraction using the least common
denominator ***.
• Once all fractions have the same denominator, we add/subtract the
numerators ONLY!!
• If necessary, reduce the sum to lowest terms and change improper fractions
to whole or mixed numbers.

*** The least common denominator (LCD) for two or more fractions is the least common
multiple (LCM) of the denominators. It is the smallest number that is evenly divisible (no
remainder) by each of the denominators of the fractions being added.

Example 1:
5 3
Find the sum of + and write as a mixed number reduced to lowest terms.
7 7

Here both fractions have the same denominator. All that has left to do is to add the
numerators and just copy the denominator.

5 3 5+3 8 𝟏
+ = = =𝟏
7 7 7 7 𝟕
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This is a mixed number reduced to lowest terms!

Example 2:
2 3
Find the sum of 5 + 7 and write as a proper fraction reduced to lowest terms.

Here both fractions have different denominators. Before we can add them, we will have to
make the denominators the same. We do this by using the least common denominator
(LCD). This is the smallest number that is evenly divisible (no remainder) by 5 and 7.

Since 5 and 7 are prime numbers, we can find the least common denominator (LCD) by
multiplying them. That is, the LCD is 7(5) = 35.

Now we have to change each fraction to an equivalent fraction using the least common
denominator (LCD).

2 2 7 14 3 3 5 15
= ⋅ = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 = ⋅ =
5 5 7 35 7 7 5 35

and

14 15 14 + 15 𝟐𝟗
+ = =
35 35 35 𝟑𝟓

This is a proper fraction reduced to lowest terms!

Example 3:

5 1 3
Simplify 6 + 4 − 16. Write the result as a proper fraction reduced to lowest terms.

NOTE: The word "simplify" is used often in mathematics and, depending

on the situation, requires us to carry out different calculations. Here
"simplify" means to add the first two fractions and then subtract the
third one from this sum.

All fraction have a different denominator. Before we can simplify (add and subtract), we
MUST change the denominators to the same number, preferable the smallest number that
each denominator will divide into evenly (without remainder).

NOTE: When adding and subtracting fractions we are always trying to

find the least common denominator to keep the calculations
manageable. The least common denominator is the smallest number
that each denominator will divide into evenly.

Please understand that finding the LCD is not mandatory! The product
of all denominators used for the common denominators works just as
well. Certainly, 6(4)(16) = 384 is a common denominator, but not
necessarily the least common denominator. Since 4, 6, and 16 are not
prime numbers, we will attempt to find a common denominator that is
smaller than 384.

To find the least common denominator, we use the concept of Prime Factorization. That is,
we will factor each denominator into its prime factors.

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Use prime factorization.
4, 6, and 12
4 = 2⋅2 Write the prime factorization of each number.
6 = 2⋅ ⋅3
16 = 2 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 2
Line up the common factors.
2∙2∙2∙2⋅3 To find the LCD, multiply one number from each column.
LCD: 48

NOTE: 48 is the smallest number that 4, 6, and 16 divide into evenly. This is our least
common denominator.

Now we have to change each fraction to an equivalent fraction using the least common
denominator (LCD).

5 5 8 40 1 1 12 12 3 3 3 9
= ⋅ = and = ⋅ = and = ⋅ =
6 6 8 48 4 4 12 48 16 16 3 48

then

40 12 9 40 + 12 − 9 52 − 9 𝟒𝟑
+ − = = =
48 48 48 48 48 𝟒𝟖

This is a proper fraction reduced to lowest terms!

Example 4:
3
Find the difference of 4 − 8 and write as a mixed number reduced to lowest terms.

Here the minuend is a whole number. We will first change it to an improper fraction as
follows:

3 4 3
4− = −
8 1 8

Since every number has a factor of 1 and then there is only an 8, we can find the least
common denominator (LCD) by multiplying them. That is, the LCD is 1(8) = 8.

Now we have to change the whole number to an equivalent fraction using the least
common denominator (LCD).

4 4 8 32
= ⋅ =
1 1 8 8

and

32 3 32 − 3 29 𝟓
− = = =𝟑
8 8 8 8 𝟖

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This is a mixed number reduced to lowest terms!

Example 5:
1 7 1
Simplify 7 4 + 2 8 − 4 3 and write as a mixed number.

Here we are dealing with mixed numbers. We will first change them to improper fractions
as follows:

1 7 1 29 23 13
7 +2 −4 = + −
4 8 3 4 8 3

All fractions have a different denominator. Before we can simplify, we will have to make the
denominators the same. We do this by using the least common denominator (see Example
3 above).

3 is a prime number, however, 4 and 8 are not prime numbers. Therefore, the least common
denominator (LCD) is not found by calculating their product. Although, the product 3(4)(8)
= 96 would be an acceptable common denominator.

Use prime factorization.

3, 4, and 8
3 = 3⋅1 Write the prime factorization of each number.
4 = 2⋅2
8= 2⋅2⋅2
Line up the common factors.
3∙1∙2∙2⋅2 To find the LCD, multiply one number from each
column.
LCD: 24

NOTE: 24 is the smallest number that 3, 4, and 8 divide into evenly. This is our least
common denominator.

Now we have to change each fraction to an equivalent fraction using the least common
denominator (LCD) and carry out the operations.

29 23 13 29 6 23 3 13 8 174 69 104 139 𝟏𝟗

+ − = ⋅ + ⋅ − ⋅ = + − = =𝟓
4 8 3 4 6 8 3 3 8 24 24 24 24 𝟐𝟒

This is a mixed number reduced to lowest terms!

MULTIPLICATION

Rule:

• Change any whole or mixed numbers to improper fractions.

• Cross-cancel as much as possible. NOTE: When multiplying two fractions,
cross-canceling means that the numerator of one fraction and the

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 denominator of the other fraction have a common factor that can be divided
out
• Multiply the numerators AND multiply the denominators.
• If necessary, reduce the result to lowest terms.

Example 6:
3 8
Find the product of 4 ⋅ 9 and write as a proper fraction reduced to lowest terms.

Step 1 of the Multiplication Rule is done. Both numbers are fractions.

Step 2 requires us "to cross-cancel as much as possible" before we carry out the
multiplication.

We notice that 3 in the numerator of the first fraction and 9 in the denominator of the
second fraction have a factor of 3 in common. Furthermore, 4 in the denominator of the
first fraction and 8 in the numerator of the second fraction have a factor of 4 in
common. Therefore, we will cross-canceling as follows:

3 8 1 2
⋅ = ⋅
4 9 1 3

Notice that we divided 3 in the numerator of the first fraction and 9 in the denominator of
the second fraction by 3. We also divided 4 in the denominator of the first fraction and 8 in
the numerator of the second fraction by 4.

We find

3 8 𝟐
⋅ =
4 9 𝟑

This is a proper fraction reduced to lowest terms!

Example 7:
3 7
Find the product of 4 ⋅ 8 and write as a proper fraction reduced to lowest terms.

Since cross-canceling is not possible, we simply multiply the numerators and the
denominators.

3 7 3(7) 𝟐𝟏
⋅ = =
4 8 4(8) 𝟑𝟐

This is a proper fraction reduced to lowest terms

Example 8:
7
Find the product of 32 ⋅ 8 and write as a mixed number reduced to lowest terms.

Here the multiplicand is a whole number. We will first change it to an improper fraction as
follows:

32 7
⋅
1 8
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Now we notice that 32 and 8 have a factor of 8 in common. Cross canceling allows us to
divide the 32 and 8 by the number 8 before we multiply.

32 7 4 7 4(7) 28
⋅ = ⋅ = = = 𝟐𝟖
1 8 1 1 1(1) 1

This is a mixed number reduced to lowest terms.

Example 9:
2 1
Find the product of 2 5 ⋅ 1 3 and write as a mixed number reduced to lowest terms.

Here the multiplicand and the multiplier are mixed numbers. We will first change them to
improper fractions.

12 4
⋅
5 3

Now we notice that 12 and 3 have a factor of 3 in common. Cross canceling allows us to
divide the 12 and 3 by the number 3 before we multiply.

12 4 4 4 4(4) 16 𝟏
⋅ = ⋅ = = =𝟑
5 3 5 1 5(1) 5 𝟓

This is a mixed number reduced to lowest terms.

Example 10:
1
Find the product of 3 4 ⋅ 5 and write as a mixed number reduced to lowest terms.

Here the multiplicand is a mixed number and the multiplier is a whole number. We will
first change them to improper fractions.

13 5
⋅
4 1

Since cross-canceling is not possible, we simply multiply the numerators and the
denominators.

13 5 13(5) 65 𝟏
⋅ = = = 𝟏𝟔
4 1 4(1) 4 𝟒

This is a mixed number reduced to lowest terms.

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DIVISION

Rule:

• Change any whole or mixed numbers to improper fractions.

• Convert the division to an equivalent multiplication problem using the
reciprocal *** of the divisor as the multiplier.
• Then multiply according to the rule for multiplying fractions and mixed
numbers.

*** Interchanging the numerator and denominator of a fraction results

in a fraction that is called the reciprocal of the original fraction. When a
number is multiplied by its reciprocal, the product equals 1.

Example 11:

5 3
Find the quotient of 8 ÷ 4 and write as a proper fraction reduced to lowest terms.

In order to carry out this division, we will convert it to an equivalent multiplication

problem using the reciprocal of the divisor as the multiplier.
3 4
That is, 4 becomes 3.

5 3 5 4
Next, we will write the quotient 8 ÷ 4 as the product 8 ⋅ 3 .

Cross-canceling and multiplying results in the following:

5 4 5 1 5(1) 𝟓
⋅ = ⋅ = =
8 3 2 3 2(3) 𝟔

This is a proper fraction reduced to lowest terms.

Example 12:

5
Find the quotient of 21 ÷ 3 8 and write as a mixed number reduced to lowest terms.

Here the multiplicand is a whole number and the multiplier is a mixed number. We will
first change them to improper fractions.

21 29
÷
1 8

In order to carry out this division, we will convert it to an equivalent multiplication

problem using the reciprocal of the divisor as the multiplier.

21 8 21(8) 168 𝟐𝟑
⋅ = = =𝟓
1 29 1(29) 29 𝟐𝟗

This is a mixed number reduced to lowest terms.

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Example 13:
7
Find the quotient of 6 9 ÷ 5 and write as a mixed number reduced to lowest terms.

Here the multiplicand is a mixed number and the multiplier is a whole number. We will
first change them to improper fractions.

61 5
÷
9 1

In order to carry out this division, we will convert it to an equivalent multiplication

problem using the reciprocal of the divisor as the multiplier.

61 1 61(1) 61 𝟏𝟔
⋅ = = =𝟏
9 5 9(5) 45 𝟒𝟓

This is a mixed number reduced to lowest terms.

EXERCISES

1. Perform the following operations and reduced the final answer to its lowest terms.

5 1 5 7
a. +8 c. 8 𝑥
6 10

3 4 4 2
b. 4 − d. 7 ÷
5 5

2. Solve the following problems involving fraction.

2 1
a. Anton spent 5 of his money on books. He spent another 5 of his money on buying
pens. What fraction of his money was left?
1 3 1
b. Mr. De Guzman bought 7 2 kg meat. He used 2 4 kg for afritada, 3 8 kg for menudo,
and the rest for pochero. How many kilograms of meat did he use for pochero?
4
c. Maria has seven packages of peanuts. Each pack contains 5 cup. She needs 8 cups of
peanuts to make peanut brittle. How many more cups does she need?
d. Mrs. Cruz bought a loaf of bread for breakfast. It measures 18 inches long. How
1
many slices can she make if each slice measures 1 8 inches long?

EXTEND YOUR KNOWLEDGE

For further reading, you may visit the following websites:

a.http://sites.csn.edu/istewart/mathweb/Math095/fractions/fract_operations.html
(Retrieved July 2018)

b.http://sites.csn.edu/istewart/mathweb/Math095/fractions/fract_operations.html
(Retrieved July 2018)

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 c. https://www.epcc.edu/CollegeReadiness/Documents/Fraction_Review_0-40.pdf
(Retrieved July 2018)

d. http://www.la-citadelle.com/mathematics/the_book_of_fractions.pdf (Retrieved
July 2018)

1-6 Decimals
Nowadays, money takes a very big role in or day-to-day living such as buying basic
necessities like food and clothing, and payment for transportation fares, cellphone loads,
computer rentals, electric consumption and others.
As of 2014, the minimum daily wage of an employee in Metro Manila is ₱466.00. This
amount will then get deductions from tax, Philhealth and SSS contributions, and sometimes
even loans. Indeed, every centavo counts and in order to survive in this challenging world,
smart budgeting of our earnings is needed.
The idea of budgeting becomes vital and it is highly imperative that we give
importance to every centavo that we earn. This chapter focuses on decimals, which include
the four basic operations and their applications to the real world.
The word decimal comes from the Latin word decimal, meaning tenth part. Although
we are using the different notation, we are still considering the nonnegative rational
numbers.

ADDING AND SUBTRACTING DECIMALS

Adding and subtracting decimals is similar to the process of adding and subtracting
whole numbers.
:
To add or subtract decimal numbers:
1. Arrange the digits in columns and align the decimal points.
2. Insert zeros in empty decimal place values (if needed) so
that all of the numbers have the same number of decimal
places.
3. Add or subtract as with whole numbers.
4. Place the decimal point between the digits vertically aligned
to all the addends.

Example 1
Add: 0.25 + 0.33 + 0.78
0.25 Arrange the digits
0.33 in columns and
+0.78 align the decimal
1.36 points

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 Example 2
Find the difference of 123.057 and 2.4
123.057 Insert zeros in empty
- 2.400 decimal place value so
120.657 that all of the numbers
have the same number
of decimal places.

MULTIPLICATION OF DECIMALS

Multiplying Decimals by Whole Number

Multiplying a decimal by a whole number will result to a product with the same number of
decimal places as to the given decimal. Look at the next examples.

Example 3 4 × 1.2 =
1.2
1.2 1.2 1 decimal place
1.2 × 4
+ 1.2 4.8 1 decimal place
4.8
Example 4 Multiply 42.25 × 12
1
42.25 2 decimal places
× 12 0 decimal places
1 1
84 50
+ 422 5
507.00 2 decimal places
Answer: 507

Zero in the Product

Sometimes when we multiply decimals, we need to insert zeros in the product to
make the correct number of decimal places.
Example 5
a. Multiply: 0.05 × 0.07 b. Multiply: 0.23 × 0.05
0.05 2 decimal places 0.23 2 decimal places
× 0.07 2 decimal places × 0.05 2 decimal places
0.0035 4 decimal places 0.0115 4 decimal places
insert 2 zeros to insert 1 zero to
make 4 decimal make 4 decimal
places places

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Multiplying Decimals
In multiplying a decimal by another decimal, multiply them as if they are whole
numbers. In placing the decimal point in the product, get the sum of the number of decimal
places in each factor.
Example 6 Multiply: 0.86 × 0.05 Example 5 Multiply: 12.19 × 6.3
0.86 2 decimal places 12.19 2 decimal places
× 0.05 2 decimal places × 6.3 1 decimal place
430 3657
+ 000 + 7314
000 76.797 3 decimal places
0.0430 4 decimal places

To multiply decimals:

1. Ignore the decimal points and multiply as if they are

whole numbers.
2. Place the decimal point in the product based on the total
number of decimal places in the factors.
Note: Count the number of decimal places from the right.

Multiplication by Powers of 10
Now, let us consider some special kind of products. The first involves multiplying 10,
100, and 1000. Next is multiplying by 0.1, 0.01, and 0.001. Look at the following products.
Example 7 Consider the following examples.
5.17 × 10 = 51.7 Move the decimal point one-step to the right.
5.17 × 100 = 517 Move the decimal point two steps to the right.
5.17 × 1000 = 5170 Move the decimal point three steps to the right.
5.17 × 0.1 = 0.517 Move the decimal point one-step to the left.
5.17 × 0.01 = 0.0517 Move the decimal point two steps to the left.
5.17 × 0.001 = 0.00517 Move the decimal point three steps to the left.

Example 8 Multiply 5.17 by 10 million

5.17 × 10000000 = 5.1 700 000 move 7 decimal places to the right

Example 9 Multiply 5.17 by 1 millionth

5.17 × 0.000001 = 0.000 005 17 move the decimal point 6 decimal places
to the left

To multiply a decimal by 10,000 or 1,000;

1. Count the number of zeros in 10,0000 or 1,000
2. Move the decimal point to the right based on the number of
zeros.
To multiply decimals by 0, 1, 0.01, or 0.001;
1. Count the number of decimal places in the tenth, hundredth, or
thousandth.
2. Move the decimal point to the left based on the number of
decimal places

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Estimating Products
We can find the estimated product by rounding each number to its largest place value.
Example 10 Estimate the product of 5.23 × 4.547.
Solution:
5.23 5 Round off both factors to the nearest whole number.
× 4.54 ×5 Then, multiply.
25
Answer: The estimated product is 25.
Example 11 Estimate the product: 12.3 × 4.8
12.3 12 Round off both factors to the nearest
× 4.8 ×5 whole number. Then, multiply.
60
Answer: The estimated product is 60.
Example 12 Estimate the product: 62.11 × 9.75
62.11 62 Round off both factors to the nearest
× 9.75 × 10 whole number. Then, multiply.
620
Answer: The estimated product is 620.

DIVISION OF DECIMALS

Dividing Decimal by Whole Numbers

We use the following method when we divide a decimal quantity by a whole number.
To divide a decimal by a whole number:
1. Place the decimal point in the quotient directly above the decimal point in the
dividend.
2. Divide as in whole numbers.
3. Insert zeroes to the dividend when needed.

Example 13
Divide: 34.75 ÷ 5
1. Place the decimal point directly above the decimal point in the dividend.

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 2. Divide

Dividing Decimals by Decimals

To divide a decimal by another decimal:

1. Change the divisor to a whole number by moving the decimal point to the rightmost
place.

2. Move the decimal point in the dividend to as many places as the decimal point in the
dividend to as many places as the decimal point in the divisor is moved.

3. Divide like whole numbers.

Example 14 Divide 23.8 ÷ 0.7

1. Change the divisor to a whole number by moving the decimal point to the rightmost
place.

Answer: 34

Example 15 Divide 281.25 by 2.25

Move the decimal point of the

divisor and the dividend 2 places to
the right.

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 Place the decimal
point.

Divide the whole

numbers.

Dividing Decimals by Powers of 10

Rather than doing the long method, it is a great help if we can learn a faster way of
dividing decimals by powers of ten.

Example 16 Divide: 3.0745 ÷ 100

3.0745 ÷ 100 = 0.030745 Move two decimal places to the left

When dividing decimals by 10, 100, or 1000,

move the decimal point in the dividend to the left based
on the number of zeroes in the power of 10.

Example 17 Divide: 1.8942 ÷ 0.001

1.8942 ÷ 0.001 = 1894.2 Move three decimal places to the right.

When dividing decimals by 0.1, 0.01, or 0.001,

move the decimal point in the dividend to the right
based on the number of zeroes in the power of 10.

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Changing Fractions to Decimals and Vice Versa
Fractions can be changed to decimals by dividing the numerators by their
denominators. In the following examples, find out what happens when the numerators of
the fraction are divided by their denominators.

The three dots indicate

that 8 repeat indefinitely.

A bar (-) above a number is

used to indicate that the digit(s)
repeats.

In example7, the digit 8 in the quotient keeps on appearing. When the digits
repeat, it is described as a repeating decimal. The three dots (…) or a bar are used to
indicate the repeating part of a decimal number.
Decimals are often used instead of fractions to represent rational numbers because
they take less space and make it easier to compare two numbers. Reading a decimal
correctly provides a way to write it in fraction form.

Estimating Quotients
Estimating has many uses. It can be done before solving a problem to get a hint to
the answer. It can be done afterwards for checking. We usually estimate by rounding the
numbers to one or two non-zero digits, depending on how accurate we want our estimate
to be.

To estimate the quotient of decimals, round

the dividend and divisor to the greatest place value
before dividing.

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Example 18 Divide: 52.7 ÷ 5.25

Applications and Problem solving

Applications and Problem Solving
Example 19 Alliyah, Lyka, and Abigail went to the school clinic to find out their
weights. Alliyah’s weight is 32.598 kilograms. Lyka’s weight is 33.56 kilograms, while
Abigail weight 35.84 kilograms. What is the total weight of the three pupils?

Solution:
Add 32.58 + 33.56 + 35.84
1. Line up the decimal points.
32.58
33.56
+ 35.84

2. Add as with whole numbers.

32.58
33.56
+ 35.84
101.98
Answer: The total weight of the three students is 101.98 kg.

Example 20 In a sale, a washing machine costs ₱3,999.99. Its price has been reduced
by ₱500.00. What was its price before the sale?

Solution:
Add: 3999.99 + 500.00
1. Line up the decimal points.
3999.99
+ 500.00

2. Add as with whole numbers.

3999.99
+ 500.00
4499.99
Answer: The price of the washing machine before the sale was ₱4,499.99.

Example 21 How many centavos are there in ₱123.50?

Understand.
a. What is asked?
The number of centavos in ₱123.50.
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 b. What are the given facts?
₱123.50
Plan. What operations shall we use to solve the problem? Select your own
strategy.
₱1.00=100 cents
Multiply: ₱123.50 x 100 cents
Solve. Show your computation.
₱123.50 x ₱1.00
=123.50 x 100 cents Substituting 100 cents for ₱1.00:
₱1.00=100 cents
=12 350 cents Multiply 123.50 x 100.
Answer: There are 12 350 cents in ₱123.50.
Check. This is one way to check if your answer is correct.
If you have:

Number of Piece (s) Amount Number of Centavos

1 ₱100.00 bill 1 x 100 x 100 = 1000
1 ₱20.00 bill 1 x 20 x 100 =2000
3 ₱1.00 coin 3 x 1 x 100 = 300
2 ₱0.25 coin 2 x 0.25 x 100 = 50
Total ₱123.50 12 350

Example 22 Jason and Mark are best friends. One day, Mark borrowed money from
Jason. Jason let him ₱35.00 consisting of 5-peso and 25-centavo coins. Jason
gave 26 coins to his best friend. How many pieces of each coin did Jason give to Mark?

Understand.
a. What is asked?
The number of ₱5.00 coins and ₱0.25 coins Jason gave to Mark.
b. What are the given facts?
There are 26 coins-combination of ₱5.00 and ₱0.25. The total amount of the
coins is ₱35.00.
Plan. What operations shall we use to solve the problem? Select your own
strategy.
Strategy: Guessing and checking can help us solve this problem.
Solve. Show your computation.
Applying the strategy:
Guess 1 Check
21 25-centavo coins 21 x ₱0.25= ₱5.25
5 5-centavo coins 5 x ₱5.00=+₱25.00
₱30.25 ₱30.25 < ₱35.00

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 Guess 2 Check
20 25-centavo coins 20 x ₱0.25= ₱5.00
6 5-peso coins 6 x ₱5.00=+₱30.00
₱35.00 ₱35.00 = ₱35.00

Answer: Jason gave his best friend six pieces of ₱5 coins and twenty pieces
of 25ȼ.

Check. To check our answer, we can go back to our calculation.

Example 23 In Mang Lucio’s computer shop, Bryce paid P 156.80 for 7 hours of
surfing the net for his project. How much is the computer rent per hour?

Mang Lucio’s Computer Shop

OFFICIAL RECEIPT

Total number of hours: 7

Other:P0.00

Total amount: P 156.80

Understand.
a. What is asked?
The amount of computer rent per hr.
b. What are the given facts?
7 hrs. of computer rent cost P156.80

Plan. What operation shall we use to solve the problem? Select your own strategy
Divide P 156.80 by 7 to get one-hour rental fee
Solve. Show your computation.
Divide: 156.80 ÷ 7

Answer: the computer rent per hour is P 22. 40

Check. One way of checking your answer is by multiplying P 22.40 × 7

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EXERCISES

1. Perform the following operations and reduced the final answer to its lowest terms.

a. 1.56 + 2.67 c. 124.5 x 2.3

b. 35.7 – 24.78 d. 124 ÷ 2.5

2. Solve the following problems involving decimals.

a. In a sale, a washing machine costs ₱8,599.99. Its price has been reduced by ₱500.00.
What was its price before the sale?
b. Marissa bought a dress worth ₱1,966.99. If she gave ₱2,000.00 to the cashier, how
much is her change?
c. How many centavos are there in ₱23.50?
d. Sipnayan magazine had an introduction offer of ₱2,388.75 for sixty-five issues.
What was the cost of a single issue?

EXTEND YOUR KNOWLEDGE

For further reading, you may visit the following websites:

a. http://esminfo.prenhall.com/samplechps/tobey/pdf/ch03.pdf (Retrieved July

2018)

b. http://www.mathcentre.ac.uk/resources/uploaded/mc-ty-decimals-2009-1.pdf
(Retrieved July 2018)

Prepared by:

Ian Almer M. Cayabyab

Irish De Vera

Mark Anthony Francisco

Daniella Paula S. Magalong

Frederick Talamayan

(BSE Mathematics Majors)

Prepared to:

Mr. Armando C. Manzano

(Instructor)
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