Chapter 4

Microbial Spoilage of Food

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Objective
• After completion of this chapter, students will be
able to :
 List the causes for food spoilage
 Identify safety & quality of major food products
 List the nutritional content of major food products
 Identify the favorable conditions for microbial growth
in food
 List the different types of MO responsible for
spoilage of different food products
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Microbial Spoilage of Food
• Spoiled food - Foods that has been damaged or
injured so as to make it undesirable for human
consumption.
• Some causes of food spoilages:-
• Physical damage / injury like bruising & freezing
• Insect damage
• Enzyme activity, or
• Microorganisms (Mos)

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Spoilage cont’d…
• Microbial spoilage of food is not deliberately planned to
destroy foods but as the normal function of these
organisms.

• 20% of all fruits and vegetables harvested for human

consumption are lost through microbial spoilage.

• Bacteria, Yeasts, and molds are the commonest agents

of microbial spoilage, but not viruses or Mycoplasma.

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Major groups of food products:
their safety and quality

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Spoilage of vegetables & fruits
Spoilage of vegetables
• Vegetables support the growth of molds, yeasts and
bacteria and can be spoiled by these agents.
• Growth of spoilage MO is favored by:
• Higher water content in vegetables
• Low carbohydrates and fats,
• Wide pH range
• The high oxidation reduction potential (O-R)
favor aerobic and facultative types of MOs than
anaerobic MOs.
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Vegetable spoilage cont’d…
• Erwinia are associated with plants & vegetables in the natural growth
environment.
• Erwinia is a genus under the family enterobacteriaceae containing
mostly plant pathogenic species.
• The common spoilage pattern displayed by these organism is called
bacterial soft rot.
• Bacterial soft rots:
– Commonest causative agents
 Erwinia carotovora
 Pseudomonas spp,

– Secondary bacterial agents.

» Bacillus species
» Clostridium species
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Spoilage cont’d…
The commonest vegetables affected:
• Onions , Garlic, Asparagus, Beans, Carrots, Beats, Lettuce,
Spinach , Potatoes, Cabbages, Cucumbers, Peppers, water
melons
• The nutrients (N2 compounds, vitamins, minerals ) are
adequate to sustain the growth of the invading organism
until the vegetables are destroyed or consumed.
• rot of potatoes /“ black leg” are caused by
– Erwinia carotovora, and
– Erwinia chrysanthemi
• The outer plant barrier has been destroyed by pectinase
producers; non-pectinase producers enter the plant
tissues and ferment simple carbohydrate .
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Fungal Agents
• Spoilage conditions are initiated at
• Pre-harvest
• Post-harvest conditions.
• The largest number of market fruits and vegetables are spoiled
after harvesting (fungi invades bruised & damaged products).

Table 4.1 Fungal agents that affect vegetables

Fungal agent Parts of vegetable affected Damage resulted

Botrytis flowers of Strawberries gray mold rots

Colletotrichum epidermis of banana banana anthracnose.

(obligate symbionts to plants in
the form of endophytes.)

Gloeosporium Lenticels (pores) of apples lenticels rots

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Gray Mold Rots
• Caused by: Botrytis cinerea : this fungi may produce
gray mycelium that is formed by high temperature &
high humidity.
• Affected vegetables:
– Asparagus, Onions, Garlic, Beans, Carrots,
parsnip, tomatoes, lettuces, cabbage, peppers, etc.

Sour rot (Watery soft rot)

• Caused by : Geothricum candidum
» Widely distributed in soil and on decaying
fruits and vegetables
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• Affected vegetables:
 Onion, garlic, beans, (green beans, Limu, wax), Carrots,
lettuce, cabbages, cauliflowers,

Rhizopus soft rot

– Caused by: Rhizopus stolonifer
– This makes vegetables soft and mushy .
– Cottony growth of the mold with small black dots of sporangia
often covers the vegetables.
• Affected vegetables:
– Beans, carrots, sweet potatoes, potatoes, cabbages, cauliflowers,
Broccoli, pumpkins, water melons, tomatoes.
• Transmissions:
– Drosophila melanogaster (fruit fly) which lay eggs in the growth
cracks on fruits & vegetables through wounds and skin breaks.

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Phytophora rot:
– Phytophthora spp: plant-damaging Oomycetes
(water molds)
– Occurs in a blight & fruits, rot of market vegetables.
– Affected vegetables and plants:
 Asparagus, onion, Garlic, Cantaloupes, water
melons, Tomatoes, egg, plants, peppers.

Anthracnose:
• any of various fungus diseases of plants, in which
roundish dead spots appear chiefly on leaves or fruit
• Characterized by spotting of leaves, fruits and seed pods.

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Caused by:

• Colletotrichum coccodes & other spp.

» This species is obligate symbionts to plants in the
form of endophytes.
» Considered as a weak plant pathogens in the soil.
» Warm and wet weather is a contributing factor for
transmission.
» Affected vegetables are: Beans, cucumbers, water
melons, pumpkins, Squash, tomatoes and peppers
are mostly affected.

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Spoilage of Fruits
– most fruits have an average water content of 85%
and the average CHO content is about 13%
– Has generally less water but more carbohydrates
than vegetables.
– Consists of vitamins and other organic Cpds.
– Support the growth of yeasts and molds.
molds
– The pH of fruits is below the level that generally
favors bacterial growth but not molds and yeasts
(can grow and spoil them).

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Spoilage of fruits cont’d…
• Except Erwinia rot, bacteria are of no known
importance in the initiation of fruit spoilage.
• Many types of yeast are capable of attacking the
sugars found in fruits & bringing about fermentation
with the production of alcohol & CO2.
• High molecular weight compounds of fruits are
thought to be destroyed by molds than yeasts, during
which the sources are depleted; the structural
polysaccharides and rind (coat) could be destroyed.

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 Spoilage of Fresh Beef, Pork & Related Meats
Up on slaughter of a well rested beef animal, the following
series of events takes place
•It’s circulations ceases
•The ability to re-synthesis ATP is lost
•Lack of ATP result in combination of actin & myosin to form
actomyosine that lead to stiffing of muscles
• O2 supply falls, resulting in a reduction of the O-R potential.
•The supply of vitamins and antioxidant is reduced that
facilitate process of rancidity (bad smell or test).
•The nervous and hormonal regulation can ceases, thereby
causing the temperature of the animal to fall, these also
solidify fats..
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Spoilage of fresh meat cont’d…
• Respiration may ceases and ATP synthesis is stopped.
• Glycolysis ---- lactic acid accumulation --- depress pH
(from 7.4 to 5.6) -- protein denaturation, and
• Cathepsins (any of several intracellular enzymes that act
as catalysts in the breakdown of protein) produced ---
 complete rigor mortis (death).

• The reticuloendothelial system ceases to scavenge and

as a result allow growth of MOs.
• Different metabolites may accumulate and protein could
be denatured.

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Spoilage of fresh meat cont’d…
• All these events may require 24-36 hrs at usual
temperature of holding slaughtered beef.
• The normal flora of these meats may come from:
– Lymph nodes
– Hide of the animals
– Intestinal tract, dust, handlers
– Cutting knives, storage bins and others.

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Bacterial agents of meat spoilage
• Bacterial group involved in spoilage of the meats :
• Clostridium perifregens
• The Enterobacteriaceae group
• Pseudomonas
• Alcalegens
• Acetinobacter
• Moraxella
• Aeromonas

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Fungal groups
• Among fungal agents that spoil meat
• Thaminidium, Mucor, Rhizopus = Causes whiskers
in the meats
• Cladosporium common causes of “black spot”
• Penicillium species causes green patches
• Sporotrichum and Chrysosporium species
produces “white spots”.

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Spoilage of Vacuum Packaged Meats

• Vacuum packaged meats may undergo long-term

refrigerator spoilage.
• The predominant organisms are Lactobacilli, B.
(Brochothrix) thermosphacta.
• Other organism may spoil depending on:-
– Weather the product is raw or cooked
– Concentration of nitrates present
– Relative load of psychrothropic bacteria
– Oxygen permeability of the packages
– pH of the Product
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Vacuum packaged cont’d…
• The dominant MOs in vacuum packaged meats held at
2OC for six weeks, are;
• Yer. enerocolitica, Serratia, Shewanella & Lactobacilli spp.
• Lactobacilli and Enterobacteriaceae will dominate at 6th &
8th week respectively in vacuum packaged meats stored at
pH 6.6 between 0-2 OC .
• Addition of nitrites generally inhibits Brochothrix
thermosphacta & Psychrotrophic Enterobactreaceae. The
lactic acid bacteria may dominate as they are insensitive
to nitrite.
• The presence of odors and off-flavor in vacuum
packaged meats, poultry and sea foods indicate the
production of volatile compounds by the spoiling agents.
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 Vacuum packaged cont’d…
• Volatile compounds that are mainly generated by Lactobaclli
(Lactobacillus cellulobiose), B. thermsphacta, Pseudomonas &,
Aeromonas, Enterobacter, Hafna and others are:
– Acetoin, short chain fatty acids, isovaleric acids, isobutric
acids, 2,3 butanediol , 3-methyibuthanol, 3-
methylpropanol .
• Addition of glucose may prolong the shelf life of vacuum
packaged meats.

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 Spoilage of Bologna Sausage and
Luncheon meats
• These meats are prepared from various
ingredients which may contribute growth of MO.
• Bacteria and yeast are very common agents
and some molds.
• Three forms of meats spoilage was described:-
• Slimy spoilage
• Souring
• Greening

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1. Slimy spoilage
• Occurs outside the casings, that occurs discrete
Colonies in early stages, which later coalesces to form
uniform layers of gray slime.
• Yeasts , Lactic acid bacteria, the Enterococcus ,
Brochothrix thermosphacta, produces both slimness
and greening.

• Slime formation is favored by moist surface and

confined to outer casing.
• Removal of these materials with hot water is effective
(The product is unchanged).
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2. Souring
• Found underneath the casing.
• Usually caused by Lactobacilli, Enterococci, and
related bacteria.
• Milk solids are source of these agents.
• Caused by fermentation of lactose and other
sugars with production of acids.
• Sausage usually contains more varied flora
than other processed meats due to different
seasoning agents employed.
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2. Souring cont’d…

• Brochothrix thermosphacta is very common agent.

Can grow in refrigerated vacuum packaged meat.
• When the product is moist and stored under high
humidity bacteria and yeasts can spoil.

• Mold spoilage likely occurs only if the surface dry.

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3. Greening
• Two types of greening occur in stored and processed meats,
meats
one by H2O2 and other by H2S gas.

• H2O2 commonly found in vacuum packed meats. Generally

occurs after anaerobically stored meats product is exposed
to air. The green product is not harmful for consumption.
• Up on exposure to air, H2O2 formed and reacts with
nitrosohemochrome to produce greenish oxidized
poryphyrin. Low oxidation reduction potential also
contribute for it’s formation.
• Lactobacillus, Leuconostoc, & Enterococcus can produce
greening.

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3. Greening cont’d...
• The second types of greening occur in fresh red
meats at 1-5oC and stored in gas impermeable packs.

• It is accompanied by conversion of myoglobin to

sulphamyoglobin.

• Psudomonas spp are the commonest agents.

• H2S producing Lactobacillus is also isolated from

vacuum packaged Fresh beef and found to produce
H2S at pH of 5.4-6.5.
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• Yellow discoloration of vacuum packed meat is
usually caused by Enterococcus as small spots.
• The agents could be Enterococcus casseliflavus,
and E. mundi, that survive at 71oC for 20 minutes
but not for 30 minutes

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 Spoilage of beacon and cured
hams
• Moldiness is the commonest spoilage that is caused mainly by
Aspergillus , Alternaria, Fusarium, Mucor, Rhizopus, Penicilium
due to high fat concentration and low activity of water.
• However, Enterococcus , Lactobacillus, and Micrococcus
capable of spoilage of beacons.
• Micrococcus and Lactobacillus tend to sour vacuum packed
beacons.
• Staphylococcus can spoil vacuum packed beacons if the salt
concentration is low and the temperature of storage is more
than 20oC
• Bacillus, Pseudomonas, Lactobacillus, Proteus, Micrococcus
and Clostridium can sour cured ham.

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Spoilage of Poultry
• Slimness is common features in the outer surface of cuts and
carcasses.
• The visceral cavity is often display sour odors called visceral
taint.
• Pseudomonas, Acetobacter, Cornyebacteria and Yeast are the
commonest agents.
• Fungi are less important in poultry spoilage except antibiotics
are employed to suppress bacterial growth. Mainly molds
(Candida, Rhodotorula and Torula)
• Poultry spoilage is mainly restricted to the surface as the tissue
is sterile or have less bacteria that can not grow at low
temperature.
• High humidity may favor Pseudomonas infection.
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Spoilage of Fish and Shell Fishes
• Salt and fresh water fishes contain high proteins and nitrogenous
constituents. The amount of carbohydrate is almost nil.
• The total nitrogen to protein ratio is about 0.7:0.87.
• The N2 compounds in fish are not only in the form of proteins but
also non protein N2 compounds such as amino acids, volatile
nitrogen, etc.
• The internal flesh of healthy live fish is sterile but the outer surface
slime, gills, and intestine.
• Penicillium, Aurobasidium and Aspergillus are molds that spoil fish.
• Among yeasts: Candida, Cryptococcus spp, Saccharomyces,
Sporobolomyces, Trichosporium….
• Acetobacter, Aeromonas, Bacillus, Enterobacter, Vibrio, Shewanella
Pseudomonas and Escherchia are common bacterial agents.
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Spoilage of fish cont’d…
• Fresh iced fish are invariably spoiled by bacteria next to fungal agents.
• The early symptoms organoleptic spoilage may be noted by examining
the gills for the presence of ‘off odors’.
• If feeding fish is not eviscerated soon, intestinal bacteria goes to
cavity that is aided by proteolytic enzymes.
Shell Fishes
a. Crustaceans:
 Shrimp, lobsters, crabs and Cray fishes.
 Spoilage could dependent on handling and chemical composition.
(Has only 0.5 % carbohydrate unlike fishes)
b. Mollusks:
 Oysters, Clams, Squid and Scallops have high carbohydrate but
low nitrogen.

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 They have also high free arginine, Aspartic acids, and Glutamic
acids.
 Serratia, Pseudomonas, Proteus, Clostridium, Bacillus, Escherichia,
Enterbacter, Shewanella, Lactobacillus are common agents.
 Due to high glycogen concentration, the spoilage of mollsucum
shell fish is fermented.
 pH measurement is the best indicators of spoilages in these
foods
– pH: 6.2- 5.9 is good
– pH: 5.8 is off odours
– pH: 5.7-5.5: Musty
– pH: Less than or equal to 5.2: Sour or putrid.

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Spoilage of Miscellaneous Foods
• Eggs: has three parts externally
1. Waxy shell membrane
2. The shell
3. Inner shell membrane

• The inner part has lysozyme in white egg (active against G+).
• Egg white has also avidin that will form a complex with biotin
and make this vitamin unavailable for MO. However, the yolk
materials at pH 6.8 is suitable for growth of MO.
• Freshly laid eggs is sterile but latter can be infected by
bacteria.
• Rotting is a condition were bacterial spoilage of eggs occurs.
• Green rot:
rot Happened by Pseudomonas florescence
• Colorless rot:
rot by other Pseudomonas and Aeromonas spp
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Miscellaneous Foods cont’d…
• Pink rots: by Pseudomonas spp
• Red rots; by Serratia spp
• Custard rots;
rots by Proteus vulgaris and Proteus intermedium
• Pin spots - mold spoilage of eggs,
» caused by Penicillium, Cladosporium spp
• Mustiness - caused by Pseudomonas spp.

• Ovaflavoproteins and ovatrasferins are antimicrobial

agents that is found in eggs. It is effective for both
gram positive bacteria and Yeasts.

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Spoilage of cereals, Flour & Dough products
• The soil, storage envir’t and processing unit may be the
source of MOs for spoilage of these products.
• These types of foods may consist of high amount of CHO and
proteins but low aw that inhibit spoilage process.
• Bacillus and molds could grow if aw is altered in the flour.
• Spoilage of fresh refrigerated dough, butter, milk, biscuits,
dinner pizza dough is usually caused by mainly Lactic acid
bacteria.
• The aw of bakery products is low so only molds (Rhizopus
spp) grow, and the condition is called “Bread mold”.
• Home made bread spoilage is termed as ropiness that is
caused by Bacillus subtles.
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Spoilage of Diary Products
• Due to chemical compositions of the diary products, such as
milk, butter, creams, cheese, they are susceptible to microbial
spoilage.
• Yeasts can grow in milk as it is an excellent medium for
growth.
• Non –pasteurized milk contain bacteria depending on milking
process, cleaning and handling of milk utencils.
• Enterococcus, Lactococcus, Sterptococcus, Leukonostocs,
Lactobacilli, Mycobacterium, Pseudomonas, Bacillus are the
causative agents.
• Pasteurization process eliminates all but thermoduric bacteria
(Sterptococcus, Lactobacillus, spore formers: Bacillus spp may
result in curdling and liquefaction of milk.
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Butter spoilage could be:-
1. Surface taint or putridity that is caused by
Pseudomonas putrifaciens (4-7 oC) for 7-10 days
exposures.
• Isovaleric acid is responsible for the odor.

2. Rancidity: This is due to hydrolysis of butter fats

and liberation of free fatty acids by Pseudomonas
and fungi.
• Malty flavor: By Lactococcus lacti

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Spoilage of Sugars, Candies and Spices
• These products are rarely affected by MO, if properly
handled.
• However, under high humidity MOs may spoil them.
• Torulla, Sacharomyces are good spoiling agents. They may
causes inversion of sugars ( eg. Lukonostocs spp. sucrose
to dextrans, a challenge to sugar factories).
• Candies may be spoiled with molds and explosion may be
able to occur by Clostridium spp.
• Propylene treated spices are less spoiled.

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• Similarly, beers & wines could be spoiled by bacteria & yeasts.
• Beers:
• Ropiness (oily stream) this may lead to sourness by
acetobacter (Ethanol to acetic acids)
• Spoilage also happened by Zymomonas spp, Pseudomonas
spp, Yeasts
• Wines:
• spoilage happened by Candida valida and called wine flowers
• Bacterial spoilage can happen due to Acetobacter (alcohol
converted to vinegar)

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Spoilage of Canned Foods
• Canned food spoilage is both due to non-microbial
(chemical and enzymatic reactions) and microbial
reasons.
• These could be due to MO or hydrogen that swells
from food.
• Facultative and anaerobic bacteria may be important
• Leakage types spoilage (from microscopic openings)
may result in leakage of content.
– Bacterial: Bacillus spp

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Summary
• Spoiled food - damaged/injured food
• Causes of food spoilage :-
» Insect damage

» Physical damage

» Enzyme activity of MO or

» Enzyme activity of the food it self

• Bacteria, yeast and molds – commonest agents of microbial

spoilage , but not viruses and Mycoplasma
• Bacterial soft rot – common spoilage pattern by Erwinia
• Different fungal agents affect different parts of vegetables .
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Summary cont’d…
• Fruit spoilage is initiated by yeasts and molds, but not
bacteria except Erwinia
• Bacteria and fungi are responsible for spoilage of meat
• Three forms of meat spoilage :-
» Sliming
» Souring
» Greening
• Fungi are less important in poultry spoilage
• Bacteria, yeasts and molds are responsible for fish
spoilage
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• List best examples of Psychrotrophic bacteria.

• List good examples of thermoduric bacteria

important in spoilage.

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