WEEK 1: TOPIC: Gaseous exchange

SUB-TOPIC: Difference between cellular respiration, breathing and gas exchange.

NOTES & EXAM TIPS

Biological terminology

Aerobic occurring in the presence of oxygen

Anaerobic occurring in the absence of oxygen
Aquatic (plants and animals) living in water
Breathing / mechanical process of inhalation and exhalation through

ventilation which air moves in and out of the respiratory organs enabling

the uptake of oxygen and the removal of carbon dioxide

Carbohydrate a large group of organic compounds found in cells, including glucose,
sucrose, and starch

Cellular the breakdown of organic compounds (glucose / sugar) in the

respiration
mitochondria of cells into inorganic products (CO2 and H2O) with

the release of cellular energy (ATP); either aerobic or anaerobic

Diffusion the movement of molecules from a region of high concentration

to a region of low concentration until equilibrium is reached

Gaseous the exchange of O2 and CO2 at a respiratory surface
exchange
occurring between the air and blood and blood and cells
Glucose a simple sugar which is an important energy source in living organisms
and is a component of many carbohydrates
Mitochondrion an organelle found in large numbers in most cells, in which the cellular
respiration and energy production occur
Respiratory is a membrane through which gas exchange takes place
surface
Terrestrial (plants and animals) living on land
Introduction

It is important to distinguish between breathing, gaseous exchange and cellular respiration.

Why do we need to breathe?

All organisms, from simple, unicellular to more advanced multicellular organisms need
oxygen (O2) to sustain cellular functions. Oxygen is used to release energy from
carbohydrates found in cells. Plants and animals need energy for survival. Organisms are
structurally suited to ensure that the process of the exchange of gases is optimised. More
complex animals have a mechanism of breathing that ensures that gases enter their bodies,
and this enables gaseous exchange and cellular respiration to occur efficiently.
Key concepts

Breathing

This is a mechanical process taking oxygen into the lungs.

Cellular respiration

A chemical process which takes place in the cells to release energy.

Gaseous exchange

A physical process which involves the exchange of gases between the air and blood in
the lungs.
 SUB-TOPIC: Requirements of efficient gas exchange organs

For gases to effectively diffuse across respiratory surfaces, certain requirements need to be
met. This is important for both terrestrial and aquatic habitats.
Relationship between respiratory structures and efficient gaseous exchange in
different organisms

All organisms, from simple unicellular to complex multicellular, rely on gaseous

exchange for survival. The amount of O2 taken up and CO2 released depends on

the ratio of surface area to volume of the organism.

What does this mean?

 Surface area is the combination of all the exposed surfaces of the organism.
  The volume is the space taken up by the same organism.

 Therefore, the surface area to volume ratio would be the amount of surface an
organism has relative to its size.

 In general, the smaller the organism the larger the surface area to volume ratio.
Both terrestrial and aquatic plants and animals have gaseous exchange surfaces

and respiratory structures that ensure effective exchange of gases (O2 and CO2)

Comparison of the respiratory surfaces of various groups of organisms

Requirements for effective gaseous exchange surface

large thin & moist well- protection transport

permeable ventilated system

Dicotyledonous plant (leaf and spongy mesophyll)

flat surface thin-walled water air cuticle and simple

increases cells allow vapour movement lower diffusion
exposure to for diffusion passes around epidermis
air through leaves
stomata

Earthworm (skin)

elongated body mucous air thin cuticle diffusion

cylindrical covering is glands keep movement
shape thin the skin around the
moist body

Insect (tracheal system)

extensively lining of tracheoles rhythmic exoskeleton network of

branched tracheoles is are moist body and chitin tubules
tracheae thin movements rings throughout
and move air in the body
tracheoles and out

Bony fish (gills)

branched gill thin aquatic water taken gills are heart and
filaments membranes animals live in through protected by blood
 increase in water the mouth is a bony vessels
surface area forced out cover, the
over the gills operculum

Mammals (lungs)

bronchioles alveoli have mucus cells diaphragm ribs protect circulatory

divide into thin secrete a and ribcage the lings system
many alveoli squamous thin layer on regulate
epithelium moisture inhalation
layer and
exhalation

WEEK 2: TOPIC: Gaseous exchange

SUB-TOPIC: Human gas exchange –structure, location, functions and adaptations of the
ventilation system.

NOTES & EXAM TIPS

 When you breathe in, air enters your body through your nose or mouth.

It then travels down your throat through the larynx (or voice box) and into the

trachea or windpipe) before entering your lungs.

LOCATION OF THE HUMAN GASEOUS SYSTEM

The human gaseous exchange /ventilation system begins from the nose in the head and moves
down the windpipe/ trachea located in the neck and extends into the bronchi and lungs within the
thoracic cavity(chest).

The diaphragm is the gaseous exchange muscle that separates the thoracic (chest) cavity from the
abdominal cavity.

STRUCTURE OF THE HUMAN GASEOUS EXCHANGE SYSTEM

Figures 1 and 2 below show parts of the gaseous exchange system that are directly involved in
breathing and gaseous exchange.
 FIGURE 1 FIGURE 2

STRUCTURAL SUITABILITY OF GASEOUS EXCHANGE SYSTEM

The human gas exchange system is well designed or structurally suited to carry out the function of
gaseous exchange.
STRUCTURE FUNCTION
AIR PASSAGES
2 Nostrils Air from atmosphere inhaled through two openings in
nose called nostrils.

2 Nasal cavities Cavities are lined with ciliated columnar epithelium with
goblet cells.

Mucus from the goblet cells together with the cilia trap
dust/dirt and sweep it out of the nose.
 Mucus keeps cavity moist.

Blood capillaries warm the incoming air.

Has turbinate bones to increase surface for airflow.

Trachea Trachea is situated in front of the oesophagus.

C-shaped cartilage rings protect trachea and keep it open

for easy movement of air into the lungs.

Bronchus / bronchi Trachea branches into left and right bronchi that enter the
upper lobes of the left and right lungs.

Held open by C-shaped cartilage rings so that it does not

collapse during breathing.

Lined with mucus membranes to keep incoming air moist

Alveoli Bronchioli end in a collection of alveoli (air sacs) that are
sites for gaseous exchange.

Many alveoli increase the surface area to maximise the

gas exchange.

Have thin walls of squamous epithelial cells allowing for

easy diffusion of gases.

Tissue fluid keeps the walls of the alveoli moist for easy
dissolving gases.

A large blood capillary network surrounds the alveoli to

allow for rapid diffusion of gases between alveoli and
blood.

THROAT AND LUNGS

Pharynx (throat region) Connects the nasal cavity with larynx.

Allows entry of gases into the trachea and oesophagus

Larynx Larynx contains the vocal cords.
 Air passes over the chords and sound is produced.

Epiglottis A cartilage structure on top of the larynx (voice box).

It closes when food is swallowed preventing food from

entering the trachea and allows only air to pass over it
into trachea.

Lungs Two spongy, elastic lungs are surrounded by the double

pleural membrane. This organ receives oxygen from air to
be send throughout the body and it receives carbon
dioxide from body cells to be expelled into air.

Pleural fluid acts as a lubricant and helps prevent friction

during inhalation and exhalation.
RIBS AND MUSCLES INVOLVED IN BREATHING
Ribs Rib bones on either side of the sternum form a rib cage to
protect the lungs from injury.

Intercostal muscles These are muscles found between the rib bones.

They contract and relax during inhalation and exhalation

altering the volume of air in the chest (thoracic cavity).
 A sheet of muscle below the lungs.

Diaphragm It contracts and relaxes altering the volume of the chest

cavity which is important in the breathing mechanism.

FUNCTIONS OF THE GASEOUS EXCHANGE SYSTEM

The main function of the gaseous exchange system in humans is to take oxygen from the air into
the lungs during inhalation and that this oxygen-rich air reaches the alveoli where gaseous exchange
takes place so that the oxygen diffuses into the blood to be transported to the cells of the body . It
then receives carbon dioxide from the cells of the body after cellular respiration to be expelled out of
body via exhalation.
The exchange of gases occurs in two areas in the body: At the

1. Alveoli surface (external gaseous exchange) and

2. Between the blood and tissues (internal gaseous exchange).

GASEOUS EXCHANGE IN THE LUNGS AT THE ALVEOLI SURFACE

The air entering the alveoli after inhalation has a high oxygen concentration compared to the oxygen
concentration in the blood of the surrounding capillaries.

The inhaled air has a lower carbon dioxide concentration than that of the blood in the surrounding
capillaries.

This results in oxygen diffusing (moving) from the alveoli into the blood and carbon dioxide diffusing
(moving) from the blood and back into the alveoli to be exhaled.
 Gaseous exchange between alveolus and blood

GASEOUS EXCHANGE BETWEEN THE BLOOD AND TISSUES

The cells will have a high carbon dioxide concentration due to continuing cellular respiration. This
carbon dioxide moves out of the cells and diffuses into the blood and is transported back to the heart
and then to the lungs where it is exhaled.

Carbon dioxide is transported from the cells to the alveoli where it is removed from the body.
The air in the alveoli will be exhaled with more carbon dioxide than the air that had been inhaled.

Gaseous exchange between blood and cells

Oxygen is transported mainly by the red blood cells. Most of the oxygen combines with the pigment
haemoglobin present in the red blood cells (erythrocytes) to form oxyhaemoglobin. It is transported
via the circulatory system to all body cells for respiration to produce energy (ATP) for the cells.

Most of the carbon dioxide is transported in the blood plasma in the form of bicarbonate ions from
the cells and tissue to the lungs to be exhaled.
 WEEK 3: TOPIC: Gaseous exchange

SUB-TOPIC: Ventilation of the lungs. Homeostatic control of breathing

NOTES & EXAM TIPS

TERMINOLOGY

 Ventilation: The exchange of air between the lungs and the atmosphere so that oxygen can be
exchanged for carbon dioxide in the alveoli.

 Alveoli: The tiny air sacs in the lungs.

 Homeostasis: It is a process of maintaining a constant internal environment within the body.

(Level of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the body)

 Inhalation: The breathing in of air

 Exhalation: The breathing out of air

 Spirometer: An instrument used to measure the volume of air that enters and leaves the
human lungs during inhalation and exhalation

VENTILATION

 Inhalation is the process of taking air into the lungs. It is the active phase of ventilation
because it is the result of muscle contraction. During inspiration, the diaphragm contracts and
the thoracic cavity increases in volume. This decreases the pressure so that air flows into the
lungs.
HOMEOSTATIC CONTROL OF BREATHING

 When the heart rate increases, blood flow also increases.

 Rapid transport of gases to and from the cells occurs.

 When carbon dioxide levels rise, the cells in the respiratory centre of the medulla oblongata of
the brain are stimulated.

 Increased rate and depth of breathing causes the intercostal muscles and the

diaphragm to contract and relax.

 More oxygen is inhaled, and more carbon dioxide is exhaled.

 The levels of carbon dioxide in the blood determine the rate and depth of breathing.

 The ability of the body to return the levels the normal is known as homeostasis
The flow diagram below represents the negative feedback mechanism for homeostatic control of
breathing: