Food spoilage

• Vegetables form an integral part of diet due to their role in providing various types of vital nutrients
such as carbohydrates, minerals, vitamins, roughage etc. Vegetables being a part of fresh produce,
contain high moisture which makes them highly perishable foods and hence more prone to
spoilage. Microorganisms gain entry into vegetables from various sources. These sources include:
 Soil
 Water
 Diseased plant
 Harvesting and processing equipments
 Handlers
 Packaging and packing material
 Contact with spoiled vegetables
• The conditions in which vegetables are stored and transported after harvesting also contribute to
rate of spoilage. Other than microbial, sources, the spoilage of vegetables can also occur due to the
activity of native enzymes.
 Food spoilage
• Spoiled Food
1. Damage or injuries that make food undesirable for human consumption.
2. Can be the result of:
a. Infection by micro organisms
b. Action of enzymatic degradation
c. insect , parasites and rodent damage
d. Characteristics and storage condition of food
e. Physical and mechanical injury
•
 Spoilage in vegetables is mainly affected by composition of vegetable. The non acidic
foods are thus spoiled by bacterial rot while acidic foods with dry surfaces are more prone to
mold spoilage. The product on which organism grows and types of organisms growing
largely determine the character of spoilage.
Bacterial Soft Rot Caused by Erwinia carotovora and Pseudomonas such as Psedomonas.
marginalis.
Breaks down pectin, giving rise to a soft, mushy consistency, sometimes a bad odour
and water soaked appearance. Vegetables affected onions, garlic, beans, carrot, beets,
lettuce, spinach, potatoes, cabbage, cauliflower, radishes, tomatoes, cucumbers,
watermelons.
Soft rot in tomato caused by Erwinia carotovora. Blue mould rot in tomato caused by
Penicillium spp. Penicillium, Cladosporium, Rhizopus, Aspergillus spp. are responsible for
various defects in vegetables. Gray mold rot – caused by Botrytis cinera in vegetables.
Favoured by high humidity and warm temperature
Normal microflora of vegetables The major types of spoilages by pathogens in vegetables
Microbial spoilage
• Major spoilage micro organisms-Bacteria, yeast and storage may infect
• Food after harvesting, during its handling, processing and storage
• But not all Mos cause spoilage eg. Lactic acid bacteria –in making of cheese
• Yeast for production of wine and beer
• Acetobacter – for vinegar production
• Spoilage organisms are present every where- in soil, air, water and even in raw
& processed food materials.
• Vegetables are a good substrate for yeasts, moulds or bacteria
• It is estimated that 20% of all harvested fruits and vegetables for humans are lost to
spoilage by these microorganisms.
 (I) Bacteria
• These are unicellular MOs do not contain chlorophyll and cell is 1µm length with
smaller diameter in different shape e.g. Cocci had spherical, bacilli are cylindrical,
spirilla and vibrios had spiral.

• Bacterial spores more resistant than yeast and moulds spores. Its rapid growth
depends on nature of food material, moisture, temperature and air.

• Temperature plays major role in their growth, optimum being generally -37 ֯C

• Some bacteria produce spores which can be destroyed by heating at 121 ֯C for 30-40
min.

• It is very sensitive to acids and destroyed in their presence even at the temperature of
boiling water.

• Fruits are acidic can be easily sterilized at100 ֯C and vegetables are non acidic
requires a high temperature of 116 ֯C.
The important groups of bacteria are
• (i) bacillus : rod shaped
• (ii) Coccus: spherical
• (iii) coccobacillus : oval- shaped
• (iv) Aerobes : require atmospheric oxygen for growth, e.g. Acetobacter aceti;
• Facultative anaerobes : can grow with or without atm. Oxygen.
• Obligate anaerobes: do not grow in atm. Oxygen.
• Mesophiles : requires a temperature below 38 ֯C for growth.
• Obligate thermophiles: grows between 38- 82 ֯ C
• Facultative thermophiles: grow over the whole range of temperatures covered by
mesophiles and obligate thermophiles and below.
• Psychrotrophs: grow fairly well at refrigeration temperature and some can even
grow slowly at temperature below freezing.
 Important food spoilage bacteria
Group Genus
acetics Acetobacter and gluconobacter
Lactics Lactobacillus, Leuconostoc, Pediococcus,
Streptococcus

Butyrics Clostridium

Propionics Propionibacterium

Proteol Gytics Bacillus, Pseudomonas, Clostridium,

Proteus etc.
Some useful bacteria are great importance in food processing industry. Acetobacter sp. –also
called Vinegar bacteria cause significant spoilage in wine industry- necessary for vinegar
production
O2
ethyl alcohol Acetobacter acetic acid it can easily destroyed at 65 ֯C
• Lactobacillus sp- known as “lactic acid bacteria”- produces lactic acid from CHOs.
It is a facultative thermophilic –grows abundantly at 50-55֯C mostly used for distilling and
brewing industries.
• Because bacteria grow more rapidly, they usually out-compete fungi for readily available
substrates in vegetables. As a result, bacteria are of greater consequence in the spoilage of
vegetables with intrinsic properties that support bacterial growth (favourable pH, Eh).
• Mesophiles used for pickling purpose- Lactobacillus plantarum -found in pickles and olives.
• Microflora of vegetables is primarily composed of:
1. G+ bacteria like lactic acid bacteria (e.g. leuconostocs, lactobacilli, streptococci.
2. These bacteria cause- lactic souring and spoil wines- prevented by sulphur dioxide conc.
0.007 % in wine
3. Coryneforms and staphylococci (the latter coming from the hands of employees during
processing.
4. Staphylococci are usually unable to proliferate but cross-contamination can introduce them
into other foods where growth conditions are more favourable.
• Soft rot
• a. One of the most common types of bacterial spoilage.
• b. caused by Erwinia carotovora and sometimes by Pseudomonas spp., which
grow at 4oC
• Softening can also be caused by endogenous enzymes.
• Flavr Savr story:
• a. polygalacturonase (PB); hydrolyzes a (1-4) glycosidic bond in pectin
which leads to softening.
• b. Calgene made antisense RNA to tomato pg, constructs soften slower and
so can be harvested after they are ripe (better flavor).
• c. First commercially avail. genetically engineered vegetable.
• Yeasts, molds and lactic acid bacteria can also spoil fermented
vegetables such as sauerkraut and pickles, as well as other acid foods
like salad dressings and mayonnaise.
• Spoilage in fermented vegetables is often manifest by off odors or
changes in the color (chromogenic colony growth) or texture (softening)
of the product.
• In mayonnaise or salad dressing, the first signs of spoilage are usually
off odors and emulsion separation.
 (ii) Yeast
• Yeasts are microscopic unicellular fungi, which are non-motile round or elliptical.
• Yeasts are larger than bacteria in size. It is multiplied by budding are known as “ true yeasts”
• It require less moisture and acidic pH to grow and do not grow in alkaline medium.
• Grow under moderate temperature (25-30°C) in sugar solution of low concentration.
• Yeast + Sugar Alcohol + Co2
• It do not grow in media containing more than 65 per cent of sugar or 0.5 per cent acetic acid.
• Heating at 60°C for a few minutes is sufficient to destroy most species of yeasts. Boiling destroys yeast cells
and spores effectively.
• it is useful for making bread, beer, wine, vinegar and many other fermented products
• During active fermentation, yeast can be recognized by formation of bubbles of carbon dioxide gas on the
surface of the product. Some of yeasts which grow on fruits are Saccharomyces, Candida etc.
Saccharomyces generally spoils low sugar products whereas Candida is responsible for spoilage of high acid
foods, salty foods and butter etc.

• Some yeasts which are like true yeast but do not form spores are known as pseudo-yeasts. This type of
yeast is not suitable for fermentation as they produce off-flavours and cloudiness.
 Yeasts causing food spoilage
Yeast Product spoiled
Saccharomyces Low sugar products
Candida High acid foods, salty foods, butter
Brettanomyces Beers, wines
Pichia Wines
Zygosaccharomyces (Osmophilic) Honey, syrups, molasses, wines, soy sauce
Hansenula Beers
Hanseniospora Fruit juices
Torulopsis Milk products, fruit juices, acid foods
 (iii)Moulds
• Moulds are multicellular filamentous fungi. They grow on
foods with their fuzzy or cottony appearance, sometimes
colored.
• Moulds are larger and more complex in structure
than bacteria or yeast
• They are made up of mycelium and spores.
• They grow in a network of hair like fibers called mycelia and
send up fruiting bodies that yield spores.
• Some of common moulds are Aspergillus, Penicillium,
Rhizopus and Heliminthosporium. Usually a moldy or
mildewed food is considered unfit to eat.
• They are strictly aerobic in nature and require less available
moisture than yeast and bacteria and can grow well at 25-
30°C.
• Moulds prefer sugar containing substances like jam, jelly,
preserves and other sweet products. They can grow at wide
range of pH (2 to 8.5) but majority grow well at acidic pH
• They can grow on many kind of foods especially when temperature, air and
humidity are favourable.
• Their growth can be seen only on the surface of food .
• Majority of moulds are sensitive to heat and are destroyed at 60°C when
heated for 30 minutes. Boiling quickly destroys both moulds and their spores.
• They not only consume nutrients present in food thereby lowering the food
value but also produce odd by-products, which spoil the flavour, taste and
texture of food hence change the quality contents of the entire product.
• Some moulds produce toxic substances known as mycotoxins. For example
Aspergillus flavus produces aflatoxins in moist groundnuts .
Two basic principals followed in preventing spoilage
• 1. Principal is to destroy MOs in the food and prevent external microbial
contaminations.
• Its applies for frozen food.
• It is basis to canning technique.
• 2. It involves altering the environment in order to prevent or retard microbial
activity.
• water removal from the growth environment for instance can prevent the
microbial decay.
• Applicable for pickled and fermented foods.
• Auto microbial agents – SO2, benzoic acid, benzoate, hydroxy benzoic acid, sorbic
acid, propionic acid, sodium diacetate, Vitamin K5 and antioxidants-Ascorbic
acid, ascorbyl palmate, erythorbic acid can used for long term preservation of
fruits and vegetables.
 Spoilage due to Enzymatic Activity
• Enzymes are complex chemical substances, which are present in all living organisms and
tissues, which control essential metabolic processes.
• Different biochemical reactions in foods and plants tissues are catalysed by enzymes.
• Enzymatic spoilage is the greatest cause of food deterioration.
• They are responsible for certain undesirable or desirable changes in fruits, vegetables and
other foods. Examples involving endogenous enzymes include:
 the post-harvest senescence and spoilage of fruit and vegetables;

 oxidation of phenols in plant tissues to orthoquinones by phenolases, peroxidases and

polyphenol oxidases (PPO). These orthoquinones rapidly polymerize to form brown
pigments known as melanin leading to enzymic browning;

 sugar – starch conversion in plant tissues by amylases;

 post-harvest demethylation of pectic substances in plant tissues (leading to softening of plant
tissues during ripening, and firming of plant tissues during processing).
 If enzymatic reactions are uncontrolled, the off-odours, and off-colours may develop in
foods.
 Factors Affecting Enzymatic Activity

• Factors responsible for controlling enzymatic activities are temperature, water

activity, pH and chemicals which can inhibit or enhance enzyme activity.
• Enzymes can act between 0°C and 60°C but 37°C is optimum temperature.
• Enzymes can be permanently inactivated by heat.
• It has been seen that for each 10°C rise in temperature, the activity of
microorganisms and enzymes increases by at least twice, in the range 0-60°C.
• Above this, heat quickly destroys enzymes and stops living cells from working.
• All enzymes are inactivated at 80°C.
• Decreased temperatures therefore work by slowing down these changes.
 Spoilage Due to Insects, Pests and Rodents

• The main categories of foods subject to insects and pest attack are fruits, vegetables, grains and
their processed products.
• Warm humid environment promote insect growth, although most insects will not breed if the
temperature exceeds above 35°C or falls below 10°C. Many insects cannot reproduce satisfactorily
unless the moisture content of their food is greater than 11 per cent.
• The presence of insects and pests and their excreta in foods may render consumable loss in the
nutritional quality, production of off-flavours and acceleration of decay processes due to creation
of higher temperatures and moisture levels and release of enzymes.
• The products of insect and pests activities such as webbing, clumped-together food particles and
holes can also reduce the food values.
• Rats and mice carry disease-producing microorganisms on their feet and/or in their feces and urine
and contaminate the food by their presence.
 Spoilage Due to Chemical Reactions
• Chemical reactions take place in the presence of atmospheric oxygen and sunlight.
• Two major chemical changes, which occur during the processing and storage of fruits and
vegetables, are lipid oxidation and non-enzymatic browning which deteriorate sensory
quality, colour and flavour .
• Lipid oxidation is influenced by light, oxygen, high temperature and the presence of iron
and copper, and water activity.
• Control of these factors can significantly reduce the extent of lipid oxidation or rancidity
in foods.
• Non-enzymatic browning is one of the major causes of deterioration which takes place
during frying, cooking, storage of dried and concentrated foods through Maillard,
caramelization and ascorbic acid oxidation.
• Maillard reaction occurs due to reactions between reducing sugars and amino acids in
the presence of heat and results in formation of black brown insoluble pigments .
• Caramelization of sugars occurs in presence of high heat and low moisture content in
the food. Oxidation of fatty acids to other chemicals like aldehydes, ketones, alcohols and
esters also results in off-flavours.
 Spoilage Due to Physical Factors

• Physical factors such as temperature, moisture and pressure can also cause food
spoilage.
• Physico-chemical reactions are caused by freezing, burning, drying and bruising of fruits
and vegetables during storage, handling and transportation, which result in food
deteriorations.
• Food processing or storage causes some deterioration in colour of fruits and vegetables
due to the degradation of the chlorophyll resulting dull olive-brown colour.
• Dehydrated green peas and beans packed in glass containers undergo photo-oxidation
and loss of desirable colour occurs.
• Freezer induced damage observed in frozen foods affects its quality .
• Anthocyanins, the pigment in fresh and processed foods, form complexes with metals
resulting in the change in colour. E.g. Red sour cherries react with tin and form
undesirable purple complex.
• Carotenoid, another colour pigment, degrades by oxidation in the presence oxygen,
light and heat.
 Effects of Spoilage on Nutritional Quality
Effect of spoilage on nutrient degradation cannot be generalized because of the diverse nature of the various nutrients as
well as the chemical heterogeneity within each class of compounds and the complex interactions of the above variables.
The major nutritional changes which occur in foods due to microbiological, enzymatic and chemical reactions are listed in
below Table.
Type of change Nutritional quality related changes in food
Microbiological Growth or presence of toxicogenic and/or infective microorganisms
Enzymatic 1.Hydrolytic reactions catalyzed by lipases, proteases, etc.
2.Lipoxygenase activity
Chemical 1.Oxidative rancidity
2.Non-enzymatic browning
3.Nutrient losses
Foods contaminated with microorganisms may cause food borne illness. Food
borne illnesses can be classified as food infection and food intoxication. Food
infection occurs due to growth of pathogenic microorganisms in victim’s digestive
tract causing diarrhea, vomiting, fever etc. For example- Salmonellosis due to
consumption of Salmonella sp. contaminated food. Food intoxication or
poisoning is caused due to ingestion of food containing toxic compounds
produced by pathogenic microorganisms in food. E.g. Staphylococcus aureus and
Clostridium botulinum causes food poisoning.Measures for the prevention of
food spoilage:Manipulation of factors controlling the conditions required for
microbial growth and enzyme action viz. temperature, moisture, air and pH other
than the food itself can help prevent food spoilage.