MODULE: (OLLITE02) – WORLD LITERATURE

THE ANGLO-SAXON PERIOD

A. Describe what Anglo-Saxon life was;

B. Share views on literature and its significance to history;
C. Illustrate the highlights of the events during Anglo-Saxons and their
contributions to the world of literature.

THE ANGLO-SAXON HISTORY

The early Anglo-Saxon period

covers the period of medieval Britain that
started from the end of Roman rule. By
the year 400, southern Britain—Britain
below Hadrian’s Wall—was a peripheral
part of the Western Roman Empire,
occasionally lost to rebellion or invasion,
but until then always eventually
recovered. Around 410, Britain slipped
beyond direct imperial control into a
phase which has generally been termed
“sub-Roman.”

In the second half of the 6th century, four structures contributed to the development of Anglo-
Saxon society: the position and freedoms of the ceorl (peasants), the smaller tribal areas coalescing
into larger kingdoms, the elite developing from warriors to kings, and Irish monasticism developing
under Finnian.

In 565, Columba, a monk from Ireland who studied at the monastic school of Moville under Saint
Finnian, reached Iona as a self-imposed exile. The influence of the monastery of Iona would grow into
what Peter Brown has described as an “unusually extensive spiritual empire,” which “stretched from
western Scotland deep to the southwest into the heart of Ireland and, to the southeast, it reached down
throughout northern Britain, through the influence of its sister monastery Lindisfarne.” Michael Drout
calls this period the “Golden Age,” when learning flourished with a renaissance in classical knowledge.

By 660 the political map of Lowland Britain had developed, with smaller territories coalescing
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into kingdoms; from this time larger kingdoms

started dominating the smaller kingdoms. The
establishment of kingdoms, with a particular king
being recognized as an overlord, developed out of
an early loose structure. Simon Keynes suggests
that the 8th century–9th century was a period of
economic and social flourishing that created
stability both below the Thames and above the
Humber. However, between the Humber and
Thames, one political entity, the Kingdom of
Mercia, grew in influence and power and attracted
attention in the East.

The 9th century saw the rise of Wessex,

from the foundations laid by King Egbert in the first
quarter of the century to the achievements of King
Alfred the Great in its closing decades. Alfred successfully defended his kingdom against the Viking
attempt at conquest and became the dominant ruler in England. He was the first king of the West
Saxons to style himself “King of the Anglo-Saxons.” Alfred had a reputation as a learned and merciful
man with a gracious and level-headed nature who encouraged education and improved his kingdom’s
legal system and military structure and his people’s quality of life.

During the course of the 10th century, the West Saxon kings extended their power first over
Mercia, then over the southern Danelaw, and finally over Northumbria, thereby imposing a semblance
of political unity on peoples who nonetheless would remain conscious of their respective customs and
their separate pasts. The prestige and pretensions of the monarchy increased, the institutions of
government strengthened, and kings and their agents sought in various ways to establish social order.
This was the society that would see three invasions in the 11th century, the third of which was led
successfully by William of Normandy in 1066 and transferred political rule to the Normans.

CONTRIBUTIONS OF ANGLO-SAXONS IN LTERATURE

Anglo-Saxon literature (or Old

English literature) encompasses literature
written in Anglo-Saxon (Old English) during
the 600- year Anglo-Saxon period of
Britain, from the mid-5th century to the
Norman Conquest of 1066. These works
include genres such as epic poetry,
hagiography, sermons, Bible translations,
legal works, chronicles, riddles, and others.
In all there are about 400 surviving
manuscripts from the period, a significant
corpus of both popular interest and
specialist research.
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Some of the most important works from this period include the poem Beowulf, which has
achieved national epic status in Britain. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle is a collection of early English
history. The poem Cædmon's Hymn from the 7th century is one of the oldest surviving written texts in
English.

Anglo-Saxon literature has gone through different periods of research—in the 19th and early
20th centuries the focus was on the Germanic roots of English, later the literary merits were examined,
and today the interest is with paleography questions and the physical manuscripts themselves such as
dating, place of origin, authorship, and looking at the connections between Anglo-Saxon culture and
the rest of Europe in the Middle Ages.

Old English poetry is of two types, the heroic Germanic pre-Christian and the Christian. It has
survived for the most part in four manuscripts. The first manuscript is called the Junius manuscript (also
known as the Caedmon manuscript), which is an illustrated poetic anthology. The second manuscript
is called the Exeter Book, also an anthology, located in the Exeter Cathedral since it was donated there
in the 11th century. The third manuscript is called the Vercelli Book, a mix of poetry and prose; how it
came to be in Vercelli, Italy, no one knows, and is a matter of debate. The fourth manuscript is called
the Nowell Codex, also a mixture of poetry and prose.

Old English Poetry

Old English poetry had no known rules or system left to

us by the Anglo-Saxons, everything we know about it is based
on modern analysis. The first widely accepted theory was by
Eduard Sievers (1885) in which he distinguished five distinct
alliterative patterns. The theory of John C. Pope (1942) uses
musical notations which has had some acceptance; every few
years a new theory arises and the topic continues to be hotly
debated.

The most popular and well known understanding of Old

English poetry continues to be Sievers' alliterative verse. The
system is based upon accent, alliteration, the quantity of vowels,
and patterns of syllabic accentuation. It consists of five
permutations on a base verse scheme; any one of the five types
can be used in any verse. The system was inherited from and
exists in one form or another in all of the older Germanic
languages. Two poetic figures commonly found in Old English
poetry are the Kenning, an often formulaic phrase that describes
one thing in terms of another, e.g. in Beowulf, the sea is called
the swan's road and Litotes, a dramatic understatement
employed by the author for ironic effect.

Old English poetry was an oral craft, and our understanding of it in written form is incomplete;
for example, we know that the poet (referred to as the Scop) could be accompanied by a harp, and
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there may be other aural traditions we are not aware of.

Poetry represents the smallest amount of the surviving Old English text, but Anglo-Saxon culture
had a rich tradition of oral storytelling, just not much was written down or survived.

Heroic poems

The Old English poetry which has received the most attention deals with the Germanic heroic
past. The longest (3,182 lines), and most important, is Beowulf, which appears in the damaged Nowell
Codex. It tells the story of the legendary Geatish hero Beowulf who is the title character. The story is
set in Scandinavia, in Sweden and Denmark, and the tale likewise probably is of Scandinavian origin.
The story is biographical and sets the tone for much of the rest of Old English poetry. It has achieved
national epic status, on the same level as the Iliad, and is of interest to historians, anthropologists,
literary critics, and students the world over.

Beyond Beowulf, other heroic poems exist. Two heroic poems have survived in fragments: The
Fight at Finnsburh, a retelling of one of the battle scenes in Beowulf (although this relation to Beowulf
is much debated), and Waldere, a version of the events of the life of Walter of Aquitaine. Two other
poems mention heroic figures: Widsith is believed to be very old in parts, dating back to events in the
4th century concerning Eormanric and the Goths, and contains a catalogue of names and places
associated with valiant deeds. Deor is a lyric, in the style of Consolation of Philosophy, applying
examples of famous heroes, including Weland and Eormanric, to the narrator's own case.

The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle contains various heroic poems inserted throughout. The earliest
from 937 is called The Battle of Brunanburh, which celebrates the victory of King Athelstan over the
Scots and Norse. There are five shorter poems: capture of the Five Boroughs (942); coronation of King
Edgar (973); death of King Edgar (975); death of Prince Alfred (1036); and death of King Edward the
Confessor (1065).

The 325 line poem Battle of Maldon celebrates Earl Byrhtnoth and his men who fell in battle
against the Vikings in 991. It is considered one of the finest, but both the beginning and end are missing
and the only manuscript was destroyed in a fire in 1731. A well-known speech is near the end of the
poem:

Old English heroic poetry was handed down orally from generation to generation. As Christianity
began to appear, resellers often recast the tales of Christianity into the older heroic stories.

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BEOWULF
Beowulf, a heroic poem, the highest achievement of Old
English literature and the earliest European vernacular epic. It
deals with events of the early 6th century and is believed to
have been composed between 700 and 750. Although originally
untitled, it was later named after the Scandinavian hero
Beowulf, whose exploits and character provide its connecting
theme. There is no evidence of a historical Beowulf, but some
characters, sites, and events in the poem can be historically
verified. The poem did not appear in print until 1815. It is
preserved in a single manuscript that dates to circa 1000 and is
known as the Beowulf manuscript.

SYNOPSIS & SUMMARY

The poem begins with a history of the Danish kings,

starting with Shild (whose funeral is described in the Prologue)
and leading up to the reign of the current king Hrothgar, Shild’s
great-grandson. Hrothgar is well-loved by his people and
successful in war. He builds a lavish hall, called Herot (or
Heorot), to house his vast army, and when the hall is finished
the Danish soldiers gather under its roof to celebrate.

However, provoked by the singing and carousing of Hrothgar’s followers, Grendel, a monster in
human shape who lives at the bottom of a nearby swamp, appears at the hall late one night and kills
thirty of the warriors in their sleep. For the next twelve years, the fear of Grendel‘s potential fury casts
a shadow over the lives of the Danes. Hrothgar and his advisers can think of nothing to appease the
monster’s anger.

Beowulf, prince of the Geats, hears about Hrothgar’s troubles gathers fourteen of his bravest
warriors, and sets sail from his home in southern Sweden. The Geats are greeted by the members of
Hrothgar’s court, and Beowulf boasts to the king of his previous successes as a warrior, particularly his
success in fighting sea monsters. Hrothgar welcomes the arrival of the Geats, hoping that Beowulf will
live up to his reputation. During the banquet that follows Beowulf‘s arrival, Unferth, a Danish soldier,
voices his doubts about Beowulf‘s past accomplishments, and Beowulf, in turn, accuses Unferth of
killing his brothers. Before retiring for the night, Hrothgar promises Beowulf great treasures if he meets
with success against the monster.

That night, Grendel appears at Herot, and Beowulf, true to his word, wrestles the monster bare-
handed. He tears off the monster’s arm at the shoulder, but Grendel escapes, only to die soon afterward
at the bottom of the snake-infested swamp where he and his mother live. The Danish warriors, who
had fled the hall in fear, return singing songs in praise of Beowulf‘s triumph and performing heroic
stories in Beowulf‘s honor. Hrothgar rewards Beowulf with a great store of treasures and, after another
banquet, the warriors of both the Geats and the Danes retire for the night.

Unknown to the warriors, however, Grendel‘s mother is plotting revenge for her son’s death. She
arrives at the hall when all the warriors are sleeping and carries off Esher, Hrothgar’s chief adviser.
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Beowulf, rising to the occasion, offers to dive to the bottom of

the lake, find the monster’s dwelling place, and destroy her.
He and his men follow the monster’s tracks to the cliff
overlooking the lake where Grendel‘s mother lives, where they
see Esher’s bloody head floating on the surface of the lake.
Beowulf prepares for battle and asks Hrothgar to look after his
warriors and to send his treasures to his uncle, King Higlac if
he does not return safely.

During the ensuing battle, Grendel‘s mother carries

Beowulf down to her underwater home, but Beowulf finally kills
the monster with a magical sword that he finds on the wall of
her home. He also finds Grendel‘s dead body, cuts off the
head, and returns to dry land. The Geat and Danish warriors,
waiting expectantly, celebrate as Beowulf has now purged
Denmark of the race of evil monsters.

They return to Hrothgar’s court, where the Danish king

is duly thankful, but warns Beowulf against the
dangers of pride and the fleeting nature of fame and power. The Danes and Geats prepare a great
feast in celebration of the death of the monsters and the next morning the Geats hurry to their boat,
anxious to begin the trip home. Beowulf bids farewell to Hrothgar and tells the old king that if the Danes
ever again need help he will gladly come to their assistance. Hrothgar presents Beowulf with more
treasures and they embrace, emotionally, like father and son.

Beowulf and the Geats sail home and, after recounting the story of his battles with Grendel and
Grendel‘s mother, Beowulf tells the Geat king Higlac about the feud between Denmark and their
enemies, the Hathobards. He describes the proposed peace settlement, in which Hrothgar will give his
daughter Freaw to Ingeld, king of the Hathobards, but predicts that the peace will not last long. Higlac
rewards Beowulf for his bravery with parcels of land, swords, and houses

In the second part of the poem, set many years

later, Higlac is dead, and Beowulf has been king of the
Geats for some fifty years. One day, a thief steals a
jewelled cup from a sleeping dragon, and the dragon
avenges his loss by flying through the night burning down
houses, including Beowulf‘s own hall and throne.

Beowulf goes to the cave where the dragon lives,

vowing to destroy it single-handedly. He is an old man now,
however, and his strength is not as great as it was when
he fought against Grendel. During the battle, Beowulf
breaks his sword against the dragon’s side, and the
dragon, enraged, engulfs Beowulf in flames, wounding him
in the neck.

All of Beowulf‘s followers flee except Wiglaf, who rushes

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through the flames to assist the aging warrior. Wiglaf stabs the dragon with his sword, and Beowulf, in
a final act of courage, cuts the dragon in half with his knife.

However, the damage is done, and Beowulf realizes that he is dying and that he has fought his
last battle. He asks Wiglaf to take him to the dragon’s storehouse of treasures, jewels, and gold, which
brings him some comfort and makes him feel that the effort has perhaps been worthwhile. He instructs
Wiglaf built a tomb to be known as “Beowulf‘s Tower” on the edge of the sea there.

After Beowulf dies, Wiglaf admonishes the troops who deserted their leader while he was fighting
against the dragon, telling them that they have been untrue to the standards of bravery, courage, and
loyalty that Beowulf has taught. Wiglaf sends a messenger to a nearby encampment of Geat soldiers
with instructions to report the outcome of the battle. The messenger predicts that the enemies of the
Geats will feel free to attack them now that their great king is dead.

Wiglaf supervises the building of Beowulf’s funeral pyre. In keeping with Beowulf‘s instructions,
the dragon’s treasure is buried alongside his ashes in the tomb, and the poem ends as it began, with
the funeral of a great warrior.

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