Topic 2: Flatworms, Roundworms, and Rotifers

Objectives

i. To explain the basic body plan of some members of phyla Platyhelminthes, Nematoda,
and Rotifera.
ii. To identify structures and functions of representative of these groups.
iii. To state characteristics of members of these groups.
iv. To explain the difference between acoelomate and pseudocoelomate, and know which
phyla associated with each.

Introduction

In aquatic, terrestrial, freshwater, and parasitic environments, flatworms of the phylum

Platyhelminthes, roundworms of the phylum Nematode, and rotifers of the phylum Rotifera all
survive. Compared to sponges and jellyfish, their morphology is more intricate. They are the simplest
animal, having bilateral symmetry and distinguishable front and posterior ends, and have three germ
layers: ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm (referred to as triploblastic). There are four classes in
the phylum: Trematoda (flukes), Cestoda (tapeworms), Turbellaria (planarians), and Monogenea.

Flatworms move by using cilia, which are short, fine, threadlike structures. They have three tissue
layers: an ectoderm on the outside, a mesoderm in the centre, and an endoderm on the inside
(Williams, n.d.). They are the most basic species that have organ system level organisation and
cephalization (a distinct head with sensory organs), and as such they mark a significant evolutionary
change. The digestive system is still of the gastrovascular type, lacking an anus and a mouth despite
being distinct organs. Flatworms are divided into three classes: class Cestoda, which includes
tapeworms, class Trematoda, which includes flukes.

Pseudocoelomates include roundworms (have a false body cavity or pseudocoel). With a mouth and
an anus, they have a complete digestive system. A tube-within-a-tube configuration is created by the
pseudocoel and the entire digestive system working together. Roundworms have thin, tapered
bodies that are cylindrical in shape. They are covered in a complex protein cuticle. Rhabditus and
Turbatrix, Ascaris, and Trichinella are examples of free-living roundworms.

Rotifers are pseudocoelomates, tiny organisms that can be easily discovered in gutters, downspouts,
and the slimy muck surrounding building foundations. Their body wall is extremely thin, typically
translucent, and covered in a cuticle made of protein. They develop parthenogenetically since many
species lack males despite being dioecious.
Materials

-Preserved or living specimens of

 Dugesia (planaria)
 Ascaris
 rotifers culture

-Compound microscope

-Dissecting microscope

-Slide and coverslip

-Complete dissecting set

-Distilled water

PROCEDURE

Experiment 1: Flatworms of phylum Platyhelminthes

Dugesia (planaria):

1. A living Dugesia (planaria) was collected, and a dissecting microscope was used to
analyse its morphology. The head and tail of the planaria could be distinguished.
2. A prepared slide of a stained planaria was examined. The gastrovascular cavity, the
muscular pharynx, the ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm were all recognised.

Experiment 2: Roundworm of phylum Nematode

Ascaris:

1. A male and female Ascaris were studied. Anus and the mouth were identified.
2. The ectoderm, muscle fibres, gut, oviducts, loops of the ovaries, uteri, and pseodocoel were
recognised using a prepared slide of female Ascaris.
3. Ectoderm, muscle fibres, gut, testicular loops, seminal vesicles, and pseodocoel were
detected using a prepared slide of male Ascaris.

Experiment 3: Rotifers of phylum Rotifera

Rotifers:

1. Rotifers culture was obtained on a prepared slide.

2. Rotifers' trunks and heads were observed.
3. A grinding organ, the mastax was examined inside the trunk.
Post-lab Questions

1. How is bilateral symmetry different from radial symmetry?

= Animals with radial symmetry can be separated in two equal halves on any plane passing
through the axis's centre, but animals with bilateral symmetry can only be separated into
two equal half, right and left, in one plane.
2. What are the advantages of a roundworm’s digestive system having two opening?
= the advantages of a roundworm’s digestive system having two opening it can eat while its
previous meal is being digested. The digestive system's components can specialise to
perform certain tasks and break down food in stages. Food is broken down into molecules as
it travels up the tube, where it is then ingested by the lining cells. Peristalsis is a procedure
where the muscles around the tube contract, compressing the food and moving it along.
Unwanted wastes exit the body through the anus.

3. Describe several adaptations of parasitic flatworms to their external environment.

= By forming teguments, or covers, all over their bodies, parasitic flatworms defend
themselves from the digestive fluids of their hosts (Malone, n.d.). Anaerobic respiration
occurs in flatworms to lower energy efficiency. Teguments or cuticles, which allow gases to
diffuse directly across their moist exterior surface, are used by flatworms to breathe.
Topic 3: Mollusks, Segmented Worm and Jointed-Legged Animal

OBJECTIVES

i. Describe the general morphology of organism of phylum Mollusca, phylum Annelida and
phylum Arthropoda.
ii. Identify structures and functions of representative organism of these groups.
iii. State the characteristics of members of these groups considered advanced over more
primitive phyla.

Experiment 1: Mollusks (phylum Mollusca)

INTRODUCTION

Mollusca is one of the most diverse groups of animals on the planet. Molluscs are distinguished by
the presence of a calcareous shell or soft body, a mantle that secretes the shell, and a body division
into a ventral muscular foot used for locomotion and a visceral mass protected by the shell and a
specific serrated device called a radula used in feeding (Brook, 2013).The animals that include in this
phylum are snails, clams, squids and oysters.

MATERIALS

Living specimen of snails, clams and squids.

PROCEDURE

Examine the external features of the mollusks:

1. A specimen of Class Gastropoda (snail), Class Bivalvia (clam)and Class Cephalopoda (squid)
were obtained. The specimens were put side by side and their external morphology were
examined.
2. The external view of each specimen was drawn and their parts of their body were labelled.

Post-lab Question

1. What is the texture of the mantle Anodonta?

The texture of mantle Anodonta is soft and squishy.

2. How does the foot of bivalve differ from snail?

Clams can use their muscular foot as an anchor to pull themselves into the sand and scallops
can skate down the seafloor by flapping their shell. Meanwhile, snails move by rippling their
feet (cilia).

3. What is the function of tentacles of a squid?

Tentacles used for grasping their prey. The squid will bite using their beak-like jaws and
crippled the prey with the poison that present in their saliva.

4. The four major classes of mollusks are Polyplacophora, Gastropoda, Bivalvia and
Cephalopoda. With example, describe the main characteristic of each class.
Polyplacophora have an oval-shaped body and consists eight of dorsal plates. Chitonida is an
example of Polyplacophora. Snail which animal categorized in Gastropoda and rippling their
foot (cilia) for their movement. Bivalvia can divide their shell into two halves. Clams are an
example for Bivalvia Class. Cephalopoda is a completely merged head and foot like squids.
Experiment 2: Segmented Worm (phylum Annelida)

INTRODUCTION

Annelids usually found in fresh water and damp soils habitats. It is a phylum of invertebrates
distinguished by a body cavity (coelom), moveable bristles (setae), and a body divided into segments
by transverse rings or annulations. The range size of annelids is from less than 1 millimetre to more
than 3 metres. The animals that categorized in this phylum are earthworm and leeches.

MATERIALS

Living specimen of earthworm

Glass Petri dish

PROCEDURE

Examine the external features of annelids:

1. A living specimen of earthworm was obtained. The specimen was put on the Glass Petri dish
and the external morphology was examined.
2. The external view of this specimen was drawn and the parts of the body was labelled.

Post-lab Question

1. Lists the function of setae for the annelids.

Prevent backward locomotion of the segment during longitudinal muscular contraction.

2. Leeches are highly specialized annelids, which have anterior and posterior suckers. Explain
the function of these structures.
Some leeches have teeth on the anterior sucker that form the incision for feeding. The leech
can move slowly by clamping and releasing its posterior and anterior suckers alternately.

3. Why the Oligochaeta and hirudinea are called ‘hermaphroditic’? What are the differences
between their reproductive?
Oligochaeta and Hirudinea are hermaphroditic because do not have ability to use their own
sperm for fertilization with egg. Sperm are transferred between and stored by two
Oligochaeta during copulation. Copulation is followed by reproduction. Meanwhile,
Hirudinea reproduction happens after copulation, followed by cocoon construction, in which
the embryos develop (D.J.D, 2011)

4. The three major classes of annelids are Oligochaeta, Polychaeta and Hirudinea. With
example, describe the main characteristics of each class.
Oligochaeta has a long cylinder body which can divided internally by septa. it lives in
underground and use their burrowing pathway for eating soil. For an example, earthworm is
an animal of Oligochaeta. Each segment of Polychaeta has a par of paddle-like structure
(parapodia) which function in locomotion like Hediste. Lastly, Hirudinea has a flattened size
body and reduced coelom. For an example of this class is leeches.
 Topic 4 (joint legged animals)

Introduction

Arthropods are a lineage of life that developed skeletons on the outside which is their hard shells,
made of a material called “chitin” instead of on the inside for structural support. Arthropods’ bodies
also have other important differences from those of vertebrates, their organ systems are simpler
and less efficient, which limits the size arthropods can attain. An ant the size of a human, for
example, would not be able to pump oxygen through its blood to feed all its tissues, since the
arthropod circulatory system is simpler and less efficient than a humans’. (2017)

Materials

- Living or preserved specimens of horseshoe crab, shrimp and grasshopper

- Prepared slide of a whole mount of grasshopper mouthparts
- Dissecting microscope
- Complete dissecting set
- Dissection pan

Procedure

 Class Chelicerata

Examine the external features of horseshoe crab:

1. A living horseshoe crab was obtained. The external features of horseshoe crab which is
dorsal and ventral view was located.
2. The external view of the specimen was drew and labelled the parts of the body.
3. The parts of horseshoe’s body was examined.

 Class Crustacea

Examine the external features of shrimp:

1. A living or preserved specimen of shrimp was obtained. The external features of shrimp
were located.
2. The external view of the specimen was drew and labelled the parts of the body.
3. The parts of shrimp’s body was examined.
  Class Insecta

Examine the external features of grasshopper:

1. A specimen of grasshopper was obtained and the external features were located.
2. The external view of grasshopper was drew and labelled the parts of the body.
3. The head was examine and simple eyes called ocelli as well as compound
eyes were found.
4. The labrum was removed and the remaining mouthparts were located.
The mouthparts and their functions were identified.
5. The wings of grasshopper were spread to show fore and hind wings.

Question

1. Complete the table below to compare the characteristics of some classes of Arthropods.

Features Class Chelicerata Class Crustacea Class Insecta

Name of body regions - cephalothorax - cephalon - head

- abdomen - pereon - thorax
- pleon - abdomen
Number of legs 4 5 6

Arrangement of legs Four pairs of legs Five pairs of legs Six pairs of legs

Segmentation 2 body segments one pair of Three tagmata

appendages per
segment
Number of antennae No antennae Two pairs A pair

Name of major sensory organs Pedipalps - eyes Trachea

- a range of chemical
- tactile receptors
Name of major mouthparts Chelicerae Paired mandibles - Labrum
with opposing biting - Mandibles
and grinding surfaces - Maxillae
- Labium
- Hypopharynx

2. Other classes of Arthropods are Class Chilopoda (Centipedes) and Class Diplopoda (Millipedes).
Explain the common habitat for each Class.

Class Chilopoda (Centipedes) are common predators in soil, litter, and cryptozoan habitats. They
are all elongate, flattened, active forms. Centipedes occur in biomes ranging from forest to
desert. Lithobiids are the common brown, flat centipedes of litter in hardwood forests. The
elongate, slim geophilomorph centipedes are euedaphic in forest habitats, where they prey on
earthworms, enchytraeids, and Diptera larvae (Lock and Dekoninck, 2001).
 Most millipedes live in the leaf litter that typically covers the ground in a forest or just under the
topsoil. Millipedes lack stingers or pinchers to fend off predators like birds, toads, and small
mammals.

3. With examples, describe the main characteristics of class Chilopoda and Diplopoda.

The body of centipedes is elongated to worm-like and frequently flattened. A distinct head,
covered by a flat head shield, is followed by a multi-articulated trunk with one pair of legs on
each segment. The head bears a pair of frontal sensory appendages (antennae) and three pairs of
ventral mouth parts (mandibles, first maxillae, and second maxillae). The trunk appendages of the
first pair are developed as strong, conspicuous, stinging fangs, used to poison the prey and for
defence. A pair of legs, which are specialised in shape and function, as either handling or sensory
appendages. The terminal part of the trunk bears a pair of small appendages (gonopods), which
are close to the genital opening and are often involved in handling spermatophores.

Example for Class Chilopoda is Scolopendra.

Millipedes have two pairs of short legs on each body segment, a rounded body, and a hard
external skeleton. Their legs are tucked under the body and difficult to see. The number of body
segments varies with the species, but the number of pairs of legs generally ranges between 40
and 400. The females of a nearly extinct species of California millipede have up to 750 legs.
Millipedes have short antennae and move in slow waves, burrowing and eating their way through
moist leaf clutter, fungi, and decayed plant material on the ground. As they plow through the soil,
munching on dead plants and other vegetation, they aerate and enrich the soil, much like
earthworms.

Example for Class Diplopoda is Polydesmida.

4. Lists some of the importance of Arthropods in our life.

- Pollinating crops

- Producing honey

- Eating or parasitizing insect pests

- Decomposing waste

- Being food for a variety of birds, fish, and mammals.

 Topic 5 : Echinoderms and Invertebrate Chordates

Objectives

i. To describe the morphology of Echinoderms and Invertebrate Chordates.

ii. To identify the characteristics of organisms of Echinoderms (sea stars).
iii. To identify the invertebrate chordates (subphyla Urochordata and Cephalochordata).

Experiment 1: Echinoderms (phylum Echinodermata)

Introduction

Echinoderms are a diverse group of marine invertebrate organisms that make up the phylum
Echinodermata are animals that have rough, spiky skin (Paswon, 2020). The majority of echinoderms
are marine, bottom-dwelling creatures that are recognised by the common names sea stars, sea
urchins, sand dollars, sea cucumbers, and sea lilies. Because of the presence of spiny plates
(calcareous ossicles), which make up the dermal skeleton, the phylum has that name. Echinoderms
often have radially symmetrical bodies and genuine coeloms that develop as outpocketings from the
gut's embryonic mesoderm. The water vascular system, a type of coelom derivation that consists of
a tube filled with watery fluid, is a distinctive characteristic of echinoderms.This system manages
food management, respiration, excretion, attachment, locomotion, and sensory perception.

Materials

- Preserved specimens of sea stars

Procedure

Examine a sea star:

1. A preserved sea star (Class Asteroidea) specimen was obtained.

2. The spines on the aboral surface and many little pincerlike structures of the pedicellaria
were studied.
3. Observed the hollow, soft skin gills at the base of the spines.

Examine a sand dollar:

1. A preserved sea urchin (Class Echinoidea) was obtained.

2. The structure of their test, spines, and long tube foot were identified. The sea urchin's spines
and long tube feet regulate its movement.
3. The oral surface was discovered. Aristotle's lantern mouth, which has five ossified plates or
teeth, was analyzed.
 TOPIC 6: INVERTEBRATE CHORDATES

INTRODUCTION

A chordate is a part of the Chordata phylum. All Chordata share five key characteristics.
Chordates acquire different characteristics from their families as they mature. The notochord,
pharyngeal slits, nerve cord, thyroid, and post-anal tail are among the five synapomorphies.
Chordates get their name from a feature known as a "notochord," which plays an important role in
chordate structure and movement.

Invertebrate chordates are the animals of phylum Chordata that have a notochord at the
point of their growth, but invertebrate chordates don’t have a backbone. A notochord is a rod-like
structure that helps as a very important function and is attached to their muscles. (Bailey, 2020)

MATERIALS

Materials Preserved specimens of tunicates

Prepared slide of larval tunicates

Compound microscope

PROCEDURE

1. A preserved specimen of adult tunicates was obtained. The specimen was put in a glass petri
dish and examined its external morphology.
2. The compound microscope was used to determine the incurrent siphon, excurrent siphon,
and tunic.
3. A larval tunicates have bilateral symmetry, a dorsal nerve cord, and a notochord, but lose
these features when it settles for adult life. A prepared slide of larval tunicates was
examined

.
Post-lab Questions:

1. Distinguish some of the features between sea star and sea urchin.

Sea star Sea urchins

The body consists of a central disk which Their skeletal plates are flattened and fused to form
radiates from 5 to 20 arms/rays. a solid shell called a test.

The under surface of each arm is well-equipped The flattened body is adapted for burrowing in the
with pairs of tube feet. sand to eat on tiny organic particles.

The mouth is located in the center of the They ate algae by scraping the sea floor with their
underside of the disk body. Most of them are calcareous teeth.
predators.

The gas exchange process is done by delicate The body of sea urchins are covered with spines
dermal gills. that dangerously can penetrate flesh and are
difficult to remove.

Their movement is quite slow by means of the The spines also help in locomotion as well as their
endoskeleton. tube feet.

2. Sea cucumber lack arms, spines, and long tube feet. How do they move?

Sea cucumbers have five rows of tube feet running the length of the body for locomotion so, most
sea cucumbers move slowly by using their tiny tube feet but there are sea cucumbers that lack tube
feet and they move by contracting and expanding their body. Other than that, sea cucumbers also
can swim by flexing their bodies and inching along the seafloor.

3. Explain the function of gill silts in invertebrate chordates.

The function of gill slits in invertebrate chordates is these gill slits were used for filter feeding in
which to strain food particles from the water.
 TOPIC 7: VERTEBRATES

OBJECTIVES

i. Describe the basic characteristics of members of the subphylum Vertebrata.

ii. To identify representatives of vertebrate classes: Agnatha, Chondrichthyes, Osteichthyes,
Amphibia, Reptilia, Aves, and Mammalia.

INTRODUCTION

Vertebrate, also known as Craniata, is any animal of the phylum Chordata's dominant
subphylum Vertebrata. They have backbones, which is how they got their name. Vertebrates also
have a muscular system composed primarily of bilaterally paired masses and a central nervous
system that is partially enclosed within the backbone.

The subphylum is one of the most well-known animal groups. Its classes include Agnatha,
Chondrichthyes, and Osteichthyes (all fishes), Amphibia (amphibians), Reptilia (reptiles), Aves (birds),
and Mammalia (mammals) (mammals).

Chondrichthyes are a class of jawed fishes having a cartilaginous skeleton. The class includes
a diverse group of fish including sharks, rays, skates, and chimeras. They are mostly marine fishes.
Chondrichthyes are a group of fishes with jaws that belong to the division Gnathostomata. All
vertebrates with jaws are classified as Gnathostomata. Gnathostomata is divided into two
superclasses which are Pisces (with fins) and Tetrapoda (without fins) (bear limbs). (Kennedy, 2019)

The other group of fishes is bony fishes, which are included in the class Osteichthyes. All
bony fishes are classified as Osteichthyes. Osteichthyes, like all fishes, are cold-blooded vertebrates
that breathe through gills and swim with fins. Bony fishes have several distinguishing characteristics,
including a bone skeleton, scales, paired fins, one pair of gill openings, jaws, and paired nostrils.
Osteichthyes have the most living species of any scientific class of vertebrates, with over 28,000
species. (Kennedy, 2019)
MATERIALS

Living specimens of bony fish, and stingray fish.

PROCEDURE

Class Chondrichthyes:

1. A preserved stingray fish was examined. The external morphology of this species was
identified.

Class Osteichthyes :

1. A living bony fish was obtained. The external morphology of a specimen given was identified.
2. Their swimming and breathing were observed. The power for movement by a fish comes
from the tail.
3. Bony fish gills were examined. Gills are protected by a moveable gill cover called an
operculum. The observation was drawn and labeled.

Post-lab Questions :

1. Define the terms internal fertilization and external fertilization. What is the adaptive
significance of internal fertilization?

When a female organism's egg is fertilized by a male organism's sperm outside of the female's
body, this process is known as external fertilization. Meanwhile, internal fertilization is a process in
which an egg and sperm are combined inside the body of a female organism after the sperm are
inserted inside the female organism through insemination. The adaptive significance of internal
fertilization is it prevents the fertilized egg from becoming dehydrated on land. The female's
isolation of the embryo prevents the young from being preyed upon. The fertilization of eggs by a
particular male is improved by internal fertilization as well. Even though this procedure produces
fewer offspring than external fertilization, the offspring survival rate is higher than it would be with
external fertilization.

2. What is the advantage of retaining the embryo in the uterus during its development?

The advantage of retaining the embryo in the uterus during its development is that the embryo
will get a safe environment for its development. Other than that, the embryo will get oxygen and
nutrients supplies from the placenta and the waste materials of the embryo will also be removed
through the placenta.
 3. What advantage is there in nourishing the young with milk from the mammary gland
rather than with the food in the yolk of a reptilian egg?

The advantage of nourishing the young with milk from the mammary gland is that mammalian
mothers can nourish their babies with milk, a balanced diet rich in fats, sugars, proteins, minerals,
and vitamins so that the babies can grow healthily with enough nutrients. Meanwhile, the food in
the yolk of a reptilian egg is mainly composed of lipid and protein, which act as an energy source and
the essential components to build embryonic tissue. However, the yolk and the resulting embryos
also contain a variety of other nutrients, such as inorganic ions, vitamins, carotenoids, water, and
hormones but it is not a well-balanced diet such as the milk from the mammary glands.

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