NYANDARUA NATIONAL POLYTECHNIC

P.O BOX 2033 – 20300 NYAHURURU

TEL: 0727-256001

Email: info@nyandaruanationalpoly.ac.ke ,

Website: www.nyandaruanationalpoly.ac.ke

DIPLOMA IN CIVIL ENGINEERING/DIPLOMA IN BUILDING TECHNOLOGY

MODULE 2

WORKHOP TECHNOLOGY TEACHING NOTE

@KARURI2021

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 NYANDARUA NATIONAL POLYTECHNIC
NIST/ADM/ COTL/001

COURSE OUTLINE
DEPARTMENT: B UILDING AND CIVIL ENGINEERING.

COURS E AND MODULE: DIPLOMA IN B UILDING AND CIVIL ENGINEERING MODUL E 2

UNIT CODE:

SUBJ ECT NAME: WORKS HOP TECHNOLOGY

(Note: where the subject forms part of many which are combined to make one overal l paper use the codes in the institute MIS
examination module)

TRAINER: MUTHUMB I KARURI CONTACT 0723 575 574

Introduction:

This module unit is intended to equip the trainee with the necessary knowledge, skill and attitude required to understand the concepts of
workshop technology.

General objecti ves:

At the end of this module/stage unit the trainee should be able to:

(a) Observe safety rules and regulations in the workshop

(b) Acquire knowledge of electrical engineering
(c) Create awareness of the human aspect of error in handling tools and equipment
(d) Appreciate quality of finished products
(e) Apply knowledge in electrical installation

COURS E SUB MODULE UNITS CONTENT

CIVIL ENGIN EERING EL ECTRICAL INS TALLATION  sources of electrical power
suppl y
 Electrical measuring
instruments
 Electrical installations wiring
systems
 Electrical final circuits
 IEE regulati on on electrical
installation
B UILDING EL ECTRICAL INS TALLATION  sources of electrical power
TECHNOLOGY suppl y
 safe methods of electrical
power suppl y
 IEE regulati on on electrical
installation
CONTENT:

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 REQUIREMENTS:

MODE OF DELIVERY:

 Lectures
 Group discussion
 Practical assignments
 Demonstrations

REFERENCES: (indicate the reference materi als includi ng e-content where applicable)

1. ELECTRICAL INSTALLATION B Y T.D THOMPSON

2. ELECTRICAL INSTALLATION WORKS B Y .T.G FRANCIS

MODE OF TES TING:

ASSIGNM ENTS 10 %

CAT/RAT 10%

PRA CTICA LS 10%

END OF TERM EXAM 70%

TOTAL 100%

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SOURCES OF ELECTRICAL POWER SUPPLY

Introduction

Energy may be needed as heat, as light, as motive power etc. The present-day advancement in science and
technology has made it possible to convert electrical energy into any desired form. This has given electrical
energy a place of pride in the modern world. The survival of industrial undertakings and our social
structures depends primarily upon low cost and uninterrupted supply o f electrical energy. In fact, the
advancement of a country is measured in terms of per capita consumption of electrical energy. Electrical
energy is superior to all other forms of energy due to the following reasons:

(i) Convenient form: Electrical energy is a very convenient form of energy. It can be easily converted
into other forms of energy. For example, if we want to convert electrical energy into heat, the only
thing to be done is to pass electrical current through a wire of high resistance e.g., a heater.
Similarly, electrical energy can be converted into light (e.g. electric bulb), mechanical energy (e.g.
electric motors) etc.
(ii) Easy control: The electrically operated machines have simple and convenient starting, control and
operation. For instance, an electric motor can be started or stopped by turning on or off a switch.
Similarly, with simple arrangements, the speed of electric motors can be easily varied over the
desired range.
(iii) Greater flexibility: One important reason for preferring electrical energy is the flexibility that it
offers. It can be easily transported from one place to another with the help of conductors.
(iv) Cheapness: Electrical energy is much cheaper than other forms of energy. Thus it is overall
economical to use this form of energy for domestic, commercial and industrial purposes.
(v) Cleanliness: Electrical energy is not associated with smoke, fumes or poisonous gases. Therefore,
its use ensures cleanliness and healthy conditions.

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(vi) High trans mission efficiency: The consumers of electrical energy are generally situated quite
away from the centres of its production. The electrical energy can be transmitted conveniently and
efficiently from the centres of generation to the consumers with the help of overhead conductors
known as transmission line

In this modern world, the dependence on electricity is so much that it has become a part and parcel of our
life. The ever increasing use of electric power for domestic, commercial and industrial purposes necessitates
to provide bulk electric power economically. This is achieved with the help of suitable power producing
units, known as Power plants or Electric power generating stations. The design of a power plant should
incorporate two important aspects. Firstly, the selection and placing of necessary power- generating
equipment should be such so that a maximum of return will result from a minimum of expenditure over the
working life of the plant. Secondly, the operation of the plant should be such so as to provide cheap, reliable
and continuous service. In this chapter, we shall focus our attention on various types of generating stations
with special reference to their advantages and disadvantages.

Generating Stations

Bulk electric power is produced by special plants known as generating stations or power plants.

A generating station essentially employs a prime mover coupled to an alternator for the production of
electric power. The prime mover (e.g., steam turbine, water turbine etc.) converts energy from some other
form into mechanical energy. The alternator converts mechanical energy of the prime mover into electrical
energy. The electrical energy produced by the generating station is transmitted and distributed with the help
of conductors to various consumers. It may be emphasized here that apart from prime mover-alternator
combination, a modern generating station employs several auxiliary equipment and instruments to ensure
cheap, reliable and continuous service. Depending upon the form of energy converted into electrical energy,
the generating stations are classified as under:

(i) Steam power stations

(ii) Hydroelectric power station
(iii) Diesel power stations
(iv) Nuclear power station
(v) Solar energy

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1. Steam Powe r Station

The Steam Power Station (Thermal Station). A generating station which converts heat energy of coal
combustion into electrical energy is known as a steam power station. A steam power station basically works
on the Rankine cycle. Steam is produced in the boiler by utilizing the heat of coal combustion. The steam is
then expanded in the prime mover (i.e., steam turbine) and is condensed in a condenser to be fed into the
boiler again. The steam turbine drives the alternator which converts mechanical energy of the turbine into
electrical energy. This type of power station is suitable where coal and water are available in abundance and
a large amount of electric power is to be generated.

Advantages

(i) The fuel (i.e., coal) used is quite cheap.

(ii) Less initial cost as compared to other generating stations.
(iii) It can be installed at any place irrespective of the existence of coal. The coal can be transported
to the site of the plant by rail or road.
(iv) It requires less space as compared to the hydroelectric power station. (v) The cost of generation
is lesser than that of the diesel power station.

Disadvantages

(i) It pollutes the atmosphere due to the production of large amount of smoke and fumes.
(ii) It is costlier in running cost as compared to hydroelectric plant.

2. Hydro-electro -electric Powe r Station

A generating station which utilizes the potential energy of water at a high level for the generation of
electrical energy is known as a hydro-electric power station.

Hydro-electric power stations are generally located in hilly areas where dams can be built conveniently and
large water reservoirs can be obtained. In a hydro-electric power station, water head is created by
constructing a dam across a river or lake. From the dam, water is led to a water turbine. The water turbine

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captures the energy in the falling water and changes the hydraulic energy (i.e., product of head and flow of
water) into mechanical energy at the turbine shaft. The turbine drives the alternator w hich converts
mechanical energy into electrical energy. Hydro-electric power stations are becoming very popular because
the reserves of fuels (i.e., coal and oil) are depleting day by day. They have the added importance for flood
control, storage of water for irrigation and water for drinking purposes.

Advantages

(i) It requires no fuel as water is used for the generation of electrical energy.
(ii) It is quite neat and clean as no smoke or ash is produced.
(iii) It requires very small running charges because water is the source of energy which is available
free of cost.
(iv) It is comparatively simple in construction and requires less maintenance.
(v) It does not require a long starting time like a steam power station. In fact, such plants can be put
into service instantly.
(vi) It is robust and has a longer life.
(vii) Such plants serve many purposes. In addition to the generation of electrical energy, they also
help in irrigation and controlling floods.
(viii) Although such plants require the attention of highly skilled persons at the time of construction,
yet for operation, a few experienced persons may do the job well.

Disadvantages

(i) It involves high capital cost due to construction of dam.

(ii) There is uncertainty about the availability of huge amount of water due to dependence on
weather conditions.
(iii) Skilled and experienced hands are required to build the plant.
(iv) It requires high cost of transmission lines as the plant is located in hilly areas which are quite
away from the consumers.

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Schematic Arrangement of Hydro Arrangement of Hydro- electric Power Station. Although a hydro-electric
power station simply involves the conversion of hydraulic energy into electrical energy, yet it embraces
many arrangements for proper working and efficiency.

Choice of Site for Hydro Choice of Site for Hydro-electric Powe r Stations

The following points should be taken into account while selecting the site for a hydro-electric power
station:

(i) Availability of water; since the primary requirement of a hydro-electric power station is the
availability of huge quantity of water, such plants should be built at a place (e.g., river, canal)
where adequate water is available at a good head.
(ii) Storage of water; There are wide variations in water supply from a river or canal during the year.
This makes it necessary to store water by constructing a dam in order to ensure the generation of
power throughout the year. The storage helps in equalizing the flow of water so that any excess
quantity of water at a certain period of the year can be made available during times of very low
flow in the river. This leads to the conclusion that site selected for a hydro-electric plant should
provide adequate facilities for erecting a dam and storage of water.
(iii) Cost and type of land; the land for the construction of the plant should be available at a
reasonable price. Further, the bearing capacity of the ground should be adequate to withstand the
weight of heavy equipment to be installed.

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 (iv) Transportation facilities; the site selected for a hydro-electric plant should be accessible by rail
and road so that necessary equipment and machinery could be easily transported.

3. Diesel Power Station

A generating station in which diesel engine is used as the prime mover for the generation of electrical
energy is known as diesel power station. In a diesel power station, diesel engine is used as the prime mover.
The diesel burns inside the engine and the products of this combustion act as the “working fluid” to produce
mechanical energy. The diesel engine drives the alternator which converts mechanical energy into electrical
energy. As the generation cost is considerable due to high price of diesel, there fore, such power stations are
only used to produce small power. Although steam power stations and hydro-electric plants are invariably
used to generate bulk power at cheaper cost, yet diesel power stations are finding favour at places where
demand of power is less, sufficient quantity of coal and water is not available and the transportation
facilities are inadequate. These plants are also used as standby sets for continuity of supply to important
points such as hospitals, radio stations, cinema houses and telephone exchanges.

Advantages

(i) The design and layout of the plant are quite simple.
(ii) It occupies less space as the number and size of the auxiliaries is small.
(iii) It can be located at any place.
(iv) It can be started quickly and can pick up load in a short time. (v) There are no standby losses.
(v) It requires less quantity of water for cooling.
(vi) The overall cost is much less than that of steam power station of the same capacity.
(vii) The thermal efficiency of the plant is higher than that of a steam power station.
(viii) It requires less operating staff.

Disadvantages

(i) The plant has high running charges as the fuel (i.e., diesel) used is costly.
(ii) The plant does not work satisfactorily under overload conditio ns for a longer period.
(iii) The plant can only generate small power.

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 (iv) The cost of lubrication is generally high.
(v) The maintenance charges are generally high.

4. Nuclear Powe r Station

A generating station in which nuclear energy is converted into electrical energy is known as a nuclear
power station. In nuclear power station, heavy elements such as Uranium (U235) or Thorium (Th232) are
subjected to nuclear fission* in a special apparatus known as a reactor. The heat energy thus released is
utilized in raising steam at high temperature and pressure. The steam runs the steam turbine which converts
steam energy into mechanical energy. The turbine drives the alternator which converts mechanical energy
into electrical energy. The most important feature of a nuclear power station is that huge amount of
electrical energy can be produced from a relatively small amount of nuclear fuel as compared to other
conventional types of power stations. It has been found that complete fission of 1 kg of Uranium (U235) can
produce as much energy as can be produced by the burning of 4,500 tons of high grade coal. Although the
recovery of principal nuclear fuels (i.e., Uranium and Thorium) is difficult and expensive, yet the total
energy content of the estimated world reserves of these fuels are considerably higher than those of
conventional fuels, viz., coal, oil and gas. At present, energy crisis is gripping us and, therefore, nuclear
energy can be successfully employed for producing low cost electrical energy on a large scale to meet the
growing commercial and industrial demands.

Advantages

(i) The amount of fuel required is quite small. Therefore, there is a considerable saving in the cost
of fuel transportation.
(ii) A nuclear power plant requires less space as compared to any other type of the same size.
(iii) It has low running charges as a small amount of fuel is used for producing bulk electrical
energy.
(iv) This type of plant is very economical for producing bulk electric power.
(v) It can be located near the load centres because it does not require large quantities of water and
need not be near coal mines. Therefore, the cost of primary distribution is reduced.

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 (vi) There are large deposits of nuclear fuels available all over the world. Therefore, such plants can
ensure continued supply of electrical energy for thousands of years.
(vii) (vii) It ensures reliability of operation.

Disadvantages

(i) The fuel used is expensive and is difficult to recover.

(ii) The capital cost on a nuclear plant is very high as compared to other types of plants.
(iii) The erection and commissioning of the plant requires greater technical know-how.
(iv) The fission by-products are generally radioactive and may cause a dangerous amount of
radioactive pollution.
(v) Maintenance charges are high due to lack of standardization. Moreover, high salaries of specially
trained personnel employed to handle the plant further raise the cost.
(vi) Nuclear power plants are not well suited for varying loads as the reactor does not respond to the
load fluctuations efficiently.
(vii) The disposal of the by-products, which are radioactive, is a big problem. They have either to be
disposed of in a deep trench or in a sea away from sea-shore.

NB: Fission: The breaking up of nuclei of heavy atoms into two nearly equal parts with release of huge
amount of energy is known as nuclear fission. The release of huge amount of energy during fission is due
to mass defect i.e. the mass of the final product comes out to be less than the initial product. This mass
defect is converted into heat energy according to Einstein’s relation, E = mc2.

5. Solar Photovoltaic (“PV”) Systems

When the PV modules are exposed to sunlight, they generate direct current (“DC”) electricity. An inverter
then converts the DC into alternating current (“AC”) electricity, so that it can feed into one of the building’s
AC distribution boards (“ACDB”) without affecting the quality of power supply

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PV cells are made of light-sensitive semiconductor materials that use photons to dislodge electrons to drive
an electric current. There are two broad categories of technology used for PV cells, namely, crystalline
silicon, as shown in Figure 4 which accounts for the majority of PV cell production; and thin film, which is
newer and growing in popularity

Electrical power s upply

The conveyance of electric power from a power station to consumers’ premises is known as electric supply
system. An electric supply system consists of three principal components viz., the power station, the
transmission lines and the distribution system.

Electric power is produced at the power stations which are located at favorable places, generally quite away
from the consumers. It is then transmitted over large distances to load centers with the help of conductors
known as transmission lines. Finally, it is distributed to a large number of small and big consumers through
a distribution network.

The electric supply system can be broadly classified into;

(i) d.c. or a.c. system

(ii) Overhead or underground system. Now-awdays, 3-phase, 3-wire a.c. system is universally adopted
for generation and transmission of electric power as an economical proposition. However,
distribution of electric power is done by 3-phase, 4-wire a.c. system. The underground system is
more expensive than the overhead system. Therefore, in our country, overhead system is *mostly
adopted for transmission and distribution of electric power. Typical a.c. ypical a.c

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Fig above shows the layout of a typical a.c. power supply sc heme by a single line diagram.

Comparison of D.C. and A.C. Transmission

The electric power can be transmitted either by means of d.c. or a.c. Each system has its own merits and
demerits. It is, therefore, desirable to discuss the technical advantages and disadvantages of the two systems
for transmission of electric power.

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1. D.C. trans mission.

For some years past, the transmission of electric power by d.c. has been receiving the active consideration
of engineers due to its numerous advantages.

Advantages.

The high voltage d.c. transmission has the following advantages over high voltage a.c. transmission:

(i) It requires only two conductors as compared to three for a.c. transmission.
(ii) There is no inductance, capacitance, phase displacement a nd surge problems in d.c. transmission.
(iii)Due to the absence of inductance, the voltage drop in a d.c. transmission line is less than the a.c. line
for the same load and sending end voltage. For this reason, a d.c. transmission line has better voltage
regulation.
(iv) There is no skin effect in a d.c. system. Therefore, entire cross-section of the line conductor is utilized
(v) For the same working voltage, the potential stress on the insulation is less in case of d.c. system than
that in a.c. system. Therefore, a d.c. line requires less insulation.
(vi) A d.c. line has less corona loss and reduced interference with communication circuits.
(vii) The high voltage d.c. transmission is free from the dielectric losses, particularly in the case of cables.
(viii) In d.c. transmission, there are no stability problems and synchronizing difficulties

Disadvantages

(i) Electric power cannot be generated at high d.c. voltage due to commutation problems.
(ii) The d.c. voltage cannot be stepped up for transmission of power at high voltages.
(iii) The d.c. switches and circuit breakers have their own limitations.
2. A.C. trans mission
Now-a-days, electrical energy is almost exclusively generated, transmitted and distributed in the form
of a.c.

Advantages

(i) The power can be generated at high voltages.

(ii) The maintenance of a.c. sub-stations is easy and cheaper.

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 (iii) The a.c. voltage can be stepped up or stepped down by transformers with ease and efficiency.
This permits to transmit power at high voltages and distribute it at safe potentials.

Disadvantages

(i) An a.c. line requires more copper than a d.c. line.

(ii) The construction of a.c. transmission line is more complicated than a d.c. transmission line.
(iii)Due to skin effect in the a.c. system, the effective resistance of the line is increased.
(iv) An a.c. line has capacitance. Therefore, there is a continuous loss of power due to charging cur rent
even when the line is open.

Inte rconnected Grid System

The connection of several generating stations in parallel is known as interconnected grid system. The
various problems facing the power engineers are considerably reduced by interconnecting different power
stations in parallel. Although interconnection of station involves extra cost, yet considering the benefits
derived from such an arrangement, it is gaining much favour these days.

Advantages of interconnected system are listed below:

(i) Exchange of peak loads : An important advantage of interconnected system is that the peak load
of the power station can be exchanged. If the load curve of a power station shows a peak demand
that is greater than the rated capacity of the plant, then the excess load can be shared by other
stations interconnected with it.
(ii) Use of older plants: The interconnected system makes it possible to use the older and less
efficient plants to carry peak loads of short durations. Although such plants may be inadequate
when used alone, yet they have sufficient capacity to carry short peaks of loads when
interconnected with other modern plants. Therefore, interconnected system gives a direct key to
the use of obsolete plants.
(iii) Ensures economical operation: The interconnected system makes the operation of concerned
power stations quite economical. It is because sharing of load among the stations is arranged in
such a way that more efficient stations work continuously throughouts the year at a high load
factor and the less efficient plants work for peak load hours only.

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 (iv) Increases diversity factor: The load curves of different interconnected stations are generally
different. The result is that the maximum demand on the system is much reduced as compared to
the sum of individual maximum demands on different stations. In other words, the diversity
factor of the system is improved, thereby increasing the effective capacity of the system.
(v) Reduces plant reserve capacity: Every power station is required to have a standby unit for
emergencies. However, when several power stations are connected in parallel, the reserve
capacity of the system is much reduced. This increases the efficiency of the system.
(vi) Increases reliability of supply: The interconnected system increases the reliability of supply. If
a major breakdown occurs in one station, continuity of supply can be maintained by other
healthy stations.

3 Phase 4 Wire System

The main intake position

Unless domestic premises are extremely large, it is unlikely that a three-phase supply would be needed, and
consequently only singlephase systems will be considered here.

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BASIC ELECTRICAL TOOLS, EQUIPMENT, AND THEIR USES

Pliers
Pliers are available in different types, shape, and sizes. They are also available
in both insulated and uninsulated handles. An insulated handle should be used
when working on or near hot wires. It is also used for cutting big and small wires.

Scre w Drivers
A screwdriver comes in various sizes and with several tip shapes. Screwdrivers used by electricians should
have insulated handles. Using a screwdriver for a particular job, the width of the screwdriver tip should
match the width of the screw slot.

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Drilling Equipme nt
Drilling equipment is needed to make holes in building structure passages of conduits and wires.

Sawing and Cutting Tools

Saws commonly used by electricians include the crosscut, keyhole, and hacksaw.

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Soldering Equipment
In doing electric wiring, splices and taps (connections made to wire) should be soldered, unless you use
solderless connectors. Typical equipment’s available for soldering are shown below.

Hammers
Hammers are used with chisels and for nailing and fitting. Below are examples of carpenter’s claw hammer,
lineman’s hammer, and machinist’s ball-peen hammer.

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Measuring Tools
To measure wire length and other items, the electrician finds considerable use for measuring tools such as
the extension or zigzag rule, push-pull rule and a steel tape as shown below.

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ELECTRICAL MATERIALS

ELECTRICAL CONDUCTING MATERIALS

COPPER:

Pure annealed copper is used for the winding of electrical machines. High purity copper is obtained by
electrolytic refining. Traces (0.1%) of iron, silicon or phosphorous seriously reduce the conductivity of
copper. The conductivity of copper is also decreased when it is hard drawn into wires for use in machines.
Annealing is therefore necessary before the material can be used in machines Hard drawn copper because of
its increased mechanical strength compared with annealed copper is used for conductors in low voltage
overhead distribution lines. Long span lines of thin cross
section require conductors of higher mechanical strength. This is achieved by adding a small
percentage of cadmium to copper. Cadmium increases the mechanical strength of copper witho ut
affecting its conductivity adversely. The usual addition of cadmium are between 0.8% and 1%.
Copper conductors having a steel core are also employed for long span transmission lines, where
a combination of high conductivity, small sag and minimum cross section are desired. In such
conductors, an insulating tape over the wire has to be provided in order to prevent the corrosive
action of steel on copper.
For ordinary insulated stranded cables V.I.R insulation is almost universally employed. In such
cables the conductor stands are tinned in order to protect the copper from the sulphur of the
V.I.R. The tinning process assists in soldering and operations.
Copper is employed in machine windings because it is easily workable without any likelihood of
fracture. Further, it can be soldered easily thus simplifying the jointing operation.

Properties

1. It has high resistance to atmospheric corrosion

2. Has low resistivity and thus high conductivity
3. Copper has smaller c.s.a and take upless space than aluminum for the same current capacity
4. Copper may be annealled or hard drawn
5. It’s tough, slow to tarnish

ALUMINIUM:

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Aluminum conductors are particularly suitable for operations in very high ambient temperatures. Use of
aluminium as an electrical material particularly in the aircraft industry has considerable advantages because
of the saving in weight involved. Again electrochemical plants are enormous user of aluminium bush bars.
This is because electrolytic cells operate with heavy current wit low voltages and to carry these currents
massive bars are required. Aluminium because of its lightness is being used more and more for such bush
bars. The current carrying capacity of aluminium being 75% that of copper and its density being
approximately one-third that of copper an aluminium bush bar is only half the weight of copper bush bar of
equal current carrying capacity. Since aluminium costs a little less than copper, an aluminium bush bar will
cost only about half as much as its copper counterpart. The steel reinforced aluminium conductor (A.C.S.R.)
is extensively being used for long span transmission lines. In the commercial form aluminium is obtainable
with a purity of about 99% but it is generally alloyed with small quantities of copper, zinc, nickel or
magnesium to improve its hardness and strength. Aluminum is not easily solderable but fluxes have been
devised to make soldering easy. Mechanical clamping and screwing methods have also been developed.

Important Require ments of Good Insulating Materials

The requirement of good insulating material can be classified as electrical, mechanical,
thermal and chemical. Electrically the insulating material should have high resistivity to reduce the leakage
current and high dielectric strength to enable it to withstand higher voltage without being punctured or
broken down. Since the insulator are used on the basis of volume and not weight a low density is preferred.
Liquid and gaseous insulator are also used as coolant for e.g transformer o il, hydrogen
and helium are used both as insulation and cooling purpose. The insulator should also have small thermal
expansion to prevent mechanical damage. Chemically the insulator should be resistant to oil, liquid, gas
flumes, acid and alkalis.
Insulating material should have certain mechanical properties depending on the use of which they are put.
Materials with large electronic and ionic Polaris abilities and therefore large permittivity are used for
making dielectrics capacitor. The use of molecules with a permanent dipole moment is not desirable because
of possibility of large dielectric losses at high frequencies.
1. Mica: Mica sheets are used for the insulating leaves between commutator segments. Micanite is used for
slot linings of H.V machines and for making bushes. Mica is usually avoided for slot lining L.V machines
because its space factor is low.
2. Porcelain: Porcelain is produced in two ways. The “dry” process produces a low voltage porcelain,
which is used for switch bases, fuses, etc. The product is usually hygroscopic and porous unless well glazed.

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The “wet” produces a non-hygroscopic porcelain which is used for H.V transmission line insulator,
conductor, rail support on railways and high voltage switch parts.
3. Marble and State : These are employed for switch boards and panels. Slate is generally coated with an
insulating varnish to make it non- hygroscopic.
4. Polythene : The low power factor and therefore low dielectric losses of Polythene has made it particularly
attractive for high frequency application, such as cable and Insulator Wire for Radio Frequency work.
5. Bakelite: The most common type of phenol formaldehyde is Bakelite.It is a hard, thermosetting, dark
colour material widely used for small moulded parts such as lamp holder, terminal blocks and small panels.
6. Polyvinylchloride (PVC): PVC is replacing rubber to a greater extent in many application. PVC
insulated (non-sheathed) or PVC insulated and sheathed cable for general purpose wiring is now well
established and the choice between VIR and PVC is often largely a matter of relative price or
personal preference on the part of the user. PVC insulation are not effected by oils and petrol and are
therefore widely used in aircraft and factories.
7. Asbestos: Asbestos in insulation can be used in very high temperature surrounding.
8. Rubber: The material used for cable insulation are pure rubber, vulcanized rubber impregnated paper and
vulcanized bitumen.
9. Cotton and Silk: Cotton is hygroscopic and has low electric strength
show that it must be impregnated with varnish or wax after winding.
10. Silk is more expensive than cotton but takes up less space and is therefore
used for winding in fractional horse power machine. The operating temperature of cotton and silk is about
100 degree C and the material will
11.Glass: Ordinary glass is a good insulator but is too brittle to be used for anything but scientific
instrument parts, accumulator container and for certain other special purposes.
12. Paper and Boards :Paper usually impregnated with oil or varnish is an essential insulator in all high
voltage cables.
13. Wood: Typical applications of wood are for terminal blocks, wedges for armature windings, operating
rod in H.V switch gear and L.V distribution line supports.
14. Enamel Covering : This consist of a thin film of either oil base or synthetic base varnish applied by
drawing the conductor through a trough of varnish and then through a heated chamber so as to bake the
varnish into a tough and elastic film of high dielectric strength .
15. Transforme r Oil: Transformer cores and chokes are commonly immersed in oil known as transformer

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oil which act to some extent as an insulator but chiefly as a cooling medium. Carbonized above this
temperature.

Electric curre nt and quantity of electricity

All atoms consist of protons, neutrons and electrons. The protons, which have positive electrical charges,
and the neutrons, which have no electrical charge, are contained within the nucleus. Removed from the
nucleus are minute negatively charged particles called electrons. Atoms of different materials differ from
one another by having different numbers of protons, neutrons and electrons. An equal number of protons
and electrons exist within an atom and it is said to be electrically balanced, as the pos itive and negative
charges cancel each other out. When there are more than two electrons in an atom the electrons are arranged
into shells at various distances from the nucleus. All atoms are bound together by powerful forces of
attraction existing between the nucleus and its electrons. Electrons in the outer shell of an atom, however,
are attracted to their nucleus less powerfully than are electrons whose shells are nearer the nucleusIt is
possible for an atom to lose an electron; the atom, which is now ca lled an ion, is not now electrically
balanced, but is positively charged and is thus able to attract an electron to itself from another atom.

Electrons that move from one atom to another are called free electrons and such random motion can
continue indefinitely. However, if an electric pressure or voltage is applied across any material there is a
tendency for electrons to move in a particular direction. This movement of free electrons, known as drift,
constitutes an electric current flow. Thus current is the rate of movement of charge. Conductors are
materials that contain electrons that are loosely connected to the nucleus and can easily move through the
material from one atom to another. Insulators are materials whose electrons are held firmly to their nucleus.

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Potential diffe rence and resistance

For a continuous current to flow between two points in a circuit a potential difference (p.d.) or voltage, V, is
required between them; a complete conducting path is necessary to and from the source of electrical energy.
The unit of p.d. is the volt, V Figure 2.2 shows a cell connected across a filament lamp. Current flow, by
convention, is considered as flowing from the positive terminal of the cell, around the circuit to the negative
terminal. The flow of electric current is subject to friction. This friction, or opposition, is called resistance R
and is the property of a conductor that limits current. The unit of resistance is the ohm; 1 ohm is defined as
the resistance which will have a current of 1 ampere flowing through it when 1 volt is connected across it,

I.e. resistance R = potential difference /current

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Basic electrical measuring instruments of an ammeter is an instrument used to measure current

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Electrical symbols

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Wiring diagrams

A wiring diagram or connection diagram shows the detailed connections between components or items of
equipment. They do not indicate how a piece of equipment or circuit works. The purpose of a wiring diagram
is to help someone with the actual wiring of the circuit.

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 Circuit diagrams

A circuit diagram shows most clearly how a circuit works. All the essential parts and connections are
represented by their graphical symbols. The purpose of a circuit diagram is to help our understanding of the
circuit. It will be laid out as clearly as possible, without regard to the physical layout of the actual
components, and therefore it may not indicate the most convenient way to wire the circuit

WIRING SYSTEMS
Definition
A wiring system consists of the conductors, its insulation, its mechanical protection, and the various
accessories such as joint boxes.

A number of points must be considered, e.g.

1. Neat ness of the finished job

2. The durability of the installation;
3. Future extension a n d a l t e r a t i o n s
4. Th e time required to do the work;
5. Damage to the fabric of the build ing by cutting away
6. Special conditions to be withstood such as fumes, dampness
7. The total cost of the job.
The various systems used for lighting and small power are.
1. Bare conductor wiring
2. Steel conduit:

(a) Slip-joint conduit with gr ip fitting

(b) Screwed
3. Non-metallic conduit
4. Rubber sheathed (t.r.s)
5. Lead alloy sheathed
6. PVC sheathed
7. Mineral insulated metal sheathed (m.i.m.s)
8. Special systems for different conditions

Bare conductors
Lightly insulated or bare conductors may be used for such purposes as earthing connections, rising mains and
bursars systems, collector wires for cranes.etc

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They should not be used where flammable or explosive dust,vapour or gas is present or where explosive
materials are handled or stored.
IEE regulation B82 states that bare conductors used for rising mains or bus bars should be installed only in places
inaccessible to unauthorized persons, and be supported by insulators so as to be free to expand and contract with
changes of temperature.

PVC Sheathed Wiring system

• CTS cables are available in single-core, twin-core orthree-core with a circular or oval in shape.
• CTS cables are sufficiently chemical proof, waterproof, steam proof.
• The cables are run or carried on well-seasoned, perfectly straight and well varnished (on all four sides)
teak wood batten of thickness 10 mm. at least.
• The width of the batten depends upon the number and size of cables to be carried by it. Battens are fixed
tothe walls or ceilings by means of gutties or wooden plugs.
• The cables are held on the wooden batten by means of tinned brass link clips spaced at an interval of 10
cm.

This system is suitable for low voltage installations.

Advantages
1. Its appearance is good, if carried properly.
2. Its life is sufficiently long.3.It can withstand the action of most chemicals such asacids and alkalies.

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4. Its installation is easy and quick compared to casing-capping.5. It is cheap compared to casing –capping,
metal conduit and lead sheathed wiring.

Disadvantages

1. This system of wiring is not recommended in situations exposed to sun and rain, unless preventive steps
are taken.

2. It cannot be used in damp places

3. Good work man ship is required to make a sound job

.4. Only suitable below then 250V.

Metal Sheathed Wiring

In lead sheathed or metal sheathed wiring the cables used are insulated wires, TRS or PVC

With metal outer covering of about 1 mm.thick. The metal covering is known as sheathing and is made of
lead – aluminum alloy containing about 95% of lead. The metal sheathed cables are run on wooden batten
and are fixed to it by link – clips. The whole metal sheathing efficiently earthed.

PVC insulated steel wire armour cables are used for wiring underground between buildings, for main
supplies to dwellings, rising sub- mains and industrial installations. They are used where some mechanical

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protection of the cable conductors is required.

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Advantages
1. It provides protection against mechanical
injury.2. It can be used in damp situations.
3. It can be used in situations exposed to-sun,
and rain provided no joint is exposed.4. It has longer life.

Disadvantages

1. It is costly system of wiring.

2. It is not suitable where chemical (acids and alkalies) corrosion may occur.
3. In case of insulation damage, the metal sheath become alive and gives shock

Conduit Wiring System

Conduit wiring system consists of either VIR or PVC cables taken through tubes or pipes and
terminated at the outlets or switches / sockets. The tube or pipe is known as “conduit”. Conduit wiring may
run over the surface of the walls and ceiling or may be concealed under masonry work.
Types of Conduits

1. Rigid steel / metal conduit.

2. Rigid PVC / non- metallic conduit.

3. Flexible steel conduit.
4. Flexible PVC / non- metallic conduit.

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Surface Conduit Wiring
All steel conduits should be coated or finished with galvanized or enameled surface. Conduit
accessories must be of threaded type. No steel conduit less than 12.7 mm. in diameter
should be used. The conduit should be laid over the wooden gutties, and should be fixed to the wall
bymeans of saddles at an interval of not more than 1.2 m

Concealed Conduit Wiring

The conduits (metal or PVC) are embedded along walls or ceiling in plaster at the time of building
construction. The conduits are fixed by means of saddles not more than 60 cm. apart. The VIR or
PVC cables are drawn into the concealed by means of GI wire of size 18 SWG.PVC conduits are
increasingly being used in place of steel conduits. PVC conduits are less expensive and the labour time
saved may be as much as25% to 50% compared to the time taken when installing steel conduits. PVC
conduits are resistant to acids alkalies, oil and moisture.

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 Advantages
1.It provides protection against mechanical damage

2. Metal conduits provides protection against fire due to short circuit etc.
3. The whole system is water proof.4. It’s life is long.

5. Replacement of defective wiring is easy.

6. It is shock proof if earthing is done properly.

7. PVC conduit wiring (particularly concealed) is cheap.

8. PVC conduit wiring requires less time.
9. Concealed conduit wiring appearance is very good.

Disadvantages
1. PVC conduit does not provide protection against fire.
2. Metal conduit wiring is very costly.
3. Metal conduit wiring requires more time.4. Metal conduit wiring needs skilled labour.
5. Very hard to find the defects in the wiring.
6. Very complicated to manage additional connection in the future.

General 1.E.E. requirements regarding conduits.

I. Conduits must n o t be in contact with water pipes, gas pipes, bell or alarm circuits, radio or
telephone circuits, or other metalwork, unless intentionally bonded under Regulations D 10 and
D 14 (Protection against Earth-leakage Currents).
II. Conduits not intended to be gas-tight must be self-ventilating and provided with condensation
draining points.
III. Conduit ends not terminating in metal outlet boxes must be brought to the surface of walls and
ceilings. T his mea ns that the conduit m ust be brought well inside the back of wooden ceiling rose
blocks or switch blocks.
IV. Where conduit passes through a wall, ceiling, or partition, the hole must be made good to the
full thickness of the material of which the wall or partition is built. Where steel conduit is
required to pass across a wooden joist at right angles, the joist may be slotte d sufficie ntly deeply
to accommodate the conduit.

V. Cables carrying alternating current must be bunched so that the cables of all phases and the neutral
(if any) are drawn into the same conduit.

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IEE regulation B 88requires that the conduits of each circuit shall be erected complete before the cables are
drawn in. IEE table B5M and B6M give the sizes and number of cables allowed in any one conduit
assuming they are not pulled round more than two 90° bends ,for groups of cables not listed the space
factor of 40% shall not be exceeded.

Wiring accessories

Switches

The type of switch used in domestic installations is called a plate switch. Figure 5 illustrates a 1 gang 1 way
plate switch. One gang refers to the fact that there is only one switch in the plate. One-way indicates that it
is a one-way switch, two-way and intermediate switches are also available

Lamp holders

These are designed for quick removal and replacement of the lamp, and yet must hold the lamp in firm metallic
contact to prevent overheating. There are three mai sizes of lamp holders:

Figure 2 illustrates a standard Bayonet Cap (BC) lamp holder. BC lamp holders are normall y found in domestic
installations. They are also available with a long shield. The shield, which is screwed on, is also used to retain any
lampshade, which may be fitted.

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Batten Lamp holders

There are a variety of batten type lamp holders on the market. The following is a sample of some of these.
Figure 16 illustrates a straight batten lamp holder fitted with a ‘short shield’. This shield provides protection
against touching of the lamp cap. The batten lamp holder has no back plate and therefore cannot be mounted
directly on a surface without the use of a suitable base or box. Batten lamp holders may have two or three
terminals present.

An angle batten lamp holder fitted with a long shield. It is also available with a short shield fitted. The long
shield affords better protection against touching of the lamp

Ceiling Roses

There are basically two types of ceiling rose available, although there is a wide range of makes and shapes.
The two types are the Two-Plate Ceiling Rose, which has two terminals and the Three-Plate Ceiling Rose,
which has three terminals. Both were developed for use on different wiring systems. Older types of ceiling
roses were developed at a time when it was not necessary to provide an earth at lighting points. It is now
essential to provide an earth, and so an earth terminal is now included on all ceiling roses. This in effect
means that a Two-Plate Ceiling Rose has a third Three-Plate Ceiling Rose. The additional terminal, marked
L, is for the Phase or ‘Live’ conductor, which is present in a lighting system wired using the Three-Plate
Ceiling Rose Method terminal fitted, whilst a Three-Plate Ceiling Rose has four terminals.

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  IEE regulation C18 states that ceiling rose shall not be installed in any circuit operating at a voltage
normally exceeding low voltage.
 IEE regulation C19 requires that shrouding of a live terminal in ceiling rose.
 IEE regulation C20 requires that not more than one flexible cable cord shall be attached to a ceiling
rose unless the rose is designed for multiple pendants.
 IEE regulation C21requires that a ceiling rose shall be provided by with an earthing terminal for
compliance with regulation D6.

Switching Circuits

One-Way Switching Circuit Figure below shows how a lamp is controlled by a simple one-way switch,
providing on / off control of the lamp.

The phase conductor is connected to the one-way switch, terminal C, through a suitably rated fuse or MCB,
6-10A. The neutral is connected directly to the lamp. When the switch is closed the phase conductor is
switched through to the lamp from terminal L1 and the 230 V supply is placed across the terminals of the
lamp and so the lamp is illuminated. When the switch is opened the phase conductor is interrupted and the
lamp is extinguished. This occurs when the switch is in the “up” position.

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If more than one lamp is required, the extra lamp or lamps should be connected in parallel as shown below.

Selective Switching Circuit

In Figure below, a one-way switch is providing simple on / off control of the supply to a selector switch.
This selector switch has two outputs. One of these outputs is used to feed lamp LP1, while the other feeds
lamp LP2. When the one-way switch is placed in the “on” position, either LP1 or LP2 will illuminate. When
the selector switch is positioned as shown, LP1 will be “on” and LP2 will be “off”. If it is switched to the
position shown by the dotted line, LP1 will be “off” and LP2 will be “on”. In this way, one can select which
lamp is “on” and which lamp is “off”. Both lamps cannot be “on” at the same time. This circuit was once
used to provide two levels of lighting in certain circumstances. If LP1 were a 15 Watt lamp, it would
provide a very low level of illumination in, say a child’s bedroom or a hospital ward. LP2 might, on the
other hand, be a 100 Watt lamp and provide a high level of illumination.

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Two-Way Switching Circuit

Figure below shows how a lamp can be controlled from two locations providing on / off control from either
location. This circuit is used to control lamps in such places as stairways, corridors and rooms with two
doorways. The two-way switch has two outputs, sometimes labelled L1 and L2. The third terminal is
referred to as the “Common” terminal and is marked “C” in some cases. This terminal is “common” to L1 &
L2. In the “up” position the common is connected to L2 as shown, and therefore the lamp is “off”. If either
switch is changed to the L1 position the lamp will be “on”. If both switches are changed to the L1 position
the lamp will again be “off”. If the “strappers” are crossed over at either switch, the lamp will be “on” when
both switches are in the “up” position. It is simply good practice to ensure that this does not occur. This
means that it is possible to place all switches in the “up” position and be assured that all lamps are “off”. It
also ensures safety when replacing faulty lamps or flex drops.

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The inte rmediate switch has four terminals. These terminals may be labelled in different ways, few of
which are of any benefit to the installer. To complicate matters, there are two distinct types of intermediate
switch. The more common type is shown in Figure below. To consider how it functions we will number the
terminals as follows: In the “up” position terminals 1 and 2 are connected to terminals 3 and 4 respectively.
In the “down” position terminals 1 and 2 are connected to terminals 4 and 3 respectively. See below.

Again, if we apply the information regarding this type of intermediate switch, to the circuit shown in Figure
above, we can see that the lamp is “off”. By operating the intermediate switch, the lamp can be switched
“on”. Alternate operating of the switches in any order will change the lamp condition i.e. “off” to “on” or
“on” to “off”

Domestic Lighting Circuits

There are three basic methods of wiring lights in a domestic installation.

1. Loop-in method

2. Joint Box method

3. Three Plate Ceiling Rose method

Loop-in Method

The loop- in method is completed using 1.5mm2 PVC / PVC single core cables plus a Protective Conductor
(PE). Switch feeds and switch wires are wired with brown cable. Neutrals are wired with blue cable. A

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protective conductor must be provided at all lighting points and at all switch positions. These must be
insulated with Green / Yellow sleeving. Switches are installed at a standard height of 1.1 metres above the
finished floor level (FFL). Lamps are placed in the centre of room ceilings except when more than one lamp
is to be fitted. There should be no more than ten lighting points per circuit. There should be at least two
lighting circuits per dwelling. This is to ensure that the entire house is not plunged into darkness if one
lighting circuit fails. Figure 45 shows how three lamps, individually controlled by oneway switches are
connected to the supply.

All connections are made at the switches and light fittings and are therefore easily accessible. The lamps are
connected in parallel but separately switched. When all switches are in the “up” position, all lamps will be
“off”.

N.B. It is extremely important to note that a fuse or MCB and the control switch must interrupt the phase
conductor of the supply.

Joint Box Method

The joint box method may be completed using 1.5mm2 PVC / PVC single core cables plus a protective
conductor, or 1.5mm2 Twin and Earth PVC / PVC cable. The phase and neutral conductors are looped into
the joint boxes using brown and blue cores respectively. Neutrals and switch wires are run between joint

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boxes and batten lamp holders / ceiling roses. Protective conductors are connected at all accessories. Switch
feeds and switch wires are run between joint boxes and switches. A twin brown cable is available for this
purpose. The running in of cables is completed simply and efficiently, but connecting up of accessories
takes considerably longer than for the loop- in method. Figure 46 shows how two lamps, individually
controlled by one-way switches, are connected to the supply. Protective conductors are omitted for clarity.

IMPORTANT: All neutral conductors must have blue insulation.

All live conductors, switch feeds and switch wires must have brown insulation.

All protective conductors must have Green / Yellow insulation or sleeving.

This method of wiring lights is no longer used in domestic installations. It will of course be encountered in
older installations for many years yet.

Note: Joint box must be fixed in position.

Three Plate Ceiling Rose Method

The three plate ceiling rose method may be completed in a similar manner to the joint box method. The
three plate ceiling rose actually replaces the joint box and the batten lamp holder or two plate ceiling rose.
As a result there are fewer cables to be run. This involves less time at the first fixing stage. There are more
terminations to be made off and most of these are at the ceiling roses. This results in more time at the second
fixing stage. All terminations will be accessible within the room. Figure 47 shows how two lamps

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individually controlled by one-way switches are connected to the supply. Protective conductors are omitted
for clarity.

All neutral conductors must have blue insulation.

All live conductors, switch feeds and switch wires must have brown insulation.

All protective conductors must have Green / Yellow sleeving.

Powe r circuits
Radial circuit is an electrical circuit where the feeders to each socket is taken directly from the consumer
unit or distribution board (DB) or circuit Breaker (CB) like a 20A MCB.

A ring circuit is an electrical circuit which has two feeders both come from the same 32A MCB or RBCO in
the consumer unit, and head off to different ends of a loop circuit. Ring circuit also known as Ring Main
circuit.

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Advantages of the radial distribution network

1. Simplest as fed at only one end;

2. The initial cost is low;
3. It is useful when the generating is at low voltage;
4. Preferred when the station is located at the center of the load;
5. More economical for some areas which have a low load requirement;
6. Require less amount of cables; &
7. It has a low maintenance.

Disadvantages of the radial distribution network

1. The end of distributor near to the substation gets heavily loaded;

2. When load on the distributor changes, the clients at the distant end of the distributor face serious
voltage fluctuations; &
3. As users are dependent on single feeder and distributor, a fault on any of these two causes
interruption in supply to all the users connected to that distributor.

Advantages of the ring distribution network

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 1. In ring power is supplied from both ends as compared to radial;
2. In case of a fault in the radial circuit the entire system goes off unlike in ring where by in case one
end gets a fault the other end still keeps on supplying power;
3. Compared to the radial system, the voltage drop is less along the distribution line;
4. More subscribers can be installed to the system than the radial system; &
5. Less voltage fluctuations can be seen at client’s terminals. Voltage fluctuations in high loaded areas
can be reduced using a tie line.

Disadvantages of the ring distribution network

1. Ring is very expensive n requires more materials than radial;

2. Radial circuit is more economical;
3. High maintenance cost; &
4. It is not usable when the client is located at the center of the load.

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Cable joints and te rminations

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Cable terminations

There are many methods of terminating conductors for connection to accessories and current using
apparatus

Punched and notched tabs

These generally accept a solid core small core diameter conductors

 Loop termination
 Claw type termination
 Spade termination
 Crimped termination

Cable selection/calculation
The size of a cable to be used for an installation depends upon:

■ The current rating of the cable under defined installation conditions and

■ The maximum permitted drop in voltage as defined by Regulation 525–01.

The factors which influence the curre nt rating are:

1 the design current – the cable must carry the full load current;

2 the type of cable – PVC, MICC, copper conductors or aluminum conductors;

3 the installed conditions – clipped to a surface or installed with other cables in a trunking;

4 the surrounding temperature – cable resistance increases as temperature increases and insulation may melt
if the temperature is too high;

5 the type of protection – for how long will the cable have to carry a fault current?

Regulation 525–01 states that the drop in voltage from the supply terminals to the fixed current- using
equipment must not exceed 4% of the mains voltage. That is, a maximum of 9.2 V on a 230 V installation.

The volt drop for a particular cable may be found from

VD = Factor * Design current * Length of run

The factor is given in the tables of Appendix 4 of the IEE Regulations and Appendix 6 of the On Site Guide.
(See Table 2.6).

The cable rating, denoted It , may be determined as follows:

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The cable rating must be chosen to comply with Regulation 433–02–01. The correction factors which may
need applying are given below as:

Ca -the ambient or surrounding temperature correction factor, which is given in Tables 4C1 and 4C2 of
Appendix 4 of the IEE Regulations and Tables 6A1 and 6A2 of the On Site Guide which is shown in Table
2.4. Cg -the grouping correction factor given in Tables 4B1, 4B2 and 4B3, of the IEE Regulations and 6C of
the On Site Guide.

Cr the 0.725 correction factor to be applied when semi-enclosed fuses protect the circuit as described in
item6.2 of the preface to Appendix 4 of the IEE Regulations.

Ci- the correction factor to be used when cables are enclosed in thermal insulation. Regulation 523– 04
gives us three possible correction values:

■ Where one side of the cable is in contact with thermal insulation we m

■ Where the cable is totally surrounded over a length greater than 0.5 m we must apply a factor of 0.5.

■ Where the cable is totally surrounded over a short length, the appropriate factor given in Table 52A of the
IEE Regulations or Table 6B of the On Site Guide should be applied.

Having calculated the cable rating, the smallest cable should be chosen from the appropriate table which
will carry that current. This cable must also meet the voltage drop Regulation 525–01 and this should be
calculated as described earlier. When the calculated value is less than 4% of the mains voltage the cable
may be considered suitable. If the calculated value is greater than the 4% value, the next larger cable size
must be tested until a cable is found which meets both the current rating and voltage d rop criteria

EXAMPLE

A house extension has a total load of 6 kW installed some 18 m away from the mains consumer unit. A PVC
insulated and sheathed twin and earth cable will provide a sub main to this load and be clipped to the side of the
ceiling joists over much of its length in a roof space which is anticipated to reach 35°C in the summer and where
insulation is installed up to the top of the joists. Calculate the minimum cable size if the circuit is to be protected
(a) by a semi-enclosed fuse to BS 3036 and (b) by a type 2 MCB to BS 3871. Assume a TN-S supply, that is, a supply
having a separate neutral and protective conductor throughout. Let us solve this question using only the tables
given in the On Site Guide. The tables in the Regulations will give the same values, but this will simplify the
problem. Refer to Tables 2.4, 2.5 and 2.6

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Earthing and Bonding
Earthing

Earthing is defined as “The connection of the exposed conductive parts of an installation to the main
earthing terminal”.

Main Earthing Terminal

Every installation must have a main earthing terminal. In domestic installations it is usually a brass bar
located at the top, bottom or side of the distribution board. It should have a suitable range of terminals for all
the conductors required to be terminated. The following conductors may be connected to the main earthing
terminal:

1. The Main Protective Conductor in TN systems

2. Earthing Conductor

3. Functional Earthing Conductors (communication systems)

4. Main Equipotential Bonding Conductors

5. Protective Conductors

The main earthing terminal must be easily accessed. This is primarily to allow disconnection of any of the
above conductors as required when testing the installation.

Main Protective Conductor

The main protective conductor connects the DSO neutral to the consumer’s earth electrode via the main
earthing terminal. It is commonly called the Neutralising Conductor. It must be insulated and have the same
cross-sectional area as that of the earthing conductor if bo th are manufactured from the same material. If
made from different materials they must have an equivalent current carrying capacity.

Earthing Conductor

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 The earthing conductor must have green / yellow insulation over a copper conductor. It connects the earth
electrode to the main earthing terminal. The cross-sectional area of this conductor ( SE mm2 ) is dependent
on the cross-sectional area of the largest phase conductor in the installation ( S mm2 ), in accordance with
the ETCI Rules.

 S = The cross-sectional area of the largest phase conductor.

 SE = The cross-sectional area of the earthing conductor.

Where the cable is exposed it should be protected by either steel or heavy duty PVC conduit or piping.

Protective Conductor

All circuits unless specifically designed for a non-conducting location will have a protective conductor( PE )
included. They must be capable of carrying the maximum possible earth fault current to the DSO neutral, via the
main earthing terminal. They only have to carry this fault current for the time required to operate the circuit
protective device. In general, this time will not exceed five seconds. In the event of a fault, they prevent exposed
conductive parts becoming live with respect to earth. The protective conductor may be a:

 Separate conductor
 Cable core
 Cable armour
 Metallic conduit
 Metallic trunking

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Earth Electrode

The earth electrode can be any of the following types

 Earth rods or pipes

 Earth tapes or wires

 Earth plates

 Metallic reinforcement of concrete foundations buried in the ground may also serve as an earth electrode.

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Function of the Earth Electrode

The function of the earth electrode is to maintain a connection between the general mass of earth and
metallic parts of the consumer’s installation. These can then be regarded as being at zero potential. The
earth electrode must be continuously effective and capable of carrying earth leakage and earth fault currents,
which may arise.

The effectiveness of an earth electrode in conducting fault currents will depend on its contact with earth. Its
contact with earth will vary depending on the type of soil in the area. The soil may be heavy sticky soil,
sandy soil, soil containing a large peat content, gravel or rocky soil etc. Heavy sticky soil allows a low
resistance connection to earth. Rocky soil results in difficulty in making a good connection to earth.

Location and Installation of the Earth Electrode

In a domestic installation the earth electrode is normally located external to the building. It is usually
installed close to the meter cabinet. It is driven vertically into the ground and a connection made to the
protruding end. When driving the electrode, care should be taken to avoid damaging it. Ensure that the
electrode does not become fouled on any foundation work or underground services.

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In some cases it may not be possible to drive the electrode down to its full length e.g. if rock is encountered.
In such a case an alternative method must be used. The electrode may be buried horizontally or one of the
other recommended earth electrode types may be used. It is not permitted to reduce the physical size of the
electrode by cutting it. This will reduce its contact area and impede its effectiveness.

The earthing conductor is connected to the earth electrode by a clamp supplied with the electrode solely for
this purpose. The connection must be mechanically and electrically sound, keeping in mind that in t he event
of an earth fault the connection would have to carry a substantial fault current. The connection is then sealed
with a protective tape. This tape must be capable of withstanding deterioration from weather and chemical
influences. It must also resist any attack by rodents and termites.

The earth connection must be in an enclosure with a removable inspection cover. The cover must be labelled
“SAFETY ELECTRICAL CONNECTION DO NOT REMOVE” In public places this connection may be
buried or hidden but in such instances it must be available for inspection at the first energisation of the
installation.

Earth Electrode Connection

Figure 5 shows a suitable type enclosure for housing the earth electrode connection.

Figure 6 shows the earthing conductor connected to the earth electrode.

Figure 7 shows the connection protected by Denso tape.

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Types of System Earthing

There are three types of system earthing used today. These are: -

 TN System

 TT System

 IT System

The TN system is the type used in this country. It is commonly referred to as a “neutralised system”. This
basically means that the supply neutral is connected to earth at the supply point. There are three variations
of this system; the one we use in Ireland is the TN-C-S system. The two other variations are the TN-C
system and the TN-S system. Although all three are TN Systems the difference between them is in the way
that the neutral and protective conductors are arranged.

In the TN-C-S System the neutral and protective conductor functions are combined in a single conductor in
part of the system.

 T = Direct connection of one point to earth.

 N = Direct electrical connection of the exposed conductive parts to the earthed conductor of the supply
system. In AC systems the earthed conductor is normally the neutral conductor.

 C = Neutral and protective functions combined in a single conductor (known as PEN conductor)

 S = Neutral and protective functions provided by separate conductors.

TN-C-S System

The 230 Volt single phase supply to a premises is taken from the secondary winding of a DSO transformer.
One terminal of this secondary winding is connected to earth (ground). This terminal becomes the neutral

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for the system. The neutral conductor is therefore at earth potential (zero volts). A two core concentric cable
is generally used to connect from the supply network to the premises. The centre core is the phase
conductor. The outer core performs the functions of neutral and protective conductors. This conductor is
known as a PEN conductor. It is terminated at the DSO main fuse unit.

PEN = PE for protective conductor (protective earth), N for neutral conductor.

From this point on, the neutral and protective conductors are separated and must not be connected together,
anywhere throughout the entire installation. The protective conductor is referred as the Main Protective
Conductor. It is connected to the Main Earthing Terminal of the installation. This means that the Main
Earthing Terminal is solidly connected to the DSO neutral. At each installation an earth electrode is
provided. The earth electrode is connected to the Main Earthing Terminal and therefore to the DSO neutral.
This arrangement provides the consumer with an earth terminal, which is connec ted to the neutral conductor
of the system, thereby providing a low impedance ( low resistance ) path for the return of earth fault
currents. Impedance is the ratio of AC voltage and current. The Ohm is the unit of impedance. Its symbol is
the letter Z.

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Equipotential Bonding

Bonding and earthing are two different operations. They must not be confused.

Bonding simply means making an electrical connection between all metal enclosures etc., of the installation
( “exposed conductive parts” ) and the metal of all non-electrical services ( “extraneous conductive parts” ).
This is done to ensure that no potential difference can appear between any of these items under fault
conditions. A potential difference appearing between any two simultaneously accessible parts introduces the
risk of shock to persons or animals in the area. There are two types of equipotential bonding: 1. Main
Equipotential Bonding 2. Supplementary Equipotential Bonding Main Equipotential Bonding Main
equipotential bonding connects together all conductive parts of the main engineering services in an
installation, to the main earthing terminal. Examples of the main engineering services are:

 Metal pipes for central heating, gas, water

 Metal ducting for heating and air conditioning systems

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 Structural metal parts of the building

Overcurrent Protective Devices

As well as providing protection against electric shock, electrical installations must be protected from excess
current (overcurrent) which may damage cables and equipment or cause a fire. The term ‘overcurrent’ may
be subdivided into two categories:-

 Overload current

 Short circuit current

Overload Curre nts

Electrical circuits must be designed to suit the intended load. This is known as the design current of the
circuit. Overload currents are usually no more than twice or three times this design current. They occur for
one of the following reasons.

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 Equipment is overloaded

 Installation is abused

 Installation has been badly designed

 Installation has been modified by an incompetent person.

The danger in all such cases is that the temperature of the conductors will increase to such an extent that the
effectiveness of insulating materials will be impaired. The devices used to detect such overload currents,
and to disconnect the circuit when they occur, are the fuse and the circuit breaker.

In order to protect against overload current:

The rating of the protective device must be greater than or at least equal to the design current of the circuit.

The current carrying capacity of the cables must be greater than or at least equal to the rating of the
protective device.

Short Circuit Currents

Short-circuit currents may be several hundred, or even several thousand times norma l circuit current. If a
short circuit occurs the circuit protection must break the fault current rapidly, before damage is done to
cables and equipment through overheating or mechanical stress. The current likely to flow under short-
circuit conditions is called the prospective short-circuit current, the value of which can be measured using a
special test instrument. If the device used for overload protection is also capable of breaking the prospective
short circuit current safely, it may be used for both overload and short circuit protection. In practice both
fuses and circuit breakers meet these needs.

Fuses

The fuse element is a cheap, useful and simple protective device. Unfortunately, it provides protection by
destroying itself. After operation a fuse must be replaced, and this requires the correct replacement fuse, the
use of tools, and expenditure of time. A particular fuse can never be tested without its self-destruction, and
the results of the test will not necessarily apply to the replacement fuse.

A fuse is the weak link in a circuit which will break when too much current flows. It protects the circuit
conductors and equipment from damage. This action is referred to as the blowing, breaking or rupturing of

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the fuse. It must be remembered that the priority of the fuse is to protect the circuit conductors, not the
appliance. Calculation of cable size therefore automatically involves the correct selection of protective
devices. There are many different types, shapes and sizes of fuse available. All are designed to perform
specific functions. The fuse depends on the heating effect of an electric current for its operation. An
overcurrent in the circuit results in the thermal melting of the fuse link or fuse element. The fuse element
consists of a wire of defined current carrying capacity placed in series with the circuit being protected. It
will carry its rated current without overheating. When excess current flows the fuse element overheats,
melts and disconnects the circuit from the supply. The term fuse refers to the whole device. The following
are important terms associated with fuses.

 Rated Voltage; A fuse must be suitable for the voltage at which it is going to be used. The selected fuse
should have a voltage rating equal to, or greater than the c ircuit voltage.

 Rated Current; The maximum current a fuse will carry indefinitely without undue deterioration of the
fuse element.

 Fusing Current; the minimum current required to ‘blow’ the fuse.

 Fusing Factor; The ratio between the fusing current and the rated current which is expressed as follows:
Fusing Factor = Fusing Current divided by Rated Current. Fusing factor is usually between 1.4 and 2 and its
significance is illustrated by the following example.

Example: A 20 Amp fuse with a fusing factor of 1.4 will carry 20 Amps continuously and will blow when a
current of 20 x 1.4 Amps, i.e. 28 Amps flows.

 Breaking Capacity or (Rupturing Capacity); when a fuse element breaks, it is essential that the
resulting arc does not cause mechanical damage to the fuse carrier or base. The fuse must therefore be
capable of safely interrupting the greatest possible short-circuit current that may occur. (Prospective Short
Circuit Current)

1. Rewirable (or Kit Kat) Type Fuses:

It consists of a porcelain base carrying the fixed contacts to which the incoming and outgoing live or phase
wires are connected and a porcelain fuse carrier holds the fuse element.

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The fuse carrier is a separate part and can be taken out or inserted in the base without risk, even without
opening the main switch. If fuse holder or carrier gets damaged during use, it may be replaced without
replacing the complete unit.

Merits:

(i) Negligible replacement cost.

(ii) Easy removal for replacement without any damage of coming into contact with a live part.

Demerits:

(i) The fuse wire deteriorates over a period, due to oxidation through the continuous heating up of the
element.

(ii) There is a possibility of renewal by the fuse wire of wrong size.

(iii) Breaking capacity is low.

(iv) Accurate calibration of fuse wire is impossible, as a longer fuse operates earlier than one of shorter
length.

Uses:

Employed in domestic installation and in motor installation of voltage rating upto 400 volts and of current
ratings up to 300 A.

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2. Cartridge Types Fuses:

This fuse unit is totally enclosed type. It consists of an insulating container of bulb or tube shape and sealed
at its ends with metallic cap known as cartridge enclosing the fuse element and filled up with powder or
granular material known as fillers. There are various types of materials used as filler like sand, calcium
carbonate, quartz etc.

There is sometimes a blowout device in the side of the tube to indicate when the fuse is blown. On
overloads or short circuits the fusible element is heated to a high temperature causing it to vaporize. The
powder in the fuse cartridge cools and condenses the vapour and quenches the arc thereby interrupting the
flow of current.

3. High Rupturing Capacity (H.R.C.) Fuses:

H.R.C. cartridge fuse (cartridge type) in its simplest form consists of a heat resisting ceramic body having
metal end caps to which are welded fusible silver (a bimetallic) current carrying elements. The complete
space within the body surrounding the elements is filled with a powder which acts as arc extinguishing

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agent. The current increases due to fault and the fuse operates. This type of fuse is reliable and has inverse
time characteristics.

High voltage H.R.C. cartridge type of fuses, similar as construction to 1.v. designs are used upto 33kV.
High voltage H.R.C. liquid type fuses have the widest range of application of h.v. system. They may be used
for voltage transformer protection or for circuits upto about 400 A rated current, on systems upto 132 kV or
higher. The liquid which surrounds the fuse elements helps extinguish the arc when the fuse blows.

Merits:

(i) No maintenance is required.

(ii) They are cheap as compared with other types of circuit interrupter of same breaking capacity.

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(iii) The operation is quick and sure.

(iv) They have inverse time characteristics.

(v) They do not deteriorate with time.

(vi) They are capable of clearing high as well as low currents.

(vii) They are quite reliable and can be checked for proper discrimination.

Demerits:

(i) Interlocking is not possible.

(ii) They lack relays in complete discrimination.

(iii) They are required to be replaced after each operation

Merits of Fuse:

1. It requires no maintenance.

2. It is cheapest type of protection.

3. It interrupts enormous short circuit current without noise, flame, gas or smoke.

4. The minimum time of operation can be made much smaller than that with circuit breakers.

5. It has current limiting effect.

Demerits of Fuse:

1. Time is lost in rewiring or replacing fuses after operation.

2. Discrimination between fuses in series cannot be obtained unless there is considerable difference in the
relative sizes of the fuses concerned.

Miniature Circuit Breakers

The MCB (miniature circuit breaker) is an automatic switch which operates when excess current passes
through it. The MCB can be closed again, because the device does not damage itself during normal
operation. The contacts of a circuit breaker are closed against spring pressure, and held closed by a latch
arrangement. A small movement of the latch will release the contacts, which open quickly under spring
pressure to break the circuit. This operation can be compared to that of a mouse trap.

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Functions of an MCB

 To carry full rated current safely without tripping, or overheating.

 To detect sustained overloads and short circuits and thereby protect the installation.

 To tolerate harmless or momentary overloads. A secondary function of the MCB is that it can be used as a
switch for the circuit. Consequently an MCB offers control, protection and isolation.

Advantages of an MCB

 Automatically trips out under fault conditions.

 Cannot manually be held “on” under fault conditions.

 Enables supply to be restored immediately after fault is cleared.

 Enables faulty circuit to be easily identified.

 May be used as a switch to control the circuit.

 Does not age in service.

 Gives accurate protection and is tamper proof

.  Can be mounted in attractive assemblies.

 Domestic pattern is of uniform size regardless of current rating.

 Tolerates transient overloads.

 May be used as an isolator.

Residual Current Devices

Overcurrent protective devices, (fuses and MCB’s), are unable to detect earth faults, below their operating
currents. Where these are the only means of earth fault protection, it is possible for earth fault currents to
flow, undetected, causing shock and / or fire risk. A Residual Current Device (RCD) will disconnect earth
leakage currents, at or above its tripping current or sensitivity. This greatly reduces the shock and / or fire
risk. Residual current devices should disconnect all live conductors to the protected circuits. There are some
exceptions, see ETCI Rules.

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Fig above; Earth leakage circuit breaker

Ope ration of an RCD

An RCD is a device, which operates on the principle of current balance. Both phase and neutral conductors,
are wound on a common transformer core forming a pair of primary coils. A secondary coil or search coil,
wound on the same core is connected to a trip coil. The trip coil operates the tripping mechanism electro-
mechanically. In healthy circuits the current flowing out on the phase conductor, equals the current
returning on the neutral conductor. The magnetic effect of these two currents, cancel each other, therefore
there is no voltage induced in the search coil. In the event of an earth leakage fault, current will flow to earth
causing an imbalance in the currents flowing through the transformer primary coils. This imbalance causes a
magnetic flux to be set up in the transformer core. The magnetic flux in turn induces a voltage in the search
coil, which is applied across the trip coil. The trip coil operates, the RCD tripping mechanism and the
supply is disconnected from the fault on the circuit or load. A test button is provided to allow the consumer
to periodically test the mechanical operation of the RCD. It is recommended that the RCD be tested
quarterly

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Electrical Testing Procedures
Electrical Testing Procedures

By law, electrical equipment in the workplace has to be maintained to prevent danger and reduce the risk of
injury and damage. Failure to comply is a criminal offence and can result in fines and imprisonment.

To ensure compliance with statutory regulations, electrical testing procedures and inspections should be
carried out by experienced, qualified electricians with suitable equipment on all new installations and
alterations, and on a periodic basis on existing equipment.

While the frequency of testing is determined by factors such as the equipment, the environment and the
results of previous checks, standards and sequence for electrical testing procedures need to be followed
correctly to ensure effectiveness of the exercise.

New installation completion or alterations

“Every installation shall, during erection and on completion before being put into service be inspected and
tested to verify, so far as reasonably practicable, that the requirements of the regulations have been met .”
BS 7671, Regulation 610.1

An initial verification inspection and testing procedure must be completed on all new installations and
alterations to certify they are safe and compliant. Certification can only be issued by a competent person
who has tested, inspected and verified the installation.

The electrical testing procedure should be followed by the completion of an Electrical Installation
Certificate. Alteration of an existing electrical installation requires a Minor Electrical Wo rk Certificate to be
completed.

Periodic inspection and testing

“Where required, periodic inspection and testing of every electrical installation shall be carried out in
accordance with regulations 621.2 to 621.5 in order to determine as far as reasonably practicable, whether
the installation is in a satisfactory condition for continued service“. BS 7671, Regulation 621.1

For existing electrical installations, a periodic inspection and testing procedure needs to be completed.

The electrical testing procedure of existing electrical installations should also include visual examination
and be followed by the completion of a periodic inspection report.

The engineer who performed the test should also identify any remedial work necessary to fix faults, damage
or hazards under the following categories:

 Code one – for urgent attention

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  Code two – for improvement
 Code three – for further investigation
 Code four – does not comply with current BS7671 standards

Visual inspection

The quality of visual inspection is dependent on the experience and knowledge of t he person carrying out
the inspection. It is vitally important that this person understands the ETCI Rules. Visual inspection should
precede testing with instruments and must of course be prior to the installation being made live. It may be
necessary to inspect some parts of an installation during the construction phase as these parts may be
concealed later. A checklist for a Domestic Installation might read as follows:

What Electrical Testing Procedures are used?

Electrical testing procedures apply to both initial verification and periodic inspection and include both dead
testing and live testing procedures.

Each circuit must be tested. Testing procedures comprise dead and live testing and visual inspections and
will require knowledge and experience of the relevant sequence of tests to be followed in respect of both
new installations and periodic inspections.

An experienced and qualified electrician will be able to assess and advise on the most appropriate testing
sequence.

Electrical testing procedures should comprise:

Protective Conductors Continuity including Bonding Conductors

Every protective conductor, including the earthing conductor, main and supplementary bonding conductors,
should be tested to verify that the conductors are electrically sound and correctly connected. An insulation
resistance/continuity tester or multi tester with the LOW resistance range selected should be used to carry
out this test.

Between the earth terminal of distribution boards to the following exposed conductive parts

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  Socket Outlet earth connections
 Accessible exposed conductive parts of current using equipment and accessories

Polarity testing

The polarity of all circuits must be verified at the origin of the installation, distribution boards, accessible
socket outlets, extremity of radial circuit, before connection to the supply and in the case of lighting circuits,
ensure that all fuses and single pole switches are connected in the phase conductor. An insulation
resistance/continuity tester or multi tester with the LOW resistance range selected should be used to carry
This test is carried out to ensure that:

 Polarity at the main supply point is correct.

 The phase conductor is connected to fuses, single pole circuit breakers and switches.

 Incoming supply is connected to back contact of screw in type fuses.

 The phase conductor is connected to the centre contact of ES type lamp holders .

 All wiring is correctly connected at socket outlets and other similar accessories.

There is no particular test method specified in the ETCI Rules on how to conduct this test. The continuity
of the protective conductor has already been verified. This test can be completed in basically the same
manner. Ensure that all appliances, lamps etc are unplugged or otherwise removed. With the circuit MCB in
the “off” position, connect one end of the long trailing lead to the outgoing terminal of the circuit MCB.
Using the other end in conjunction with the test meter leads, take readings from the phase terminal of all the
points around the circuit e.g. switches, luminaries, sockets etc. Continuity (approx. resistance of conductor
involved) at each outlet ensures that polarity is correct. If the supply is disconnected from the installation the
long trailing lead may be connected to the out this test.

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Ring Circuit Continuity

A test is required to verify the continuity of each conductor including the circuit protective conductor of
every ring final circuit. The test results should establish that the ring is complete and has not been
interconnected. An insulation resistance/continuity tester or multi tester with the LOW resistance range
selected should be used to carry out this test.

Where there are proper records of previous tests, this test may not be necessary. This test should be carried
out where inspection/documentation indicate that there may have been changes made to the final ring
circuit.

Test Instrument Required

A low reading DC Ohmmeter capable of passing a minimum test current of 200 mA

Method.

Disconnect the phase, neutral and earth conductors from their terminals in the distribution board. Separate
them from each other. Measure the resistance of each of the three loops individually and record the readings
taken. The phase and neutral readings should be equal. The protective conductor may have a different cross-
sectional area to that of the phase and neutral. A 2.5 mm2 Twin and Earth cable has a 1.5 mm2 protective
conductor. In this case multiply the resistance of the phase or neutral conductor by a factor of 1.67 to cross
check the protective conductor reading. (2.5 / 1.5 = 1.67). If there is a difference in the loop resistance
readings check for a poor or loose connection.

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Insulation resistance testing

These tests are to verify that for compliance with BS7671 the insulation of conductors and electrical
accessories and equipment is satisfactory and that the live conductors or protective conductors are not short
circuited, or show a low insulation resistance. These tests will be carried out between each live conductor
and cpc and phase to phase for 3 phase circuits.

If tests are to be made – between live conductors, with phases and neutral connected together, and earth at
all final distribution boards. At main and sub main distribution panels, with final circuit distribution boards
isolated from the mains.

An insulation resistance/continuity tester or multi tester with the HIGH resistance range selected should be
used to carry out this test.

Results obtained should be compared with the readings given in Table 61 in BS7671.

This test is to ensure that there are no short circuits between live conductors or between live conductors and
earth, and that there is no deterioration in insulation resistance caused by damage or dampness. A direct
voltage is applied, to test insulation resistance as the capacitive current quickly falls to zero so that it has no

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effect on the measurement. A high voltage is used because this will often break down poor insulation or
surface leakage paths. In other words the high voltage may show up insulation weaknesses which would not
be noticed at lower voltage levels. An insulation resistance tester measures the applied voltage and the
resulting leakage current flow. The resistance displayed, is obtained by an internal calculation based on
Ohm’s Law

As the effective capacitance of the system charges up, the leakage current reduces. A steady insulation
resistance reading indicates that the cables are fully charged, and that the capacitive component of the test
current has fallen to zero. If a wiring system is wet and / or dirty, the surface leakage component of test
current will be high, giving a low insulation resistance reading. Insulation resistances are all effectively
connected in parallel. The total insulation resistance will therefore be lower than that of each individual
circuit. In a large electrical installation, the total insulation resistance may be lower than that of a smaller
installation. Test Instrument required

An insulation resistance tester (having a DC test voltage which is dependent on the supply voltage in
accordance with ETCI Rules).

Note: The minimum acceptable resistance value is 1 MΩ. A new installation test may produce a reading in
excess of 100 MΩ. If a reading of 2 MΩ or less is discovered, the reason should be investigated and
corrected.

Pre Test Procedures and Observations.

1. The installation must be disconnected from the supply.

2. The Main Protective Conductor must be disconnected from the supply neutral.

3. All fuses are intact and all MCBs and switches are closed. (Exceptions as in 5 and 6).

4. All current using equipment including lamps, pilot lights, bell transformers, smoke alarm units, PIR units,
timers etc. are disconnected or otherwise excluded from the test between live conductors.

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5. Note: - Where disconnection or removal of these items is impractical the control switches should be in
the off position. Items left in circuit will cause false low readings.

6. Any equipment containing electronic circuitry must be disconnected or switched off in order to prevent
damage by the high test voltage

Insulation of non-conducting floors and walls

Where protection against indirect contact is provided by a non-conducting location, the tests as directed in
413-04 are to be implemented.

Insulation Resistance between All Live Conductors and the Protective Conductor

Method connect all live and neutral conductors together at the distribution board and test between them and
the protective conductor. The reading obtained should be 1 M or greater. An infinitely high resistance
reading would be ideal.

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Effectiveness of earthing test

This test is to ensure that:

 All protective conductors and bonding conductors are electrically sound and correctly connected and
continuous throughout their length. (Remember that this includes the Main Protective Conductor and the
Earthing Conductor).

 All equipment and accessories are properly connected to the protective conductor where required.

 All bonding connections and clamps are making good electrical contact.

Equipment required to carry out this test.

A low reading DC Ohmmeter or an insulation resistance test meter set on the continuity range. Either meter
must be capable of passing a minimum test current of 0.2 Amps. The meter used for this test provides
readings to two decimal places.

Earth Electrode Resistance

Test Method 1 uses an Earth Electrode Resistance Tester. Test Method 2 uses an EFLI meter. When
measuring earth electrode resistance to Earth (Ra) where low values are required, as in the earthing of the
neutral point of a transformer or generator, test method 1 should be used. If the electrode is being used in
conjunction with an RCD, test method 2 may be applied as an alternative to test method 1. Test each earth
rod or group of rods separately, with the test links removed, and with the installation isolated from the
supply source.

Earth fault loop impedance testing

At origin of the installation, distribution boards, accessible socket outlets, extremity of radial circuit. EFLI
may be determined by either direct measurement or calculation based upon readings obtained for Ze and
R1+R2. The tests must be completed at the points specified in BS7671. An EFLI meter or multi tester may
be used with the LOW impedance range selected.

A long trailing lead of known resistance is required. Also, it will be necessary to know the resistance of the
test leads used. With supply disconnected, connect one end of the long trailing lead to the main earthing

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terminal of the installation. Using the other end in conjunction with the test meter leads, take readings from
all the points around the circuits e.g. switches, luminaries, sockets etc. The resistance of the test leads and
also that of the long trailing lead must be subtracted from the readings obtained in order to arrive at the
resistance of the protective conductor. Most test instruments have a facility for nulling the test leads,
including the long trailing lead. This means that a direct reading can be obtained .

Functional Tests RCD’s, Circuit Breakers, Isolators and all Switching Devices

Tests as required by Regulation 713-13-01, followed by the operation of the functional test button. Manual
tests to prove that the devices disconnect the supply. Where means are provided in accordance with the
regulations for isolation and switching, they should be operated to verify their effectiveness and checked to
ensure adequate and correct labelling. Easy access to say devices must be maintained and effective
operation must not be impaired.

Site applie d insulation

Site applied insulation is carried out ONLY where the insulation is applied DURING erection. They are not
applied when type tested switch- gear is assembled on site. In most cases this test will be not applicable. The
tests involve the use of high voltages and great care is necessary to avoid danger.

NB: At the end of testing one should produce completion certificate (accompanied by a test
certificate) and must write on this document the period for further testing and inspection

 For domestic and commercial premises recommended is 15 years

 For farms and horticulture establishments 3 years
 For temporary installations is 3 months or less.

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Solar Photovoltaic (PV) System Components
Introduction
Solar photovoltaic (PV) energy systems are made up of different components. Each component has a
specific role. The type of component in the system depends on the type of system and the purpose. For
example, a simple PV-direct system is composed of a solar module or array (two or more modules wired
together) and the load (energy-using device) it powers. The most common loads are submersible water
pumps, and ventilation fans. A solar energy system produces direct current (DC). This is electricity which
travels in one direction. The loads in a simple PV system a lso operate on direct current (DC). A stand-alone
system with energy storage (a battery) will have more components than a PV-direct system.

Solar Module
The majority of solar modules available on the market and used for residential and co mmercial solar
systems are silicon-crystalline. These modules consist of multiple strings of solar cells, wired in series
(positive to negative), and are mounted in an aluminum frame. Each solar cell is capable of producing 0.5
volts. A 36-cell module is rated to produce 18 volts. Larger modules will have 60 or 72 cells in a frame. The
size or area of the cell determines the amount of amperage. The larger the cell, the higher the amperage.

The power output of a module depends on the number of cells in the module depends on the number of cells
in the module, the type of cells and the total surface area of the cells.

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The output of a module charges depends on;

(i) The amount of solar radiation

(ii) The angle of the module w.r.t to the sun
(iii)The temperature of the module
(iv) The voltage which the load (or battery) is drawing power from the module

Solar Array
The solar array is made up of multiple PV modules wired together. Connecting the negative (-) wire of one
module to the positive (+) wire of a second module is the beginning of a series string. Wiring modules in
series results in the voltage of each of the two modules is added together. For example, a 20 watt module
rated at 17.2 volts and 1.2 amps is wired in series to second similar module. The result is a series st ring
capable of producing 34.4 volts (17.2V +17.2V = 34.4V). However, the current each module produces,
stays the same .

Series string represents the summed voltages of each individual module. Each module should be the same
voltage and current. The negative cable of one module is connected to the positive cable of the next module.
In a large system, multiple strings are assembled and the non-connected ends are connected to homerun
leads which are landed at the terminals of an enclosure located near the array. For example, if an array is
made up of a string of 10 modules, each rated at 30 volts and 4 amps, the string would be rated at producing
300 volts (10 x 30 volts) and 4 amps, or a total of 1,200 watts (1.2 kW). The goal is to wire modules in
series to build voltage. Since the AC voltage in a residence operates on 120 to 240 volts, it is desirable to
achieve the voltage necessary to operate the loads in the residence.

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Charge Controlle r
A charge controller regulates the amount of charge going into the battery from the module to keep from
overcharging the battery. Charge controllers can vary in the amount of amperage they can regulate. Some
models will include additional features such as co nnecting and operating DC loads, and regulating energy
going to a load based on the amount of charge in a battery. During daylight, the array sends power to the
controller and to the battery. The controller monitors the level of energy to keep the battery fully charged.
At night, when the array is not sending energy, the controller allow the battery to energize the load as
demanded.

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Battery
When solar energy is to be stored for use when the sun is not shining, a battery is used. The most commonly
used battery for residential PV applications is the lead-acid battery. The solar user should look for a deep-
cycle battery, similar to what is used in a golf cart, but designed for renewable energy systems. There are
two types of lead-acid batteries: flooded lead-acid (FLA), sealed absorbed glass mat (AGM). The battery
voltage can vary from 2, 6, and 12 volts. Individual amp-hours can vary. For example, battery “A” (pictured
below) is rated at 12 volts, and 35 amp-hours, while battery “B” is rated at 12 volts and 58 amp- hours.
Dimensions of individual batteries can vary.

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Battery Banks
If the total voltage needs is greater than what one battery can provide, a number of batteries are connected
together to form a bank. For example, two 12-volt batteries wired in series (positive terminal to negative
terminal), produces a battery bank capable of providing up to 24 volts of DC energy, and four batteries
wired in series produces 48 volts. Battery banks are sized to allow loads to operate for multiple days during
cloudy weather conditions when the array is not able to charge the battery bank. Batteries have a limited life
cycle. A cycle consists of discharging a battery and recharging it to full capacity. The life cycle of a battery
can be lengthened if the battery is not discharged all the way to 0% charge. A reasonable design is to have
batteries discharge to 50% then recharge to full. However, this design may require having more batteries in
the bank. Batteries used in solar systems are classified as deep-cycle batteries and may be discharged up to
80% of its storage capacity.

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Inverters
Energy from an array or a battery bank is direct current (DC). This will provide for DC loads such a lights,
fans, pumps, motors, and some specialty equipment. However, if the energy is to be used to power loads
that operate on alternating current (AC), as what is found in a residence, the current needs to be converted.
The inverter changes DC energy to AC energy. Inverters are available in many different sizes for various-
sized loads. A small inverter can be plugged into the power outlet of a vehicle to change the 12 volt DC
energy from the vehicle’s battery, to 120 volt AC energy to power a laptop computer. Larger inverters are
available to power larger loads. For example, a 4000 watt inverter can be connected to a 12 volt battery and
used for energizing small AC appliances. A string inverter is used to convert DC power from a solar array to
AC power and can be connected to an AC distribution power panel (service panel) in a residence or facility.
String inverters are available in different sizes depending on the size of the AC loads.

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