LESSON NO. 5.

THEORIES OF HUMAN
DEVELOPMENT

ABSTRACTION

THEORIES OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

A scientific theory of development is a set of logically related concepts or
statements that seek to describe and explain development and to predict the
kinds of behavior that might occur under certain conditions. Theories organize
and explain data, the information gathered by research. As painstaking
research adds, bit by bit, to the body of knowledge, theoretical concepts help
us make sense of, and see connections between, isolated pieces of data
(Papalia 2021). In this lesson, we will discuss the psychosexual theory of
human development and the psychosocial theory of human development.

PSYCHOSEXUAL DEVELOPMENT
Sigmund Freud (1856–1939) was a Viennese physician who had a profound
effect on the field of psychology. He was the originator of the psychoanalytic
perspective and believed in reactive development, as well as qualitative
changes over time. Freud proposed that humans were born with a series of
innate, biologically based drives such as hunger, sex, and aggression. He
thought people were motivated to satisfy their urges, and that much of
development involved learning how to do so in socially acceptable ways. In
addition, Freud believed that early experiences shaped later functioning, and
he drew attention to childhood as an important precursor to adult behavior.
Freud also promoted the idea that there was a vast, hidden reserve to our
psyche, and what we consciously know about and experience is only the small
tip of the iceberg of who we are.

Sigmund Freud: Psychosexual Development. Freud (1953, 1964a, 1964b)

believed that people are born with biological drives that must be redirected to
make it possible to live in society. He proposed three hypothetical parts of the
personality: the id, the ego, and the superego. Newborns are governed by the
id, which operates under the pleasure principle—the drive to seek immediate
satisfaction of their needs and desires. When gratification is delayed, as it is
when infants have to wait to be fed, they begin to see themselves as separate
from the outside world. The ego, which represents reason, develops gradually
during the first year or so of life and operates under the reality principle. The
ego’s aim is to find realistic ways to gratify the id that are acceptable to the
superego, which develops at about age 5 or 6. The superego includes the
conscience and incorporates socially approved “shoulds” and “should nots”
into the child’s value system. The superego is highly demanding; if its
standards are not met, a child may feel guilty and anxious. The ego mediates
between the impulses of the id and the demands of the superego.

Freud proposed that personality forms through unconscious childhood conflicts

between the inborn urges of the id and the requirements of civilized life. These
conflicts occur in a sequence of five stages of psychosexual development, in
which sensual pleasure shifts from one body zone to another—from the mouth
to the anus and then to the genitals. At each stage, the behavior that is the
chief source of gratification (or frustration) changes—from feeding to
elimination and eventually to sexual activity.

Freud considered the first three stages to be crucial for personality

development. According to Freud, if children receive too little or too much
gratification in any of these stages, they are at risk of fixation, an arrest in
development that can show up in adult personality. Babies whose needs are
not met during the oral stage, when feeding is the main source of pleasure,
may grow up to become nail-biters or smokers. A person who, as a toddler, had
too-strict toilet training may be fixated at the anal stage, and be obsessively
clean, rigidly tied to schedules and routines, or defiantly messy.

According to Freud, a key event in psychosexual development occurs in the

phallic stage of early childhood. Boys develop sexual attachment to their
mothers, and girls to their fathers, and they have aggressive urges toward the
same-sex parent, whom they regard as a rival. Freud called these
developments the Oedipus and Electra complexes.

Children eventually resolve their anxiety over these feelings by identifying with
the same-sex parent and move into the latency stage of middle childhood, a
period of relative emotional calm and intellectual and social exploration. They
redirect their sexual energies into other pursuits, such as schoolwork,
relationships, and hobbies.

The genital stage, the final stage, lasts throughout adulthood. The sexual urges
repressed during latency now resurface to flow in socially approved channels,
which Freud defined as heterosexual relations with persons outside the family
of origin.

Freud’s theory made historic contributions and inspired a whole generation of

followers, some of whom took psychoanalytic theory in new directions. Many of
Freud’s ideas now are widely considered culturally biased or obsolete or are
impossible to investigate scientifically. Psychoanalysts today reject his narrow
emphasis on sexual and aggressive drives to the exclusion of other motives.
Nevertheless, several of his central themes have “stood the test of time”
(Westen, 1998, p. 334). Freud made us aware of the importance of unconscious
thoughts, feelings, and motivations; the role of childhood experiences in
forming personality; the ambivalence of emotional responses, the role of
mental representations of the self and others in the establishment of intimate
relationships; and the path of normal development from an immature,
dependent state to a mature, interdependent state.
PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
Erik Erikson: Psychosocial Development. Erik Erikson (1902–1994)
modified and
extended Freudian theory by emphasizing the influence of society on the
developing personality. Erikson also was a pioneer in taking a life-span
perspective. Note that both theorists, as they proposed stage theories,
believed in qualitative change.

Erikson’s (1950, 1982; Erikson, Erikson, & Kivnick, 1986) theory of psychosocial
development covers eight stages across the life span, which we
discuss in the appropriate chapters throughout this book. Each stage involves
what
Erikson originally called a crisis in personality*—a major psychosocial challenge
that is particularly important at that time and will remain an issue to some
degree throughout the rest of life. These issues must be satisfactorily resolved
for healthy
ego development.

Each stage requires balancing a positive and a negative tendency. The positive
quality should dominate, but some degree of the negative quality is needed as
well for optimal development. The critical theme of infancy, for example, is
basic trust versus basic mistrust. People need to trust the world and the people
in it. However, they also need some mistrust to protect themselves from
danger. The successful outcome of each stage is the development of a
particular virtue, or strength—in this case, the virtue of hope.

Erik Erikson divided the human life span into eight periods that he called ages
or stages. At each stage, he said, people have specific tasks to master, and
each stage generates its own social and emotional conflicts. According to
Erikson, failure to master the task of any stage leaves unfortunate
consequences that carry over to later stages.
Psychosocial Stages of Development
1. Trust vs. Mistrust (birth to 18 months)
2. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (18 months to 3 years)
3. Initiative vs. Guilt (3 years to 5 years)
4. Industry vs. Inferiority (5 years to 12 years)
5. Identity vs. Role Confusion (12 years to 18 years)
6. Intimacy vs. Isolation (18 years to 40 years)
7. Generativity vs. Stagnation (40 years to 65 years)
8. Ego Integrity vs. Despair (65 years to death)
Psychosocial Development: Trust vs. Mistrust
This stage begins at birth continues to approximately 18 months of age. During
this stage, the infant is uncertain about the world in which they live, and looks
towards their primary caregiver for stability and consistency of care. Success in
this stage will lead to the virtue of hope. Failing to acquire the virtue of hope
will lead to the development of fear.
Psychosocial Development: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
This stage occurs between the ages of 18 months to approximately 3 years.
According to Erikson, children at this stage are focused on developing a sense
of personal control over physical skills and a sense of independence. Success in
this stage will lead to the virtue of will. If children are criticized, overly
controlled, they begin to feel inadequate in their ability to survive
Psychosocial Development: Initiative vs. Guilt
Children assert themselves more frequently through directing play and other
social interaction. During this period the primary feature involves the child
regularly interacting with other children at school. Central to this stage is play,
as it provides children with the opportunity to explore their interpersonal skills
through initiating activities. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of
purpose, while failure results in a sense of guilt.
Psychosocial Development: Industry vs. Inferiority
Occurs during childhood between the ages of five and twelve. The child now
feels the need to win approval by demonstrating specific competencies that are
valued by society and begin to develop a sense of pride in their
accomplishments. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of competence. If
the child cannot develop the specific skill they feel society is then they may
develop a sense of Inferiority.
Psychosocial Development: Identity vs. Role Confusion
It occurs during adolescence, from about 12-18 years. During this stage,
adolescents search for a sense of self and personal identity through an intense
exploration of personal values, beliefs, and goals. Children are becoming more
independent and begin to look at the future in terms of careers, relationships,
families, housing, etc. The individual wants to belong to a society and fit in.
Psychosocial Development: Intimacy vs. Isolation
This stage takes place during young adulthood between the ages of
approximately 18 to 40 yrs. During this stage, the major conflict centers on
forming intimate, loving relationships with other people. Avoiding intimacy,
fearing commitment and relationships can lead to isolation, loneliness, and
sometimes depression. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of love.
Psychosocial Development: Generativity vs. Stagnation
This stage takes place during middle adulthood (ages 40 to 65 yrs). We give
back to society through raising our children, being productive at work, and
becoming involved in community activities and organizations. Success leads to
feelings of usefulness and accomplishment, while failure results in shallow
involvement in the world. By failing to find a way to contribute, we become
stagnant and feel unproductive.
Psychosocial Development: Ego Integrity vs. Despair
This stage begins at approximately age 65 and ends at death. Success in this
stage will lead to the virtue of wisdom. Wisdom enables a person to look back
on their life with a sense of closure and completeness, and also accept death
without fear. Late life is characterized by both integrity and despair as
alternating states that need to be balanced.
Successful resolution of each crisis puts the person in a particularly good
position to address the next crisis, a process that occurs iteratively across the
life span. So, for example, a child who successfully develops a sense of trust in
infancy would be well prepared for the development of a sense of autonomy—
the second psychosocial challenge— in toddlerhood. After all, if you feel that
others have your back, you are more likely to try to develop your skills knowing
that they will be there to comfort you if you fail.

Erikson’s theory is important for a number of reasons. First, while the crises
that Erikson outlined were particular to one place and time—for example,
across different cultures, not all children go to school—Erikson did make clear
that social and cultural influences mattered. Erikson highlighted the social
clock—the conventional, culturally preferred timing of important life events.
Moreover, while Freud’s approach implied that development stopped at
adolescence, Erikson realized that development was a lifelong process. Last,
Erikson held a much more positive view of development than Freud. Erikson,
while acknowledging that crises could be resolved poorly, left room for
improvement. At any point in the life span, development could shift in a
positive direction, and a crisis might be successfully resolved and a new
strength developed.