HCIA-Cloud Computing V5.5 Pre-Course

Server Basics
Foreword
⚫ Servers are the foundation of all service platforms, including cloud

computing platforms. But what is a server? What are the key technologies
for servers? Let's find the answers in this course, and start our learning
journey into cloud computing.
2 Huawei Confidential
Objectives
⚫ On completion of this course, you will be able to:

 Understand what a server is.
 Understand the type of server.
 Understand the hardware composition and basic principles of the server.
 Familiarize yourself with the key technologies of the server.
Contents
1. Introduction to Servers
◼ What Is a Server?
 Server Development History
 Server Types
 Server Hardware
2. Key Server Technologies
Server Definition and Features
⚫ Definition
 A server is a type of computer. It runs faster, carries more loads, and costs more than ordinary computers.
 A server provides services to users. There are file servers, database servers, and application servers.
Availability
Reliability Scalability
Server
Features
Usability
Manage
ability
• A server is a mainstream computing product developed in 1990s. It can provide

network users with centralized computing, information release, and data
management services. In addition, a server can share dedicated communication
devices connected to it, such as drives, printers, and modems with network users.
• A server has the following features:
▫ R: Reliability – the duration that the server operates consecutively
▫ A: Availability – percentage of normal system uptime and use time
▫ S: Scalability – including hardware expansion and operating system (OS)

support capabilities
▫ U: Usability – easy to maintain and restore server hardware and software
▫ M: Manageability – monitoring and alarm reporting of server running

status, and intelligent automatic fault processing
Server Application Scenarios
Application
Web DNS
Email Proxy
…
Database Server use cases
File
• Servers have been widely used in various fields, such as the telecom carrier,
government, finance, education, enterprise, and e-commerce. Servers can provide
users with the file, database, email, and web services.
• Server application deployment architecture:
▫ C/S: short for Client/Server. In this architecture, the server program runs on
the server, and the client software is installed on the client. The server and
client perform different tasks. The client carries the front-end GUI and
interaction operations of users, and the server processes the background
service logic and request data. This greatly improves the communication
speed and efficiency between the two ends. For example, you can install the
vsftpd program on a file server and start the service. After you install the
FileZilla or WinSCP client on your PC, you can upload and download files
using the client.
▫ B/S: short for Browser/Server. In this architecture, users only need to install
a browser. The application logic is centralized on the server and middleware,
which improves the data processing performance. For example, when
accessing a website, we only need to enter the domain name of the website
in the browser, for example, www.huawei.com. Then we can see the web
services provided by the background servers of the website. We do not need
to care the background servers that provide services, such as the database
service, proxy service, and cache service.
Contents
 What Is a Server?
◼ Server Development History
 Server Types
 Server Hardware
Server Development History
Mainframe
and Cloud
Microcomputers X86 servers
midrange computing
computers
• Mainframe phase
▫ In the 1940s and 1950s, the first generation of vacuum tube computers
emerged. The computer technology develops rapidly from vacuum tube
computers, transistor computers, integrated circuit computers, to large-
scale integrated circuit computers.
• Midrange computer phase
▫ In the 1960s and 1970s, mainframes were scaled down for the first time to
meet the information processing requirements of small- and medium-sized
enterprises and institutions. The cost was acceptable.
• Microcomputer phase
▫ In the 1970s and 1980s, mainframes were scaled down for the second time.
Apple Inc. was founded in 1976, and launched Apple II in 1977. In 1981,
IBM launched IBM-PC. After several generations of evolution, it occupied
the personal computer market and made personal computers popular.
• x86 server era
▫ In 1978, Intel launched the first-generation x86 architecture processor, 8086
microprocessor.
▫ In 1993, Intel officially launched the Pentium series, which brought the x86
architecture processor to a new level of performance.
▫ In 1995, Intel launched Pentium Pro, the x86 processor for servers, ushering
in the x86 era. The standardization and openness of Pentium Pro also
promoted the market development and laid a solid foundation for the
cloud computing era.
• Cloud computing era
▫ Since 2008, the concept of cloud computing has gradually become popular,
and cloud computing becomes a popular word. Cloud computing is
regarded as a revolutionary computing model because it enables the free
flow of supercomputing capabilities through the Internet. Enterprises and
individual users do not need to purchase expensive hardware. Instead, they
can rent computing power through the Internet and pay only for the
functions they need. Cloud computing allows users to obtain applications
without the complexity of technologies and deployment. Cloud computing
covers development, architecture, load balancing, and business models, and
is the future model of the software industry.
A Leap from Computing 1.0 to Computing 3.0
Computing 1.0 Computing 2.0 Computing 3.0
Dedicated General-purpose Intelligent

computing computing computing
Mainframe/midrange Data center, x86 Full-stack,
computer architecture all-scenario
• The computing industry has developed for nearly half a century and continuously
changed other industries. The computing industry itself is evolving.
• In the early mainframe and midrange computer era, dedicated computing is used,
which is called computing 1.0. In the x86 era, under the leadership of Intel and
driven by Moore's Law, computing has shifted from dedicated to general-purpose.
A large number of data centers have emerged, which is called computing 2.0.
With the rapid development of digitalization, the world is developing towards
intelligent. Computing is not limited to data centers, but also enters the full-stack
all-scenario (computing 3.0) era. This era is featured by intelligence, so it is also
called intelligent computing.
Contents
◼ Server Types
 Server Hardware
Server Classification - Hardware Form
Hardware form
Tower server Rack server Blade server
• Tower server:
▫ Some tower servers use a chassis roughly the same size as an ordinary
vertical computer, while others use a large-capacity chassis, like a large
cabinet.
• Rack server:
▫ The appearance of a rack server is different from that of a computer, but is

similar to that of a switch. The specifications of a rack server include 1 U (1
U = 1.75 inches), 2 U, and 4 U. A rack server is installed in a standard 19-
inch cabinet. Most of the servers in this structure are functional servers. A
rack server is usually small in size. Multiple servers can be placed in a
cabinet at the same time to obtain a higher processing capability.
• Blade server:
▫ Each blade server is a plugboard equipped with processors, memory

modules, hard drives, and related components. Due to the special
architecture, blade servers require dedicated chassis. Generally, a chassis
can hold several to dozens of blade servers, suitable for scenarios such as
high-performance computing, front-end servers running multiple
applications, and backend central databases.
Contents
 Server Types
◼ Server Hardware
Hardware Structure
⚫ Huawei TaiShan 200 server
1 Chassis
9 2 Motherboard
5 3 Memory
4 CPU
7
8 5 CPU heat sink
6 3 6 Power supply unit (PSU)
2
4 7 Fan
8 Drive
1
9 Air duct
• 3D model display for a Huawei TaiShan 200 server: https://support-

it.huawei.com/server-3d/res/server/taishan2280e/index.html?lang=en
CPU Definition and Components
⚫ Definition
 The Central Processing Unit (CPU) is the computing and control core of a computer.
 The CPU, internal storage, and input/output devices are key components of a computer.
 The CPU interprets computer instructions and processes computer software data.
⚫ Components
 The CPU consists of a logic operation unit, a control unit, and a storage unit.
Register
Input Arithmetic Output

device logic unit device
(ALU)
Controller
• The CPU is the core processing unit on a server, and a server is an important
device on the network and needs to process a large number of access requests.
Therefore, servers must have high throughput and robust stability, and support
long-term running. Therefore, the CPU is the brain of a computer and is the
primary indicator for measuring server performance.
• The computer controls the entire computer according to a pre-stored program,
and the program refers to an instruction sequence that can implement a function.
The controller is an organization that issues commands to various logic circuits
according to the instructions. The controller is a command center of the
computer, controls work of an entire CPU, and determines automation of a
running process of the computer.
• The ALU is a part of a computer that performs a variety of arithmetic and logical
operations. Basic operations of an ALU include arithmetic operations such as
addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division, logical operations such as AND,
OR, NOT, and XOR, and other operations such as shift, comparison, and transfer.
The ALU is also called the arithmetic logic component.
• The register is used to temporarily store the data involved in operations and the
operation results. It can receive, store, and output data.
CPU Frequency
⚫ Dominant frequency
 The dominant frequency is also called clock speed. It indicates, in MHz or GHz, the frequency at
which a CPU computes and processes data.
⚫ External frequency
 The external frequency is the reference frequency of a CPU, measured in MHz. The CPU external
frequency determines the speed of the motherboard.
⚫ Bus frequency
 The bus frequency directly affects the speed of data exchange between a CPU and a dual in-line
memory module (DIMM).
⚫ Multiplication factor
 The multiplication factor is the ratio of the dominant frequency to the external frequency.
Memory
⚫ Definition
 Storage is classified, by purpose, into main memory and external storage. Main memory, referred to as internal storage, is the
storage space that the CPU can address.
 Memory is used to temporarily store CPU operation data and the data exchanged with external storage devices such as hard
drives.
 Memory, one of important computer components, communicates with the CPU.
 Memory consists of the memory chip, circuit card, and edge connector.
• Storage, an important computer component, is used to store programs and data.

For computers, the memory function can be supported and normal working can
be ensured only when the storage is available.
• As a main computer component, the memory is in opposition to the external
storage. Programs, such as the Windows operating system, typing software, and
game software, are usually installed on external storage devices such as drives.
To use these programs, you must load them into the memory. Actually, the
memory is used when we input a piece of text or play a game. Bookshelves and
bookcases for putting books are just like the external storage, while the desk is
like the memory. Generally, we store large volumes of data permanently in the
external storage and store small volumes of data and a few programs
temporarily in the memory.
• Memory, one of important computer components, communicates with the CPU.
Memory performance has great impacts on computers because all computer
programs operate in the memory. The memory consists of the memory chip,
circuit card, and edge connector.
• DIMM slots and configuration principles:
▫ DIMMs on the same server must be of the same model.
▫ At least one memory module must be configured in the memory slot
corresponding to the CPU.
▫ Optimal memory performance can be achieved if the processors in a server
are configured with the same number of DIMMs and the DIMMs are evenly
distributed among the memory channels. Unbalanced configuration
impacts memory performance and is not recommended.
Drive
⚫ The drive is the most important storage device of a computer.
⚫ The drive interface, connecting a drive to a host, is used to transmit data between the drive cache and
the host memory. The drive interface type determines the connection speed between the drive and the
computer, how quickly programs run, and overall system performance.
SATA SAS NL-SAS SSD
Rotational
7,200 15,000/10,000 7,200 N/A
speed (RPM)
Serial/Parallel Serial Serial Serial Serial
Capacity (TB) 1TB/2TB/3TB 0.6TB/0.9TB 2TB/3TB/4TB 0.6TB/0.8TB/1.2TB/1.6TB

MTBF (h) 1,200,000 1,600,000 1,200,000 2,000,000
SAS drives are designed to meet
Developed from ATA An NL-SAS drive is an A solid-state drive (SSD) is a hard drive
high-performance enterprise
drives, SATA 3.0 supports enterprise-level SATA drive with housing a solid-state electronic storage chip
requirements and are compatible
data transfer up to 600 a SAS interface. It is used to array. An SSD consists of a control unit and a
with SATA drives. The transfer
MB/s. implement tiered storage in a storage unit (flash or DRAM chip).
rate ranges from 3.0Gbit/s to 6.0
Remarks Gbit/s, and can increase to 12.0
drive array, simplifying drive
The annual failure rate of Gbit/s. array design. An SSD is the same as a common hard drive
SATA drives is about 2%. in terms of interface specifications and
The annual failure rate of NL- definition, function, usage, and product
The annual failure rate of SAS
SAS drives is about 2%. shape and size.
drives is less than 2%.
• MTBF: Mean Time Between Failures
• SATA and NL-SAS drives are cheaper, SAS drives are more expensive, and SSDs
are the most expensive.
RAID Controller Card
⚫ Also called the RAID card.
⚫ Functions of the RAID controller card:
 Combines multiple drives into a system managed by the array controller according to requirements.
 Improves drive subsystem performance and reliability.
LSI SAS3108
• LSI SAS3108 RAID Controller Card User Guide:

https://support.huawei.com/enterprise/en/doc/EDOC1100048773/653c6b1f
RAID
⚫ Definition
 Redundant Array of Independent Disks (RAID) is a data storage virtualization technology that combines multiple
physical disk drive components into one or more logical units for the purposes of data redundancy, performance
improvement, or both.
--Wikipedia
Logical drive
Physical Physical Physical Physical

drive drive drive drive
• For details about the working principles of RAID, see the course of storage basics.
RAID Hot Spare and Reconstruction
⚫ Hot spare definition
 If a drive in a RAID array fails, a hot spare is used to automatically replace the failed drive to maintain the RAID
array's redundancy and data continuity.
⚫ Hot spare types
 Global: The spare drive is shared by all RAID arrays in the system.
 Dedicated: The spare drive is used only by a specific RAID array.
A0 Reconstruction XOR
Failure
Reconstruction A0
Replace- A1 A2 P
ment
Data drive Data drive Data drive Parity drive
Hot spare
drive
• Data parity: Redundant data is used to detect and rectify data errors. The
redundant data is usually calculated through Hamming check or XOR operations.
Data parity can greatly improve the reliability, performance, and error tolerance
of the drive arrays. However, the system needs to read data from multiple
locations, calculate, and compare data during the parity process, which affects
system performance.
• Generally, RAID cannot be used as an alternative to data backup. It cannot

prevent data loss caused by non-drive faults, such as viruses, man-made
damages, and accidental deletion. Data loss here refers to the loss of operating
system, file system, volume manager, or application system data, not the RAID
data loss. Therefore, data protection measures, such as data backup and disaster
recovery, are necessary. They are complementary to RAID, and can ensure data
security and prevent data loss at different layers.
RAID Implementation - Hardware
Server Server Drive array
CPU CPU
SCSI Bus
PCI Bus PCI Bus
SCSI
RAID controller
card
Bus
RAID
SCSI card controller
SCSI Bus
Hardware RAID mode 1: built- Hardware RAID mode 2: external

in plug-in card independent drive array
• Hardware RAID is implemented using a hardware RAID adapter card.
• The hardware RAID can be a built-in or external RAID.
• A RAID controller card has a processor inside and can control the RAID storage
subsystem independently from the host. The RAID controller card has its own
independent processor and memory. It can calculate parity information and
locate files, reducing the CPU computing time and improving the parallel data
transmission speed.
RAID Implementation - Software
⚫ Definition
 Software RAID implements RAID functions by installing software on the operating system.
⚫ Characteristics
 Software RAID does not require expensive RAID controller cards, reducing the cost.
 RAID functions are performed by CPUs, requiring significant CPU resources, such as for large
numbers of RAID 5 XOR operations.
• Software RAID does not provide the following functions:
▫ Hot swap of drives
▫ Drive hot spare
▫ Remote array management
▫ Support for bootable arrays
▫ Array configuration on drives
▫ S.M.A.R.T. for disks

RAID Implementation - Mode Comparison
Mode Software RAID Built-in RAID External RAID
External RAID, connecting to a server

All RAID functions are
Built-in RAID improves performance by through a standard controller, is
implemented by CPUs,
Characteristics reducing host CPU usage caused by independent of the operating system. All
resulting in high CPU usage
intensive RAID operations. RAID functions are implemented by the
and reduced system
microprocessor on the external RAID
performance.
storage subsystem.
 Data protection and high speed  Provides ultra-large-capacity storage

 Better fault tolerance and systems for high-end servers.
 Low implementation cost performance than software RAID  Configures dual controllers to improve
Advantages  Flexible configurations  More cost-effective than external data throughput or provide shared
RAID storage for the two-node cluster.
 Support for bootable arrays  Supports hot swapping.
 Delivers better scalability.
NIC Definition and Functions
⚫ Definition
 A network interface card (NIC or network adapter) is an indispensable part of a
computer network system. An NIC enables a computer to access networks.
⚫ Functions
 Fixed network address
 Data sending and receiving
 Data encapsulation and decapsulation Data Application layer
 Link management TCP header Data Transport layer
IP header TCP header Data Network layer

 Encoding and decoding
MAC header IP header TCP header Data Data link layer
Physical layer
Huawei Server NICs
⚫ LOM card
 It is embedded directly into the PCH chip on the server
LOM card
motherboard and cannot be replaced.
 It provides two external GE electrical ports + two 10 Gbit/s
optical/electrical ports. LOM cards do not occupy PCIe slots.
⚫ PCIe card PCIe card
 Huawei has both self-developed and purchased PCIe cards.
They can be installed in standard PCIe slots.
⚫ FlexIO card
FlexIO card
 Huawei-developed, non-standard PCIe card, which can only be
used with Huawei rack servers.
⚫ Mezzanine card
 Mezzanine cards are only used on the compute nodes of
Mezzanine card
Huawei E9000 blade servers.
• PCI-Express (PCIe) is the third-generation I/O bus, or 3GIO, following ISA and PCI
buses. This bus was proposed by Intel at the Intel Developer Forum (IDF) in 2001
and renamed PCI-Express after being certified and released by the PCI special
interest group (SIG). Its main advantages are high data transmission rate, strong
anti-interference, long transmission distance, and low power consumption.
• For Huawei servers, a PCIe card refers to the NIC in a PCIe slot.
• Visit the link below to learn how to install and remove a PCIe card:
https://support.huawei.com/enterprise/en/doc/EDOC1100002169?section=o00d
• FusionServer Rack Server Product Documentation
• TaiShan 200 DA121C Server Node Maintenance and Service Guide
• E9000 Blade Server Product Documentation

PSU and Fan Module
⚫ Supplies power to servers.
⚫ Supports redundancy to prevent power supply failures.
 Fault warning and prevention
 Pre-fault preventive maintenance
 Non-disruptive server services
⚫ The power supply subsystem includes:

 Intelligent PSU
 Fan module
PSU Fan module
• Power supply redundancy modes:
▫ 1+1: In this mode, each module provides 50% of the output power. When
one module is removed, the other provides 100% of the output power.
▫ 2+1: In this mode, three modes are required. Each module provides 1/3 of
the output power. When one module is removed, each of the other two
modules provides 50% of the output power.
• E9000 Blade Server Product Documentation

Contents
1. Server Introduction

◼ BMC
 BIOS
What Is IPMI?
⚫ Definition
 The Intelligent Platform Management Interface (IPMI) is a set of open and standard hardware management
interface specifications that defines specific methods for communication between embedded management
subsystems.
 IPMI information is exchanged using the baseboard management controller (BMC). Entry-level intelligent
hardware, not the OS, handles management.
The IPMI is embedded into the

BMC on the server
motherboard. Supports the IPMI
management tool.
Client
Server
• The IPMI is an industrial specification used for peripherals in Intel-based

enterprise systems. This interface specification was laid down by Intel, HP, NEC,
Dell, and SuperMicro. Users can use the IPMI to monitor the physical health
status of servers, such as the temperature, voltage, fan status, and power status.
Moreover, the IPMI is a free specification. Users do not need to pay for this
specification.
• IPMI development:
▫ In 1998, Intel, DELL, HP, and NEC put forward the IPMI specification. The
temperature and voltage can be remotely controlled through the network.
▫ In 2001, the IPMI was upgraded from version 1.0 to version 1.5. The PCI
Management Bus function was added.
▫ In 2004, Intel released the IPMI 2.0 specification, which is compatible with
the IPMI 1.0 and 1.5 specifications. Console Redirection is added. Servers
can be remotely managed through ports, modems, and LANs. In addition,
security, VLANs, and blade servers are supported.
BMC
⚫ Definition
 The BMC complies with the IPMI specification. It collects, processes, and stores sensor signals, and monitors
component operating status. It supplies the chassis management module with managed objects' hardware status
and alarm information. The management module uses this information to manage the devices.
• The BMC provides the following functions:
▫ Remote control
▫ Alarm management
▫ Status check
▫ Device information management
▫ Heat dissipation control
▫ Support for IPMItool
▫ Web-based management
▫ Centralized account management

iBMC
⚫ The Huawei Intelligent Baseboard Management Controller (iBMC) is a Huawei proprietary embedded
server management system designed for the whole server lifecycle.
• Items that can be • CPU CATERR
monitored: CPU, events
memory, hard • PSU faults
drive, SSD, PCIe, • Overtemperature
RAID, fan, PSU,
• Fan subhealth
temperature, and
voltage • Storage medium
Status Fault faults
monitoring diagnosis
Diagnosis Run
• Power-on/off assistance records • Black box - Kbox
recording • Parsing tool -
• Serial port voice HWKbox
recording
• Last screenshot
• Last video
• The iBMC provides a series of management tools for hardware status monitoring,
deployment, energy saving, and security, and standard interfaces to build a
comprehensive server management ecosystem. The iBMC uses Huawei-developed
management chip Hi1710 and multiple innovative technologies to implement
refined server management.
• The iBMC provides a variety of user interfaces, such as the CLI, web-based user
interface, IPMI integration interface, SNMP integration interface, and Redfish
integration interface. All user interfaces adopt the authentication mechanism and
high-security encryption algorithm to enhance access and transmission security.
Contents

 BMC
◼ BIOS
BIOS
⚫ Basic Input/Output System (BIOS)
⚫ The BIOS is a system's foundation: a group of programs providing the most direct control of system
hardware.
Applications
Operating environment
BIOS functions:
Operating system kernel  Hardware detection
and initialization
 OS boot
BIOS Hardware driver  Advanced power
management
Hardware
• The BIOS is a bridge between the system kernel and the hardware layer.
• Functions of the BIOS:
▫ Software upgrade and loading
▫ Basic OAM functions
▫ Serial port management
▫ Fault recovery
▫ ECC management
▫ Hardware diagnosis
Quiz
1. Which of the following statements are true about the NICs of Huawei servers?
A. The LOM card is embedded into the PCH chip on the server motherboard and cannot be replaced.
B. Huawei-developed PCIe cards can be installed in standard PCIe slots.
C. A FlexIO card is integrated with the server panel for front-end service connection.
D. Mezzanine cards can be used with Huawei rack servers.
2. The BMC complies with the IPMI specification. It collects, processes, and stores sensor
signals, and monitors component operating status.
A. True
B. False
• Answers:
▫ AB
▫ A
Summary
⚫ In this course, we have learned the basic concepts, development history,

hardware components, and key technologies of servers. In the following
course, we will learn about storage technologies. Stay tuned.
Recommendations
⚫ Huawei iLearning
 https://e.huawei.com/en/talent/portal/#/
⚫ Huawei Support Case Library
 https://support.huawei.com/enterprise/en/knowledge?lang=en
Acronyms and Abbreviations
⚫ BIOS: Basic Input/Output System
⚫ BMC: Baseboard Management Controller
⚫ B/S: browser/server architecture
⚫ C/S: client/server architecture
⚫ CPU: Central Processing Unit
⚫ iBMC: Huawei Intelligent Baseboard Management Controller
⚫ IPMI: Intelligent Platform Management Interface
⚫ MTBF: Mean Time Between Failures
⚫ NIC: Network Interface Card
⚫ RAID: Redundant Array of Independent Disks
Thank you. 把数字世界带入每个人、每个家庭、
每个组织，构建万物互联的智能世界。
Bring digital to every person, home, and
organization for a fully connected,
intelligent world.
Copyright© 2023 Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd.

All Rights Reserved.
The information in this document may contain predictive

statements including, without limitation, statements regarding
the future financial and operating results, future product
portfolio, new technology, etc. There are a number of factors
that could cause actual results and developments to differ
materially from those expressed or implied in the predictive
statements. Therefore, such information is provided for reference
purpose only and constitutes neither an offer nor an acceptance.
Huawei may change the information at any time without notice.
Storage Technology Basics
Foreword
⚫ Data is the most important asset for every enterprise. This course describes
how and where data is stored, and provides the key data storage
technologies in cloud computing.
Objectives

 Understand mainstream data storage modes and network topologies.
 Master RAID and Huawei RAID 2.0+ block virtualization technologies.
 Distinguish between centralized and distributed storage.
 Understand storage protocols and application scenarios.
Contents
1. Storage Basics
◼ Definition of Storage
 History of Storage
 Mainstream Disk Types
 Storage Networking Types
 Storage Forms
2. Key Storage Technologies
What Is Storage?
⚫ Storage refers to the process of storing and managing digital information on a computer or other
electronic device. It can include both physical storage devices, such as hard disks and solid state disks,
and virtual storage systems, such as cloud storage services.
⚫ The goal of storage is to provide a reliable and secure way to store and access data as needed.
• Physical devices used to store digital information, such as

hard drives, solid state drives, USB flash drives, etc.
Narrow Sense
• Physical and virtual storage systems, including cloud

storage services, network attached storage (NAS), and
Broad Sense storage area networks (SANs).
• Includes the software and infrastructure needed to manage
and access data across networks and multiple devices.
• Storage in a narrow sense: CDs, DVDs, ZIP drives, tapes, and disks...
• Storage in a broad sense:
▫ Storage hardware (disk arrays, controllers, disk enclosures, and tape

libraries)
▫ Storage software (backup software, management software, and value-

added software such as snapshot and replication)
▫ Storage networks (HBAs, Fibre Channel switches, as well as Fibre Channel

and SAS cables)
▫ Storage solutions (centralized storage, archiving, backup, and disaster

recovery)
Contents
1. Storage Basics
 Definition of Storage
◼ History of Storage
 Storage Forms
History of Storage
Controller
This century
1990s • Distributed
1980s • Storage storage
network • Cloud storage
• External
1950s storage
• Traditional
storage
• The storage architecture has gone through the following development phases:
traditional storage, external storage, storage network, distributed storage, and
cloud storage.
• Traditional storage refers to individual disks. In 1956, IBM invented the world's
first mechanical hard drive that has fifty 24-inch platters and the total storage
capacity of just 5MB. It is about the size of two refrigerators and weighs more
than a ton. It was used in the industrial field at that time and was independent of
the mainframe.
• External storage refers to direct-attached storage. The earliest form of external

storage is JBOD, which stands for Just a Bunch of Disks. JBOD is identified by the
host as numerous independent disks. It provides large capacity but low security.
• A storage area network (SAN) is a typical storage network that transmits data
mainly over a Fibre Channel network. Then, IP SANs emerge.
• Distributed storage uses general-purpose servers to build storage pools and is

more suitable for cloud computing. This will be introduced later.
Storage Development - from Server Attached Storage to
Independent Storage Systems
External disk array Intelligent disk array
Disk in the server CPU Server Server

CPU
Server RAM
RAM
CPU
Disk Disk
RAM
SCSI card
SCSI card
Disk
Controller
Just a Bunch Of Disks (JBOD)
A controller provides the RAID function and

Restrictions: JBOD logically connects several large-capacity cache, and enables the disk
• Disks become the system performance physical disks to increase capacity. array to have multiple functions for better
bottleneck. read/write performance and data security.
• The number of disk slots is limited, thereby
limiting capacity. Problems solved:
• Data is stored on a single disk, lowering data Problem solved: •Disks become the system performance bottleneck.
reliability. • The number of disk slots is limited, thereby limiting
• The number of disk slots is
• Storage space utilization is low. capacity.
• Data is scattered in local storage systems. limited, thereby limiting capacity. • Data is stored on a single disk, lowering data
reliability and read/write performance.
From Separation to Convergence
SAN NAS Clients Unified

Storage
Server Server
Ethernet
File
system Server
SAN LAN
File
NAS SAN
system
Storage Storage
File
system Storage
• DAS has the following characteristics:
▫ Scattered data
▫ Low storage space utilization
• Storage development requirements:
▫ Data sharing
▫ Improved resource utilization
▫ Distance extension
• The emergence of networks infuses new vitality to storage.
▫ SAN: establishes a network between storage devices and servers to provide

block storage services.
▫ NAS: builds networks between servers and storage devices with file systems
to provide file storage services.
• In 2011, unified storage that supported both SAN and NAS protocols became
popular. Storage convergence set a new trend: NAS and SAN were converged to
provide both database and file sharing services, simplifying storage management,
and improving storage utilization.
Scale-out Storage
⚫ Physical resources are organized using
software to form a high-performance
Front-end
logical storage pool, ensuring reliability service
Management
network
and providing multiple storage services. network
⚫ Generally, scale-out storage scatters

data to multiple independent storage
servers in a scalable system structure. It
uses those storage servers to share
...
storage loads and uses location servers
to locate storage information. Node Node Node Node
Back-end storage network
• The scalability and flexibility of storage systems in the traditional architecture are
limited.
• Scale-out storage architecture:
▫ Universal hardware, unified architecture, and storage-network decoupling
▫ Linear expansion of performance and capacity, up to thousands of nodes
▫ Elastic resource scaling and high resource utilization

Storage Virtualization
⚫ Storage virtualization consolidates the Clients or servers
storage devices into logical resources,

thereby providing comprehensive and
unified storage services. Management
⚫ Unified functions are provided Logical resources
regardless of different storage forms
and device types.
Virtualization
Physical resources
• In storage virtualization, a virtualization layer is added between the physical

storage system and servers to manage and control all storage devices, and
provide storage for servers.
• The addition, deletion, replacement, splitting, and combination of storage

hardware are transparent to servers.
• Functions:
▫ Simplify the management of physical devices.
▫ Integrate existing functions.
▫ Eliminate the limitation of the physical capacity.

Cloud Storage
⚫ The cloud storage system combines multiple storage devices, applications, and services. It uses highly virtualized
multi-tenant infrastructure to provide scalable storage resources for enterprises. Those storage resources can be
dynamically configured based on organization requirements.
Legacy New
applications applications
Protocol and interface
Converged
Elastic Block storage service File storage service Object storage service
Open Storage device and storage node
Universal hardware platforms
• The cloud storage system uses clustered applications, grid technologies, or scale-
out file systems to coordinate various storage devices over the networks to
provide data storage and service access.
Contents
1. Storage Basics
◼ Mainstream Disk Types
 Storage Forms
Introduction to Disks
⚫ Disks can be considered the most important storage device of a computer.
⚫ A disk interface is a component used to connect a disk to a host. It transmits data between the disk cache and the host memory. The
disk interface type determines the connection speed between the disk and the computer, the program running speed, and system
performance.
SATA SAS NL-SAS SSD

Rotational speed
7,200 15,000/10,000 7,200 N/A
(rpm)
Serial/Parallel Serial Serial Serial Serial
Capacity (TB) 1 TB/2 TB/3 TB 0.6 TB/0.9 TB 2 TB/3 TB/4 TB 0.6 TB/0.8 TB/1.2 TB/1.6 TB
MTBF (h) 1,200,000 1,600,000 1,200,000 2,000,000
Solid state disks (SSDs) are made

SAS disks are designed to meet NL-SAS disks are enterprise-class
up of solid-state electronic storage
Being developed from ATA enterprises' high performance SATA drives with SAS interfaces.
chip arrays.
disks, SATA 3.0 supports requirements, and are compatible with They are applicable to storage
Each SSD consists of a control unit
up to 600 MB/s data SATA disks. The transmission rate tiering in a disk array, which
and a storage unit (DRAM or flash
Remarks transfer. ranges from 3.0 Gbit/s to 6.0 Gbit/s, simplifies the design of the disk
chip). SSDs are the same as the
and will be increased to 12.0 Gbit/s. array.
common disks in the regulations
The annual failure rate of
and definition of interfaces,
SATA disks is about 2%. The annual failure rate of SAS disks is The annual failure rate of NL-SAS
functions, usage, as well as the
less than 2%. disks is about 2%.
exterior and size.
• MTBF: Mean Time Between Failure
• Increasing order of price: SATA and NL-SAS disks, SAS disks, and SSDs
Disk Key Indicators
⚫ Disk capacity Bandwidth
IOPS
(128 KB
Disk Type (4 KB random
⚫ Rotational speed (HDD only) write)
sequential
read)
⚫ Average access time
SATA 330 200 MB/s
⚫ Data transfer rate
SAS 10K 350 195 MB/s
⚫ Input/Output operations per second (IOPS)
SAS 15K 450 290 MB/s
Higher IOPS,
IOPS
better performance
SATA SSD 30,000 to 60,000 540 MB/s
Maximum read SAS SSD 155,000 1000 MB/s

bandwidth
Maximum
write NVMe SSD 300,000 3500 MB/s
Bandwidth bandwidth
• Disk capacity: The capacity is measured in MB or GB. The factors that affect the
disk capacity include the single platter capacity and the number of platters.
• Rotational speed: The rotational speed is the number of rotations made by disk
platters per minute. The unit is rotation per minute (rpm). In most cases, the
rotational speed of a disk reaches 5400 rpm or 7200 rpm. The disk that uses the
SCSI interface reaches 10,000 rpm to 15,000 rpm.
• Average access time = Average seek time + Average wait time
• Data transfer rate: The data transfer rate of a disk is the speed at which the disk
reads and writes data. It is measured in MB/s. The rate consists of the internal
data transfer rate and the external data transfer rate.
• Input/Output operations per second (IOPS): indicates the number of

input/output operations or read/write operations per second. It is a key indicator
to measure disk performance. For applications with frequent random read/write
operations, such as online transaction processing (OLTP), IOPS is a key indicator.
Another key indicator is the data throughput, which indicates the amount of data
that can be successfully transferred per unit time. For applications that require a
large number of sequential read/write operations, such as video editing and
video on demand (VoD) at TV stations, the throughput is more of a focus.
Contents
1. Storage Basics
◼ Storage Networking Types
 Storage Forms
Introduction to DAS
⚫ Direct attached storage (DAS)
⚫ Time: 1970s
Server
⚫ Background: Data explosion drove up huge
Fibre demand for storage. A simple storage

SAS SCSI
Channel
architecture, DAS, was then introduced.
Controller Controller Controller
⚫ Connection mode: Fibre Channel, SCSI, or SAS
⚫ Access mode: The connection channels between
DAS and server hosts often use SAS.
Disk array
⚫ Link rate: 3 Gbit/s、6 Gbit/s、12 Gbit/s
⚫ Provides functions, such as snapshot and
backup.
Introduction to NAS(1)
⚫ Network attached storage (NAS)
⚫ Time: early 1990s
NAS system architecture
Unix Linux Windows
⚫ Background: Developing networks drove the need
for large-scale data sharing and exchange, leading
to dedicated NAS storage devices.
NFS NFS CIFS ⚫ Access mode: Multiple front-end servers share
space on back-end NAS storage devices using CIFS
Dedicated IP or NFS Concurrent read and write operations can
storage network be performed on the same directory or file.
NFS and
CIFS File system
RAID ⚫ The file system is on the back-end storage
device.
NAS storage device
• Network File System (NFS) is an Internet standard protocol created by Sun

Microsystems in 1984 for file sharing between systems on a local area network
(LAN).
• Linux NFS clients support NFSv2 [RFC1094], NFSv3 [RFC1813], and NFSv4
[RFC3530]. NFSv2 that uses the User Datagram Protocol (UDP) is outdated due
to its limited data access and transmission capabilities.
▫ NFSv3, released in 1995, is widely used because Transmission Control

Protocol (TCP) is added for transmission.
▫ NFSv4, released in 2003, achieves better performance and security.
• NFS uses the Remote Procedure Call (RPC) protocol.
▫ RPC provides a set of operations to achieve remote file access that are not
restricted by machines, OSs, and lower-layer transmission protocols. It
allows remote clients to access storage over a network like accessing a local
file system.
▫ The NFS client sends an RPC request to the NFS server. The server transfers
the request to the local file access process, reads the local disk files on the
server, and returns the files to the client.
• Common Internet File System (CIFS) is a network file system protocol used for
sharing files and printers between machines on a network. CIFS is mainly used to
share network files between hosts running Windows.
Introduction to NAS(2)
⚫ NAS supports the centralized management of scattered and independent data, facilitating
access to various hosts and application servers.
NAS
Ethernet port Ethernet port
NFS
File system
Volume management module Volume management module
LUN0 LUN1 LUN2 LUN3 LUN4 LUN5
LUN6 LUN7 LUN8 LUN9 LUN10 LUN11
• NAS can serve as a network node and be directly connected to the network. In
theory, NAS can support various network technologies and topologies. As
Ethernet is the most popular network connection mode nowadays, we mainly
discuss the NAS environment on the Ethernet.
• NAS supports multiple protocols (such as NFS and CIFS) and supports various
OSs. Users can conveniently manage NAS devices by using Internet Explorer or
Netscape on any work station.
Introduction to SAN
⚫ A storage area network (SAN) is a dedicated storage network that connects one or more
network storage devices to servers.
Clients
LAN
Servers
Ethernet switch Fibre Channel switch
Storage devices
• A SAN is a high-performance and dedicated storage network used between

servers and storage resources. It is a back-end storage network independent from
a LAN. The SAN adopts a scalable network topology for connecting servers and
storage devices. The storage devices do not belong to any of the servers but can
be shared by all the servers on the network.
• The SAN that uses Fibre Channel Protocol (FCP) to set up connections between
servers and storage devices through Fibre Channel switches is called an FC SAN.
Fibre Channel is especially suitable for SANs, because it supports long-distance
and large-block transfer. The SAN mainly applies to high-end and enterprise-
class storage applications, which have demanding requirements for performance,
redundancy, and data availability.
• With the development of storage technologies, IP SANs based on TCP/IP also

gains popularity. IP SANs feature high scalability, flexible interworking, long-
distance data transmission, easy management and maintenance, and cost
advantages.
• The major difference between NAS and SAN is that NAS provides a file operation
and management system while SAN does not. SAN provides only data
management, which is the layer below file management. SAN and NAS do not
conflict with each other. They can coexist on the same network. However, NAS
implements storage space management and resource sharing through a public
interface, while SAN provides only a quick dedicate back-end channel for servers
to store data.
Introduction to FC SAN
⚫ Fibre Channel storage area network (FC SAN)
⚫ Time: middle and late 1990s
Server
⚫ Background: To solve the poor scalability issue of
DAS, storage devices was networked. More than 100
servers can be connected in a network.
Fibre Channel ⚫ Connection mode: Fibre Channel link; Fibre
switch
Fibre Channel
Channel switch
link ⚫ Access mode: The storage space on the back-end
FC SAN storage device can be divided into multiple LUNs.
Controller
Each LUN belongs to only one front-end server.
⚫ Link rate: 2 Gbit/s, 4 Gbit/s, or 8 Gbit/s
⚫ Provides advanced data protection functions,
such as snapshot and disaster recovery.
Disk array
• Fibre Channel (FC) is a standard data storage network used to transmit 100
Mbit/s to 4.25 Gbit/s signals over fiber or copper cables. It is a high-speed
transport technology used to build SANs. Fibre Channel is primarily used for
transporting SCSI traffic from servers to disk arrays, but it can also be used on
networks carrying ATM and IP traffic.
Introduction to IP SAN
⚫ IP storage area network (IP SAN)
⚫ Time: 2001
⚫ Background: IP SAN is designed to solve the price and
Server
management issues of the FC SAN.
⚫ Connection mode: Ethernet link; Ethernet switch
⚫ Access mode: The storage space on the back-end storage
device can be divided into multiple LUNs. Each LUN
Ethernet switch
belongs to only one front-end server.
IP link ⚫ Link rate: 1 Gbit/s, or 10 Gbit/s
⚫ The IP SAN provides advanced data protection functions,
such as snapshot and disaster recovery.
iSCSI storage controller
⚫ iSCSI is a mainstream choice because:
 Mature IP network management tools and
infrastructure can be used.
 IP networks are widely used, which can reduce a large
Disk array number of construction, management, and personnel
costs.
• Internet Small Computer System Interface (iSCSI) is a storage technology

based on the Internet and SCSI-3 protocol. It transmits the SCSI protocol,
originally used only for local hosts, over the TCP/IP network to extend the
connection distance. In the following course, we will learn about the protocol
encapsulation, working principles, and application scenarios.
Comparison Between Storage Networking Types
SAN
DAS NAS
FC SAN IP SAN
Transmission SCSI, Fibre Channel,
IP Fibre Channel IP
mode and SAS
Data type Block-level File-level Block-level Block-level
Application
Any File servers Database applications Video security
scenario
High scalability and
Easy to understand; Easy to install; Strong scalability;
Advantage performance;
robust compatibility low cost low cost
high availability
Difficult management;
Low performance; Expensive and complex
limited scalability; low Low performance
Disadvantage inapplicable to some configuration; poor
storage space
applications networking compatibility
utilization
Contents
1. Storage Basics
◼ Storage Forms
Centralized Storage
⚫ A centralized storage system refers to one set of storage system consisting of multiple devices. Enterprises often deploy their storage
devices on a centralized environment. For example, the Huawei storage system may need several cabinets to house devices. In terms
of technical architectures, centralized storage is classified into SAN (including FC SAN and IP SAN) and NAS storage.
⚫ Centralized storage has a simple deployment structure, which means you do not need to consider how to deploy multiple nodes for
a service, or the distributed collaboration between multiple nodes.
Server
Ethernet
switch
IP link
iSCSI storage controller
Disk storage
• Disadvantages of centralized storage:
▫ Isolated storage resources: Storage devices are connected to a limited

number of servers through a dedicated network.
▫ Scale-up by adding disk enclosures: The hardware controller performance

(a single controller with disks) becomes a bottleneck.
▫ Scale-out by connections between controllers: The hardware controller

performance becomes a bottleneck.
▫ No resource sharing: Storage devices and resources are provided by

different vendors, and resources cannot be shared among devices. Storage
pools are isolated in data centers.
▫ Centralized metadata management: The system concurrency is limited by

the metadata service performance. The metadata service becomes the
performance bottleneck.
• How to solve the capacity expansion and performance bottleneck issues of

traditional centralized storage?
Distributed Storage
⚫ A distributed storage system stores data on multiple independent devices. It adopts a scalable system architecture
and enables multiple storage servers to share the storage load, improving scalability, reliability, availability, and
access efficiency. As distributed storage is becoming more popular, some applications requiring high performance,
such as databases of financial systems, also use distributed storage.
Server1 Server2 Server3
Volume1 Volume2 Volume3 Volume10 Volume11
P1 P2 Px
P1 P2 Py
Disk Disk Disk Disk Disk Disk

Resource pool 1 Resource pool 2
Host1 Host2 Host3 Host4 Host5 Host6
• Distributed storage uses software to simulate the functions of the original

hardware controllers, avoiding the disadvantages of the hardware controllers.
• Resource pool: A resource pool is similar to a RAID group in SAN storage.

Storage Service Type
iSCSI/FC NFS/CIFS HTTP/REST/S3
Protocol layer
Object
File Object
Object Object Data
system Key
system Object
Storage Metadata
layer … User-defined
metadata
… …
Block storage File storage Object storage

⚫ Advantages: direct access, minimized ⚫ Advantages: easy management ⚫ Flat structure and nearly unlimited capacity expansion.
overhead, and high efficiency. and interconnection with
⚫ More intelligent self-management.
applications.
⚫ Disadvantages: high cost and poor ⚫ Disadvantages: limited scalability. ⚫ Standard Internet protocol of the industry, cross-regional
scalability. ⚫ Application scenarios: enterprises' transmission capability.
⚫ Application scenarios: enterprise internal application integration ⚫ Application scenarios: Internet-oriented storage,
databases, such as Oracle. and file sharing.
archiving, and backup.
• Users can access data in an object storage as fast as in a SAN storage and can
share data as easy as in a NAS storage. Object storage has high reliability and
secure data sharing between platforms. The following describes the comparison
among the object storage, block storage, and file storage:
▫ Block storage directly accesses the storage layer, featuring fast speed,
minimum overhead, and maximum efficiency. However, block storage has
the high cost and poor scalability. Block storage employs iSCSI and Fibre
Channel. Therefore, it is difficult to transmit data across networks. Block
storage is applicable to enterprise databases, such as Oracle.
▫ File storage creates a file system on the basis of block storage. Data is
organized in the directory-directory-file mode, facilitating data
management. The objects operated by most application programs are files.
Therefore, file storage enables easier interworking with application systems.
File systems are restricted by directory trees. Therefore, a file system can be
typically expanded to dozens of PB at most. The scalability is limited. File
systems are applicable to application integration and file sharing in an
enterprise.
• Object storage creates the object management layer above block storage.
Compared with the file system, the object system is flat with little expansion
limitation. An object consists of a unique key, file, data (file), metadata, and user-
defined metadata. An object contains self-management information. Therefore,
object storage is more intelligent. Using compatible standard Internet protocol
interfaces, object storage supports cross-region transmission. Object storage
applies to storage scenarios for Internet services, and internal arching and backup
scenarios for enterprises.
Contents
1. Storage Basics

◼ RAID Technologies
 Storage Protocol
What Is RAID?
⚫ Redundant Array of Independent Disks (RAID) combines multiple physical disks into one logical disk in
different ways, improving read/write performance and data security.
 RAID levels based on combination methods
RAID 0 Data striping, no parity
RAID 1 Data mirroring, no parity
RAID 3 Data striping, with dedicated parity
RAID 5 Data striping, with distributed parity
RAID 6 Data striping, with double distributed parity
 RAID levels by using two different RAID modes
RAID 0+1 Create RAID 0 and then RAID 1, providing data striping and mirroring.
RAID 10 Similar to RAID 0+1. The difference is that RAID 1 is created before RAID 0.
RAID 50 Create RAID 5 and then RAID 0, effectively improving the performance of RAID 5.
RAID Data Distribution
⚫ Disk striping: Space in each disk is divided into multiple strips of a specific size. Written data is also
divided into blocks based on the strip size.
⚫ Strip: A strip consists of one or more consecutive sectors in a disk, and multiple strips form a stripe.
⚫ Stripe: A stripe consists of strips of the same location or ID on multiple disks in the same array.
Disk 1 Disk 2 Disk 3

D6 D7 D8 Stripe 2 Stripe depth
D3 D4 D5 Stripe 1
D0 D1 D2 Stripe 0
Data strips Data strips Data strips

in a disk in a disk in a disk
• Stripe width
▫ Indicates the number of disks in an array for striping. For example, if a disk
array consists of three member disks, the stripe width is 3.
• Stripe depth
▫ Indicates the size of a stripe.

RAID Data Protection
⚫ 1. Mirroring: Data copies are stored on another redundant disk.
⚫ 2. Parity check algorithm (XOR)
 XOR is widely used in digital electronics and computer science.
 XOR is a logical operation that outputs true only when inputs differ (one is true, the other
is false).
◼ 0 ⊕ 0 = 0, 0 ⊕ 1 = 1, 1 ⊕ 0= 1, 1 ⊕ 1 = 0
Physical disk 1 Physical disk 2 Parity disk

1 1 0
0 1 1
0 0 0
XOR for redundant backup
• RAID generally protects data by the following methods:
▫ Stores data copies on a redundant disk to improve reliability and read

performance.
▫ Uses the parity check algorithm. Parity data is additional information

calculated using user data. For a RAID array that uses parity, an additional
parity disk is required. The XOR (symbol: ⊕) algorithm is used for parity.
RAID Hot Spare and Reconstruction
⚫ Hot spare
 If a disk in a redundant RAID group is faulty, a functional backup disk in the RAID group can automatically replace the faulty one to ensure RAID
system redundancy.
⚫ Hot spare can be classified into the following types:

 Global: The spare disk is shared by all RAID groups in the system.
 Dedicated: The spare disk is used only by a specific RAID group in the system.
A0 Reconstruction XOR
Fault
Reconstruction
A0 A1 A2 P
Replacement
Data disk Data disk Data disk Parity disk
Hot spare
disk
• Data parity: Redundant data is used to detect and rectify data errors. The
redundant data is usually calculated through Hamming check or XOR operations.
Data parity can greatly improve the reliability, performance, and error tolerance
of the disk arrays. However, the system needs to read data from multiple
locations, calculate, and compare data during the parity process, which affects
system performance.
• Generally, RAID cannot be used as an alternative to data backup. It cannot

prevent data loss caused by non-disk faults, such as viruses, man-made damages,
and accidental deletion. Data loss here refers to the loss of operating system, file
system, volume manager, or application system data, not the RAID data loss.
Therefore, data protection measures, such as data backup and disaster recovery,
are necessary. They are complementary to RAID, and can ensure data security
and prevent data loss at different layers.
Common RAID Levels
RAID 0 RAID 1 RAID 5 RAID 10
D3 D2 D3 D3
D2 Logical D1 Logical D2 Logical D2

Logical
disk disk disk D1
D1 D0 D1 disk
D0 D0 D0
RAID 0
D2 D2
D2 D3 D1 D1 D2 P1 D3 D0 D1 D2 D3
D0 D1 D0 D1 P0 RAID 1 RAID 1 RAID 1 RAID 1
D0 D0
Physical Physical Physical Physical Physical Physical Physical

disk 1 disk 2 disk 1 disk 2 disk 1 disk 2 disk 3 D0' D0' D1' D1 ’ D2 ’ D2' D3 ’ D3'
D3'
Physical Physical Physical Physical
Data striping Mirroring Data parity disk 1 disk 2
…… disk 7 disk 8
Three key technologies
• RAID 0 consists of striping without fault tolerance. Data of the RAID group is
evenly distributed on all disks in stripe form.
• RAID 1, also called mirroring, can simultaneously write data into the primary disk
and mirror disk.
• RAID 3 consists of striping with dedicated parity. Data is striped on data disks,
and parity data is stored on a dedicated parity disk.
• RAID 5 is similar to RAID 3 except that parity information is evenly distributed

among data disks. RAID member disks store both the data and the parity
information, and data blocks and corresponding parity information are stored on
different disks. RAID 5 is one of the most commonly used RAID levels.
• RAID 10 combines mirroring and striping. The first level is RAID 1 mirrored pairs,
and the second level is RAID 0. RAID 10 is also a widely used RAID level.
Working Principles of RAID 6 DP
⚫ Double parity (DP): In addition to the horizontal XOR parity disk used in RAID 4, it adds another disk to store
diagonal XOR parity data.
⚫ P0 to P3 on the horizontal parity disk are the parity information of horizontal data on all data disks.
 For example, P 0 = D 0 XOR D 1 XOR D 2 XOR D 3
⚫ DP 0 to DP 3 in the diagonal parity disk represent the diagonal parity data for respective data disks and the
horizontal parity disk.
 For example, DP 0 = D 0 XOR D 5 XOR D 10 XOR D 15
Physical Physical Physical Physical Horizontal Diagonal

disk 1 disk 2 disk 3 disk 4 parity disk parity disk
D0 D1 D2 D3 P0 DP0 Stripe 0
• RAID 6 DP has two independent parity data blocks: horizontal parity data and
diagonal parity data.
• Parity values in the horizontal parity disk are also called parity check values,
which are obtained by performing the XOR operation on user data in the same
stripe.As shown in the following figure,P0 is obtained by performing an XOR
operation on D0, D1, D2, and D3 on a stripe 0, and P1 is obtained by performing
an XOR operation on D4, D5, D6, and D7 on a stripe 1. Therefore, P0 = D0 ⊕D1⊕
D2⊕D3, P1 = D4⊕D5⊕D6⊕D7, and so on.
• The diagonal parity uses the diagonal XOR operation to obtain the row-diagonal
parity data block. A process of selecting a data block is relatively complex. DP0 is
obtained by performing an exclusive OR operation on D0 on a stripe 0 of a hard
disk 1, D5 on a stripe 1 of a hard disk 2, D10 on a stripe 2 of a hard disk 3, and
D15 on a stripe 3 of a hard disk 4. DP1 is obtained by performing an exclusive OR
operation on D1 on a stripe 0 of a hard disk 2, D6 on a stripe 1 of a hard disk 3,
D11 on a stripe 2 of a hard disk 4, and P3 on a stripe 3 of a first parity hard disk.
DP2 is obtained by performing an exclusive OR operation on D2 on a stripe 0 of a
hard disk 3, D7 on a stripe 1 of a hard disk 4, P2 on a stripe 2 of an odd even
hard disk, and D12 on a stripe 3 of a hard disk 1. Therefore, DP0 =
D0⊕D5⊕D10⊕D15, DP1 = D1⊕D6⊕D11⊕P3, and so on.
• A RAID 6 array tolerates failures of up to two disks.
• Performance of a RAID 6 group: Dual-disk verification is used, and the

performance is relatively slow. Therefore, RAID 6 applies to the following two
scenarios:
▫ Data is critical and should be consistently online and available.
▫ The disk capacity is large (usually greater than 2 TB). The reconstruction of
a large-capacity disk takes a long time. Data will be inaccessible for a long
time if two disks fail at the same time. A RAID 6 array tolerates failure of
another disk during the reconstruction of one disk. Some enterprises want
to use a dual-redundancy RAID array for their large-capacity disks.
Introduction to RAID 2.0
⚫ RAID 2.0
 RAID 2.0 is an enhanced RAID technology that effectively resolves the following problems: prolonged
reconstruction of an HDD, and data loss if a disk is faulty during the long reconstruction of a traditional RAID
group.
⚫ RAID 2.0+
 RAID 2.0+ provides smaller resource granularities (tens of KB) than RAID 2.0 to serve as the units of standard
allocation and reclamation of storage resources, similar to VMs in computing virtualization. This technology is
called virtual block technology.
⚫ Huawei RAID 2.0+
 Huawei RAID 2.0+ is a new RAID technology that overcomes traditional RAID issues. Huawei RAID 2.0+ evolves
in line with the storage architecture virtualization to implement two-layer virtualized management instead of
the traditional fixed management. Based on the underlying disk management that employs block virtualization
(Virtual for Disk), RAID 2.0+ uses Smart-series efficiency improvement software to implement efficient resource
management that features upper-layer virtualization (Virtual for Pool).
• Block virtualization is to divide disks into multiple contiguous storage spaces of a

fixed size called a chunk (CK).
RAID 2.0+ Block Virtualization
⚫ If data is not evenly stored on SSDs, some heavily loaded SSDs may become the
system bottleneck.
⚫ The storage system uses RAID 2.0+ for fine-grained division of SSDs to evenly
distribute data to all LUNs on each SSD and balance loads.
1. Multiple SSDs form a storage pool.
2. Each SSD is then divided into CKs of a fixed size (typically 4 MB) for logical space
management.
3. CKs from different SSDs form chunk groups (CKGs) based on the RAID policy
specified on DeviceManager.
4. CKGs are further divided into grains (typically 8 KB). Grains are mapped to LUNs
for refined management of storage resources.
• RAID 2.0+ has the following advantages over traditional RAID:
• Balanced service loads for zero hotspots. Data is evenly distributed to all
SSDs in a storage resource pool, ensuring no SSD becomes a hotpot,
thereby lowering the SSD failure rate.
• Quick reconstruction for a lowered data loss risk. Faulty SSDs trigger data
reconstruction on all the other SSDs in the storage pool. This many-to-
many reconstruction is rapid and significantly reduces data vulnerability.
• All SSDs in a storage resource pool participate in reconstruction, and each

SSD only needs to reconstruct a small amount of data. Therefore, the
reconstruction process does not affect upper-layer applications.
Contents
1. Storage Basics

 RAID Technologies
◼ Storage Protocol
SCSI
⚫ Small Computer System Interface (SCSI) is an interface technology developed for midrange
computers and used for connecting between hosts and peripheral devices.
I/O request
SCSI bus
Data/Address bus Host Disk
Host
Adapter C/S
SCSI ID 7 Control signal SCSI application layer SCSI application layer
Command/Data
SCSI array SCSI array SCSI transport layer SCSI transport layer
ID 0 ID 5
Bus connection
LUN 0 LUN 1 LUN 0 SCSI interconnection SCSI interconnection
LUN 2 LUN 1 layer layer
• Computers communicate with storage systems through buses. The bus is a path
through which data is transferred from the source device to the target device. To
put it simple, the high-speed cache of the controller functions as the source
device and transfers data to target disks, which serve as the target devices. The
controller sends a signal to the bus processor requesting to use the bus. After the
request is accepted, the controller's high-speed cache sends data. During this
process, the bus is occupied by the controller and other devices connected to the
same bus cannot use it. However, the bus processor can interrupt the data
transfer at any time and allow other devices to use the bus for operations of a
higher priority.
• A computer has numerous buses, which are like high-speed channels used for
transferring information and power from one place to another. For example, the
universal serial bus (USB) port is used to connect an MP3 player or digital
camera to a computer. The USB port is competent to the data transfer and
charging of portable electronic devices that store pictures and music. However,
the USB bus is incapable of supporting computers, servers, and many other
devices.
• In this case, SCSI buses are applicable. SCSI, short for Small Computer System
Interface, is an interface used to connect between hosts and peripheral devices
including disk drives, tape drives, CD-ROM drives, and scanners. Data operations
are implemented by SCSI controllers. Like a small CPU, the SCSI controller has its
own command set and cache. The special SCSI bus architecture can dynamically
allocate resources to tasks run by multiple devices in a computer. In this way,
multiple tasks can be processed at the same time.
iSCSI
⚫ iSCSI encapsulates SCSI commands and block data into TCP packets and transmits the
packets over an IP network. iSCSI uses mature IP network technologies to implement and
extend SANs.
SCSI applications (such as file systems and databases)
SCSI block instruction SCSI flow instruction Other SCSI instructions
SCSI instruction, data and status
iSCSI
TCP
IP
Physical layer
• The SCSI controller card is used to connect to multiple devices to form a network.
The devices can communicate with each other on the network but cannot be
shared on the Ethernet. If devices form a network through SCSI and the network
can be mounted to an Ethernet, the devices can interconnect and share with
other devices as network nodes. As a result, the iSCSI protocol evolved from SCSI.
The IP SAN using iSCSI converts user requests into SCSI codes and encapsulates
data into IP packets for transmission over the Ethernet.
• The iSCSI scheme was initiated by Cisco and IBM and then advocated by Adaptec,
Cisco, HP, IBM, Quantum, and other companies. iSCSI offers a way of transferring
data through TCP and saving data on SCSI devices. The iSCSI standard was
drafted in 2001 and submitted to IETF in 2002 after numerous arguments and
modifications. In Feb. 2003, the iSCSI standard was officially released. The iSCSI
technology inherits advantages of traditional technologies and develops based on
them. On one hand, SCSI technology is a storage standard widely applied by
storage devices including disks and tapes. It has been keeping a fast development
pace since 1986. On the other hand, TCP/IP is the most universal network
protocol and IP network infrastructure is mature. The two points provide a solid
foundation for iSCSI development.
• Prevalent IP networks allow data to be transferred over LANs, WANs, or the

Internet using new IP storage protocols. The iSCSI protocol is developed by this
philosophy. iSCSI adopts IP technical standards and converges SCSI and TCP/IP
protocols. Ethernet users can conveniently transfer and manage data with a small
investment.
iSCSI Initiator and Target
⚫ Initiator
iSCSI
 The SCSI layer generates command descriptor blocks
Initiator Target
(CDBs) and transfers them to the iSCSI layer.
SCSI SCSI
 The iSCSI layer generates iSCSI protocol data units
(PDUs) and sends them to the target over an IP
iSCSI iSCSI
network.
⚫ Target TCP TCP

 The iSCSI layer receives PDUs and sends CDBs to the
SCSI layer. IP IP
 The SCSI layer interprets CDBs and gives responses

Link Link
when necessary.
• The iSCSI communication system inherits some of SCSI's features. The iSCSI
communication involves an initiator that sends I/O requests and a target that
responds to the I/O requests and executes I/O operations. After a connection is
set up between the initiator and target, the target controls the entire process as
the primary device.
• There are three types of iSCSI initiators: software-based initiator driver,

hardware-based TCP offload engine (TOE) NIC, and iSCSI HBA. Their
performance increases in that order.
• iSCSI targets include iSCSI disk arrays and iSCSI tape libraries.
• The iSCSI protocol defines a set of naming and addressing methods for iSCSI
initiators and targets. All iSCSI nodes are identified by their iSCSI names. This
method distinguishes iSCSI names from host names.
• iSCSI uses iSCSI names to identify initiators and targets. Addresses change with
the relocation of initiator or target devices, but their names remain unchanged.
When setting up a connection, an initiator sends a request. After the target
receives the request, it checks whether the iSCSI name contained in the request is
consistent with that bound with the target. If the iSCSI names are consistent, the
connection is set up. Each iSCSI node has a unique iSCSI name. One iSCSI name
can be used in the connections from one initiator to multiple targets. Multiple
iSCSI names can be used in the connections from one target to multiple initiators.
Discussion:
⚫ We have learned the FC SAN and IP SAN. Now assume that two sites use different
networks FC SAN and TCP/IP. How can storage devices at the two sites
communicate with each other?
➢ To converge Fibre Channel and TCP?

?
Convergence of Fibre Channel and TCP
⚫ Ethernet technologies and Fibre Channel technologies are both developing fast. Therefore, it
is inevitable that IP SAN and FC SAN that are complementary coexist for a long time.
⚫ Fibre Channel over a TCP/IP network:
◼ iFCP
◼ FCoE
• Fibre Channel over IP (FCIP) is an IETF proposed standard that defines the Fibre
Channel architecture over TCP/IP links. FCIP uses the current IP protocol and
facilities to connect the tunnels of two Fibre Channel SANs at different places.
• Internet Fibre Channel Protocol (iFCP) is a gateway-to-gateway protocol that

provides Fibre Channel communication services for optical devices on TCP/IP
networks. iFCP delivers congestion control, error detection, and recovery functions
through TCP. The purpose of iFCP is to enable current Fibre Channel devices to
interconnect and network at the line rate over an IP network. The frame address
conversion method defined in this protocol allows Fibre Channel storage devices
to be added to the IP-based network through transparent gateways.
• Fibre Channel over Ethernet (FCoE) transmits Fibre Channel signals over an
Ethernet, so that Fibre Channel data can be transmitted at the backbone layer of
a 10 Gbit/s Ethernet using the Fibre Channel protocol.
• IP over Fibre Channel (IPFC) uses the Fibre Channel connections between two
servers as IP data exchange media. To do this, IPFC defines how to transmit IP
packets over a Fibre Channel network. Like all other application protocols, IPFC is
implemented by a device driver in an operating system. The ifconfig or ipconfig
command is executed for local IP connections. Then the IPFC driver addresses the
Fibre Channel HBA. After that, IP packets can be transmitted through Fibre
Channel.
iFCP
⚫ Internet Fibre Channel Protocol (iFCP) is a gateway-to-gateway protocol that provides Fibre
Channel communication services for optical devices on TCP/IP networks to implement end-
to-end IP connection.
iFCP gateway iFCP gateway
TCP/IP
Fibre Channel storage system

Fibre Channel storage system
• iFCP is a gateway-to-gateway protocol that provides Fibre Channel

communication services for optical devices on TCP/IP networks to implement
end-to-end IP connection. Fibre Channel storage devices, HBAs, and switches can
directly connect to iFCP gateways. iFCP provides traffic control, error detection,
and error recovery through TCP. It enables Fibre Channel devices to interconnect
and network at the line rate over an IP network.
• The frame address conversion method defined in the iFCP protocol allows Fibre
Channel storage devices to be added to the TCP/IP-based network through
transparent gateways. iFCP can replace Fibre Channel to connect to and group
Fibre Channel devices using iFCP devices. However, iFCP does not support the
merge of independent SANs, and therefore a logical SAN cannot be formed. iFCP
outstands in supporting SAN interconnection as well as gateway zoning, allowing
fault isolation and breaking the limitations of point-to-point tunnels. In addition,
iFCP enables end-to-end connection between Fibre Channel devices. As a result,
the interruption of TCP connection affects only a communication pair. SANs that
adopt iFCP support fault isolation and security management, and deliver higher
reliability than SANs that adopt FCIP.
iFCP Protocol Stack
⚫ iFCP is between Fibre Channel and TCP/IP, which means that iFCP can
interwork with either Fibre Channel or TCP/IP.
SCSI applications (such as file systems and databases)
SCSI block instruction SCSI flow instruction Other SCSI instructions
SCSI instruction, data and status

Fibre Channel
iFCP
TCP
IP
Physical layer
• The main function of the iFCP protocol layer is to transport Fibre Channel frame
images between locally and remotely attached N_Ports. When transporting
frames to a remote N_Port, the iFCP layer encapsulates and routes the Fibre
Channel frame comprising each Fibre Channel information unit, and transmits
the frame via a predetermined TCP connection over the IP network.
• In the IP SAN that uses iFCP, iFCP devices take the place of Fibre Channel
switches, which means that iFCP switches can also function as Internet Storage
Name Servers (iSNSs) to provide the name discovery service for terminal nodes.
The iFCP switch allocates a 4-byte IP address to each Fibre Channel terminal
node. When a Fibre Channel device sends an SNS name query request, the
request is intercepted by the iFCP switch and interpreted by the iSNS server.
FCoE
⚫ Fibre Channel over Ethernet (FCoE) allows the transmission of LAN and FC SAN data on the same
Ethernet link. This reduces the number of devices, cables, and network nodes in a data center, as well
as power consumption and cooling loads, simplifying management.
⚫ FCoE encapsulates FC data frames into Ethernet frames and allows service traffic on a LAN and SAN to
be transmitted over the same Ethernet.
Ethernet data link layer frame
Service flow IP address
Block storage FCoE
VoIP call
Video stream VoIP
• FCoE offers standard Fibre Channel services, including discovery, global naming,
and zoning. These services run in the same way as the original Fibre Channel
services with low latency and high performance.
• From the perspective of Fibre Channel, FCoE enables Fibre Channel to be carried
by the Ethernet Layer 2 link. From the perspective of the Ethernet, FCoE is an
upper-layer protocol that the Ethernet carries, like IP or IPX.
FCoE Protocol Encapsulation
⚫ FCoE encapsulates contents in the FC-2 and above layers into Ethernet packets for
transmission.
FC-4 FC-4
FC-3 FC-3 Fibre Channel protocol layers
FC-2 FC-2
FC-1 FCoE
FC-0 MAC
Ethernet protocol layers
PHY
• The Fibre Channel protocol stack has five layers. FC-0 defines the medium type,
FC-1 defines the frame coding and decoding mode, FC-2 defines the frame
division protocol and flow control mechanism, FC-3 defines general services, and
FC-4 defines the mapping from upper-layer protocols to Fibre Channel.
Discussion:
⚫ What are the application scenarios of FCoE?
⚫ What are the application scenarios of iFCP?
Quiz
1. Which of the following statements about FC SAN are true?

A. Fibre Channel switches are required.
B. Ethernet switches are required.
C. Fibre Channel links cannot be used between storage devices.
D. Data packets comply with the Fibre Channel protocol stack.
2. The performance of SATA disks is better than that of SAS disks.

A. True
B. False
Answers:
▫ AD
▫ B
Summary
In this course, we covered:

⚫ Mainstream data storage modes and network topologies
⚫ RAID and Huawei RAID 2.0+ block virtualization technologies
⚫ Differences and relationships between centralized storage and distributed
storage
⚫ Storage protocols and their application scenarios
In the next course, we will learn the network technologies.
Recommendations
 https://e.huawei.com/en/talent/#/
⚫ Huawei Support Case Library
⚫ FC: Fibre Channel
⚫ FCIP: Fibre Channel over IP
⚫ FCoE: Fibre Channel over Ethernet
⚫ iFCP: Internet Fibre Channel Protocol
⚫ iSCSI: Internet Small Computer System Interface
⚫ IPFC: IP over Fiber Channel
⚫ IOPS: Input/Output per second
⚫ MTBF: Mean Time Between Failure
⚫ NAS: Network Attached Storage
⚫ RAID: Redundant Array of Independent Disks
⚫ SAN: Storage Area Network
⚫ SCSI: Small Computer System Interface
intelligent world.


Network Technology Basics
Foreword
⚫ Network technologies are the basis for the interconnection of all platforms
and services. What exactly is a network? What are the basic principles of
network communication? And what are the common network technologies?
This course will answer these questions and more.
Objectives

 Understand the classification and subnetting of IP addresses.
 Understand the basic principles of network communication.
 Familiarize yourself with the operating principles of switches and routers.
 Understand the technical principles and basic configuration methods of VLAN.
Contents
1. IP Address Basics
2. Introduction to Network Technologies
3. Switching Basics
4. Routing Basics
What Is an IP Address?
⚫ An IP address is a unique logical address used to identify a device that sends or receives data packets on a network.
⚫ The functions of an IP address are to:
 Identify a host or network device (identifying its network interface and indicating its location on the network).
 Implement network addressing
IP Address
IP 1 IP 5
An IP address is like a real-world
IP 4
address. It identifies a node on a
IP 2
network, and is used to find the
destination.
IP 3
Data
• On an IP network, to connect a PC to the Internet, you need to apply an IP

address for the PC. An IP address is like a real-world address. It identifies a node
on a network, and is used to find the destination. Global network communication
is based on IP addresses.
• An IP address is an attribute of an interface on a network device, not an attribute

of the network device itself. To assign an IP address to a device is to assign an IP
address to an interface of the device actually. If a device has multiple interfaces,
each interface requires at least one IP address.
• Note: An interface that requires an IP address is usually the interface on a router

or a computer.
IP Address Format
⚫ An IPv4 address has 32 bits.
⚫ An IPv4 address is usually represented in dotted decimal notation.
Dotted decimal Decimal digit 192 168 10 1 4 bytes

notation Binary digit 11000000 10101000 00001010 00000001 32 bits
27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20
Power
Decimal-to-binary 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
conversion
Bit 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
= 128 + 64 = 192
⚫ IPv4 address range: 0.0.0.0–255.255.255.255
• IP address format:
▫ An IP address has 32 bits and consists of four bytes. For the convenience of
reading and writing, an IP address is usually in the format of dotted
decimal notation.
• Dotted decimal notation:
▫ This type of IP address format is commonly used because it is easy to

understand. However, a communication device uses binary digits to
calculate the IP address. Therefore, it is necessary to master the conversion
between decimal and binary digits.
• IPv4 address range:
▫ 00000000.00000000.00000000.00000000–
11111111.11111111.11111111.11111111 in binary, and 0.0.0.0–
255.255.255.255 in decimal.
IP Address Structure
⚫ Network portion: identifies a network segment.
⚫ Host portion: uniquely identifies a host on a network segment.
Host
Network portion
portion
• Subnet mask: specifies which portion of an address refers to the subnet and which portion refers to
the host.
192 168 10 1
192.168.10.1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 IP address
255.255.255.0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Subnet mask
Network portion Host portion

Format
192.168.10.1 255.255.255.0 = 192.168.10.1/24
• An IPv4 address consists of two parts:

▫ Network portion: identifies a network segment.
▪ IP addresses do not show any geographical information. The network
bits indicate the segment to which an IP address belongs.
▪ Network devices with same network bits are located on the same
network, regardless of their physical locations.
▫ Host portion: uniquely identifies a host on a network segment.
• A subnet mask is also called a netmask:
▫ Same as an IP address, a subnet mask consists of 32 bits, and is also
displayed in dotted decimal notation generally.
▫ A subnet mask is not an IP address. A subnet mask written in the binary
format consists of consecutive 1s and 0s.
▫ Generally, the number of 1s in a subnet mask is the length of the subnet
mask. For example, the length of the subnet mask 0.0.0.0 is 0, and that of
252.0.0.0 is 6.
▫ How to identify the network and host bits in an IP address: In a subnet
mask, bits with the value of 1 correspond to the network bits in an IP
address, while bits with the value of 0 correspond to the host bits. In other
words, the number of 1s in a subnet mask equals to the number of network
bits in an IP address, while the number of 0s equals to the number of host
bits.
IP Address Classes (Classified Addressing)
⚫ IP addresses are classified into five classes to facilitate IP address management and networking.
Class A 0NNNNNNN NNNNNNNN NNNNNNNN NNNNNNNN 0.0.0.0–127.255.255.255
Assigned to
Class B 10NNNNNN NNNNNNNN NNNNNNNN NNNNNNNN 128.0.0.0–191.255.255.255
hosts
Class C 110NNNNN NNNNNNNN NNNNNNNN NNNNNNNN 192.0.0.0–223.255.255.255
Used for
Class D 1110NNNN NNNNNNNN NNNNNNNN NNNNNNNN 224.0.0.0–239.255.255.255 multicast
Used for
Class E 1111NNNN NNNNNNNN NNNNNNNN NNNNNNNN 240.0.0.0–255.255.255.255
research
• Default subnet masks:

▫ Class A: 8 bits, 0.0.0.0–127.255.255.255/8
Network portion
▫ Class B: 16 bits, 128.0.0.0–191.255.255.255/16
Host portion
▫ Class C: 24 bits, 192.0.0.0–223.255.255.255/24
• IP addresses are classified into five classes to facilitate IP address management

and networking:
▫ The easiest way to determine the class of an IP address is to check the first
bits in its network bits. The class fields of class A, class B, class C, class D,
and class E are binary numbers 0, 10, 110, 1110, and 1111, respectively.
▫ Class A, B, and C addresses are unicast IP addresses (except some special
addresses). Only these three types of addresses can be assigned to hosts.
▫ Class D addresses are multicast IP addresses.
▫ Class E addresses are used for special experimental purposes.
▫ This section focuses only on class A, B, and C addresses.
• Comparison between class A, B, and C addresses:
▫ Networks using class A addresses are called class A networks. Networks
using class B addresses are called class B networks. Networks using class C
addresses are called class C networks.
▫ The number of network bits of a class A network is 8. The number of
network bits is small, so the number of addresses that can be assigned to
the hosts is large. The first bit in the network bits of a class A network is
always 0. The address range is 0.0.0.0-127.255.255.255.
▫ The number of network bits of a class B network is 16, and the first two
bits are always 10. The address range is 128.0.0.0–191.255.255.255.
▫ The number of network bits of a class C network is 24. The number of
network bits is large, so the number of addresses that can be assigned to
the hosts is small. The first three bits in the network bits of a class C
network are always 110. The address range is 192.0.0.0-223.255.255.255.
• Note:
▫ A host refers to a router or a computer, and the IP address of an interface
on a host refers to the host IP address.
▫ Multicast address: Multicast refers to one-to-many message transmission.
Public and Private IP Addresses
⚫ Public IP address
 Public IP addresses are assigned by the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN) to ensure that each IP
address is unique on the Internet. Public IP addresses can be used for accessing the Internet.
⚫ Private IP address
 Some networks do not need to connect to the Internet, for example, a network in a closed lab of a university. However, the IP
addresses of network devices in the lab network still need to be unique to avoid conflicts. Some IP addresses of classes A, B, and
C are reserved for this kind of situation. These IP addresses are called private IP addresses.
◼ Class A: 10.0.0.0–10.255.255.255
192.168.1.0/24
◼ Class B: 172.16.0.0–172.31.255.255 10.0.0.0/8
◼ Class C: 192.168.0.0–192.168.255.255
Internet NAT
10.0.0.0/8 192.168.1.0/24
NAT is used to connect a private

network to the Internet
• Private IP addresses are used to resolve IP address shortage. They are used for
internal networks or hosts, and cannot be used for public networks.
▫ Public IP address: Network devices connected to the Internet must have

public IP addresses assigned by ICANN.
▫ Private IP address: increases the number of available IP addresses. A private

IP address can be repeatedly used on different private networks.
• Connecting a private network to the Internet: A private network is not allowed to

directly connect to the Internet because it uses a private IP address. Due to actual
requirements, many private networks also want to be connected to the Internet
to communicate with the Internet or other private networks through the Internet.
The interconnection between a private network and the Internet is implemented
through the network address translation (NAT) technology.
• Note:
▫ NAT is used to translate private IP addresses into public IP addresses.
▫ ICANN is a standards organization that oversees global IP address

allocation.
Special IP Addresses
⚫ There are some special IP addresses that have special meanings and functions.
Special IP Address IP Address Range Function

Packets that use this address as the destination address
Limited broadcast address 255.255.255.255 will be sent to all hosts on the same network segment.
(The destination range is limited by the gateway.)
This address is the network address of any network, or the
Any address 0.0.0.0
IP address of an interface on a network.
This address is used to test the software system of a
Loopback address 127.0.0.0/8
device.
When a host fails to obtain an IP address automatically,
Link-local address 169.254.0.0/24 the host can use a link-local address for temporary
communication.
• 255.255.255.255
▫ This address is called a limited broadcast address and can be used as the
destination IP address of an IP packet.
▫ After receiving an IP packet whose destination IP address is a limited
broadcast address, a router stops forwarding the IP packet.
• 0.0.0.0
▫ If this address is used as a network address, it refers to the network address
of any network. If this address is used as a host address, it refers to an
interface IP address of a host on the network.
▫ For example, when a host does not obtain an IP address during startup, it
can send a DHCP Request packet with the source IP address being 0.0.0.0
and the destination IP address being a limited broadcast address to the
network. The DHCP server will assign an available IP address to the host
after receiving the DHCP Request packet.
• 127.0.0.0/8
▫ This address is a loopback address that can be used as the destination IP
address of an IP packet. It is used to test the software system of the device.
▫ An IP packets whose destination IP address is a loopback address cannot
leave the device which sends the packet.
• 169.254.0.0/16
▫ If a network device is configured to automatically obtain an IP address but
does not find an available DHCP server on the network, the device uses an
IP address on the 169.254.0.0/16 network segment for temporary
communication.
• Note: DHCP is used to dynamically allocate network configuration parameters,
such as IP addresses.
Subnet Mask and Available Host Address
⚫ Generally, the network range defined by a network ID is called a network segment.
⚫ Subnet mask: Used to calculate the network ID (network address) and host ID (host address) in an IP address.
Example: 192.168.10.0/24
192 168 10 00000000

Note
⚫ Broadcast address: Used as a special destination address
• Network addresses and broadcast addresses
to send data to all hosts on the network.
cannot be used as the address of nodes or
Example: 192.168.10.255/24 network devices.
192 168 10 11111111 • The number of available IP addresses on a
network segment is 2ⁿ - 2 (n is the number
⚫ Available address: Assigned to a node or an interface of
of host bits).
a device on a network.
Example: 192.168.10.1/24
192 168 10 00000001
• Broadcast address
▫ Each bit of the host ID is 1.
▫ It cannot be allocated to a specific interface on a host.
• Available address
▫ It is also called a host address and can be allocated to a specific interface

on a host.
• Calculation of the number of available IP addresses on a network segment
▫ If the number of host bits of a network segment is n, the number of IP

addresses on the network segment is 2ⁿ, and the number of available host
addresses is 2ⁿ - 2 (subtracting the network address and broadcast address).
IP Address Calculation
⚫ Calculate the network address, broadcast address, and number of available addresses of the class B
address 172.16.10.1/16.
172 16 00001010 00000001
IP address 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
Subnet mask 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Change all host bits to 0,

and the network address
is obtained.
Network address 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 172.16.0.0
Change all host bits to 1,
and the broadcast address
Broadcast
address 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 is obtained.
172.16.255.255
Number of IP Extra Practice

addresses 216=65536
Calculate the network address, broadcast
Number of available
IP addresses 216-2=65534 address, and number of available
addresses of the class A address
Range of available
IP addresses 172.16.0.1-172.16.255.254 10.128.20.10/8.
• Network address: Change all host bits of an IP address to 0, and the result is the
network address of the network to which the IP address belongs.
• Broadcast address: Change all host bits of an IP address to 1, and the result is the
broadcast address of the network to which the IP address belongs.
• Number of IP addresses: 2ⁿ, where n indicates the number of host bits.
• Number of available IP addresses: 2ⁿ - 2, where n indicates the number of host

bits.
• Answer to the practice:
▫ Network address: 10.0.0.0
▫ Broadcast address: 10.255.255.255
▫ Number of IP addresses: 224
▫ Number of available IP addresses: 222 (224 - 2)
▫ Range of available IP addresses: 10.0.0.1-10.255.255.254

Subnetting
⚫ Why do we need subnetting?
⚫ The variable length subnet mask (VLSM) technology is used in subnetting.
 VLSM allows an organization to divide a network into multiple subnets based on the network scale
for different departments to use.
⚫ For example, a company is assigned a class C IP address 201.222.5.0. Assume that 20 subnets are
required and each subnet contains five hosts. How should we divide the subnets?
Subnet Address Available Host Addresses

201.222.5.8/29 201.222.5.9-201.222.5.14
201.222.5.16/29 201.222.5.17-201.222.5.22
... ...
201.222.5.232/29 201.222.5.233-201.222.5.238
201.222.5.240/29 201.222.5.241-201.222.5.246
• Why do we need subnetting?

• In practice, if a class A network is assigned to an organization but the number of
hosts in the organization is less than 16777214, a large number of IP addresses
will be idle and wasted. Therefore, a more flexible method is required to divide
the network based on the network scale. The idea is to divide a network into
multiple subnets for different organizations to use through VLSM. VLSM can be
used on both public networks and enterprise networks.
• In the preceding example, 201.222.5.0 is a class C address, whose default subnet
mask is 24. Assume that 20 subnets are required and each subnet contains five
hosts. The last byte (8 bits) of 201.222.5.0 should be divided into subnet bits and
host bits.
• The number of subnet bits determines the number of subnets. As this address is a
class C address, the total number for subnet bits and host bits is 8. Because the
value 20 is in the range of 24 (16) to 25 (32), 5 bits should be reserved for subnet
bits. The 5-bit subnet part allows a maximum of 32 subnets. The 3 bits left are
host bits, which means that there are a maximum of 23 (8) IP addresses. Except
for one network address and one broadcast address, six addresses can be used by
hosts.
• The network segments are:
▫ 201.222.5.0-201.222.5.7
▫ 201.222.5.8-201.222.5.15
▫ 201.222.5.16-201.222.5.23
▫ ...
▫ 201.222.5.232-201.222.5.239
▫ 201.222.5.240-201.222.5.247
▫ 201.222.5.248-201.222.5.255
Contents

◼ Network Basics
 Common Network Devices
 Introduction to Common Protocols
3. Switching Basics
4. Routing Basics
Concept of Network Communication
⚫ Communication refers to the information transfer and exchange between people, between people and things, and
between things through a certain medium and action.
⚫ Network communication refers to communication between terminal devices through a computer network.
⚫ Examples of network communication:
Data
Router
A. Files are transferred between two computers

(terminals) through a network cable. Data
...
Data
B. Files are transferred among multiple computers
(terminals) through a router.
C. A computer (terminal) downloads

files through the Internet.
• Examples of network communication:
▫ A: Two computers are connected through a network cable to form a simple

network.
▫ B: A router (or switch) and multiple computers form a small-scale network.

In such a network, files can be freely transferred between every two
computers through a router.
▫ C. If a computer wants to download files from a website, it must access the

Internet first.
• The Internet is the largest computer network in the world. Its predecessor,
Advanced Research Projects Agency Network (ARPANET), was born in 1969. The
wide popularization and application of Internet is one of the signs of entering the
information age.
Information Transfer Process
⚫ Virtual information transfer is similar to real object transfer.
Item Package Distribution center Sky Distribution center Package Item
Packet Packet
Data Data Data Data
Computer Gateway router Internet Gateway router Computer
• Comparison between the express delivery process and network communication

process:
• Items to be delivered:
▫ The information (or data) generated by the application
• The item is packed into a package and pasted with a package label containing
the receiver's name and address.
▫ The application packs the data into an original data payload and adds a
header and a tail to form a packet. The important information in the
packet is the address of the receiver, that is, the destination address.
▫ Encapsulation is a process in which new information segments are added to
an information unit, forming a new information unit.
• The package is delivered to a distribution center in which packages are sorted
based on the destination addresses. The packages destined for the same city are
placed in the same plane for airlift.
▫ The packet reaches the gateway through a network cable. After receiving
the packet, the gateway decapsulates the packet, obtains the destination
address, re-encapsulates the packet, and sends the packet to different
routers based on the destination address. The packet is transmitted through
the gateway and router, leaves the local network, and is transmitted
through the Internet.
▫ The network cable is the medium for information transmission, and plays
the same role as the highway for item transmission.
• After the plane arrives at the destination airport, the packages are taken out for
sorting, and the packages destined for the same area are sent to the same
distribution center.
▫ The packet is transmitted through the Internet and reaches the local
network where the destination address resides. The gateway or router of
the local network decapsulates and encapsulates the packet, and then
determines the next-hop router according to the destination address. Finally,
the packet reaches the gateway of the network where the destination
computer resides.
• The distribution center sorts the packages according to the destination addresses
on the packages. The courier delivers the packages to the receiver. The receiver
unpacks the package, confirms that the items are intact, and signs for the
package. The entire express delivery process is complete.
▫ After the packet reaches the gateway of the network where the destination
computer resides, the gateway decapsulates and encapsulates the packet,
and then sends the packet to the corresponding computer according to the
destination address. After receiving the packet, the computer verifies the
packet. If the packet passes verification, the computer accepts the packet
and sends the data payload to the corresponding application program for
processing. A complete network communication process is complete.
What Is a Gateway?
• Default next hop of

the host
192.168.1.X/24 192.168.2.X/24
PC1 PC2
Gateway: 192.168.1.1 Gateway: 192.168.2.1
• A gateway is also called an inter-network connector or a protocol converter. By

default, a gateway implements network interconnection above the network layer.
• Just like you must walk through a door when entering a room, information sent
from one network or network segment to another must pass through a gateway.
We can say the gateway is the door to another network.
• Functions of a gateway — A gateway plays significant roles in not only its role
but also its configuration:
▫ When a host (such as a PC, server, router, or firewall) wants to access

another network segment, the gateway is responsible for sending ARP
packets, and receiving and forwarding subsequent data packets.
▫ After the gateway is configured, the default route is generated on the host,
with the next hop being the gateway.
Basic Architecture of a Communication Network
Internet
⚫ Communication network Core equipment room
Log system
A communication network Controller
NMS
consists of routers, switches, Application
server
firewalls, PCs, network printers,
servers, and more.
⚫ Function
The basic function of a
communication network is to
implement data communication. ...
... ...
Office area 1 Office area 2 Office area 3
• Take the enterprise data center network (DCN) as an example. The major
requirements of an enterprise for the DCN include service operation and
computing, data storage, and service access.
• The DCN thereby needs to enable device-device and device-user interconnection
and provide external access capabilities for services. Devices on such a network
collaborate with each other to implement communication:
▫ Access switches connect to user hosts in office areas.
▫ Aggregation switches aggregate traffic from access switches.
▫ Routers forward traffic between different office areas and between internal
and external networks.
▫ Firewalls implement access control for areas of different security levels and
between internal and external networks to ensure secure access.
Network Device - Switch
⚫ As the device closest to end users, a switch connects end users to a network and forwards
data frames. A switch can:
 Connect terminals (such as PCs and servers) to the network.
 Isolate collision domains.
 Broadcast unknown packets.
Switch
 Learn MAC addresses and maintain the MAC address table.
 Forward packets based on the MAC address table.
Broadcast domain
• Switch:
▫ Generally, on a campus network, switches are closest to end users, and

Layer 2 switches (also known as Ethernet switches) are deployed at the
access layer. Layer 2 refers to the data link layer of the TCP/IP model.
▫ An Ethernet switch can implement the following functions: data frame

switching, access of end users, basic access security, and Layer 2 link
redundancy.
▫ Broadcast domain: a group of nodes, among which a broadcast packet

from one node can reach all the other nodes.
▫ Collision domain: an area where a collision occurs when two devices on the
same network send packets at the same time.
▫ Media Access Control (MAC) address: uniquely identifies a network

interface card (NIC) on a network. Each NIC requires and has a unique MAC
address.
▫ MAC address table: exists on each switch and stores the mappings between
MAC addresses and switch interfaces.
Network Device - Router
⚫ Working at the network layer, a router forwards data packets on the Internet. Based on the destination
address in a received packet, a router selects a path to send the packet to the next router or
destination. The last router on the path is responsible for sending the packet to the destination host. A
router can:
 Implement communication between networks of the
same type or different types.

 Isolate broadcast domains.
 Maintain the routing table and run routing protocols. Router
 Select routes and forward IP packets.

 Implement WAN access and network address translation (NAT).
 Connect Layer 2 networks built through switches.
Broadcast domain A Broadcast domain B
• Router:
▫ A router works at the network layer of the TCP/IP model.
▫ A router can maintain the routing table and routing entries, discover routes,
select paths, forward data, isolate broadcast domains, implement WAN
access, translate network addresses, and provide specific security functions.
Discussion
⚫ What are the differences between a Layer 2 switch and a router that are both
used for network connection?
⚫ What are their application scenarios?
Network Device - Firewall
⚫ As a network security device, a firewall is used to ensure secure communication between two
networks. It monitors, restricts, and modifies data flows passing through it to shield the information,
structure, and running status of internal networks from the public network. A firewall can:
 Isolate networks of different security levels. Untrust zone
 Implement access control (using security policies) between Internet
networks of different security levels.

DMZ
 Perform user identity authentication. Firewall
 Implement remote access.

 Encrypt data and provide virtual private network (VPN) services. Trust zone
 Implement NAT.
 Provide other security functions.
• Firewall:
▫ Located between two networks of different trust levels (for example, an

enterprise intranet and the Internet), a firewall controls the communication
between the two networks and forcibly implements unified security policies
to prevent unauthorized access to key information resources, ensuring
system security.
Contents

 Network Basics
◼ Network Reference Model and Data Encapsulation
 Introduction to Common Protocols
3. Switching Basics
4. Routing Basics
OSI Reference Model
⚫ To achieve compatibility between networks and help vendors produce compatible network devices, the
International Organization for Standardization (ISO) launched the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI)
reference model in 1984. It was quickly adopted as the basic model for computer network
communication.
7. Application layer Provides interfaces for applications.
Converts data formats to ensure the application layer of one system can identify and understand
6. Presentation layer
the data generated by the application layer of another system.
5. Session layer Establishes, manages, and terminates sessions between two parties.
Establishes, maintains, and cancels one-time end-to-end data transmission processes, controls
4. Transport layer
transmission speeds, and adjusts data sequencing.
3. Network layer Defines logical addresses and transfers data from sources to destinations.
Encapsulates packets into frames, transmits frames in P2P or P2MP mode, and implements error
2. Data link layer
checking.
1. Physical layer Transmits bit streams over transmission media and defines electrical and physical specifications.
• The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model was included in the ISO 7489
standard and released in 1984. ISO stands for International Organization for
Standardization.
• The OSI reference model is also called the seven-layer model. The seven layers
from bottom to top are as follows:
▫ Physical layer: transmits bit streams between devices and defines physical
specifications such as electrical levels, speeds, and cable pins.
▫ Data link layer: encapsulates bits into octets and octets into frames, uses
link layer addresses (MAC addresses in Ethernet) to access media, and
implements error checking.
▫ Network layer: defines logical addresses for routers to determine paths and
transmits data from source networks to destination networks.
▫ Transport layer: implements connection-oriented and non-connection-
oriented data transmission, as well as error checking before retransmission.
▫ Session layer: establishes, manages, and terminates sessions between
entities at the presentation layer. Communication at this layer is
implemented through service requests and responses transmitted between
applications on different devices.
▫ Presentation layer: provides data encoding and conversion functions so that
data sent by the application layer of one system can be identified by the
application layer of another system.
▫ Application layer: provides network services for applications and is closest to
users.
TCP/IP Reference Model
⚫ The TCP/IP reference model has become the mainstream reference model of the Internet
because the TCP and IP protocols are widely used and the OSI model is too complex.
Application layer
Application layer Presentation layer Application layer
Session layer
Transport layer Transport layer Transport layer

Network layer Network layer Network layer
Data link layer Data link layer

Data link layer
Physical layer Physical layer
Standard TCP/IP model OSI model Equivalent TCP/IP model
• Similar to the OSI model, the Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol

(TCP/IP) model adopts a hierarchical architecture, and adjacent layers are closely
related.
• The standard TCP/IP model combines the data link layer and physical layer in the
OSI model into the network access layer. This division mode is contrary to the
actual protocol formulation. Therefore, the equivalent TCP/IP model that
integrates the standard TCP/IP model and the OSI model is proposed. Contents in
the following slides are based on the equivalent TCP/IP model.
• TCP/IP was originated from a packet switched network research project funded
by the US government in the late 1960s. Since the 1990s, the TCP/IP model has
become the most commonly used networking model for computer networks. It is
a truly open system, because the definition of the protocol suite and its multiple
implementations can be easily obtained at little or even no cost. It thereby
became the basis of the Internet.
• Like the OSI reference model, the TCP/IP model is developed in different layers,
each of which is responsible for different communication functions. The
difference is, the TCP/IP model has a simplified hierarchical structure that consists
of only five layers: application layer, transport layer, network layer, data link layer,
and physical layer. As shown in the figure, the TCP/IP protocol stack corresponds
to the OSI reference model and covers all layers in the OSI reference model. The
application layer contains all upper-layer protocols in the OSI reference model.
• The TCP/IP protocol stack supports all standard physical-layer and data-link-layer
protocols. The protocols and standards at the two layers will be further discussed
in following chapters.
• Comparison between the OSI reference model and TCP/IP protocol stack:
▫ Similarities
▪ They are both hierarchical and both require close collaboration
between layers.
▪ They both have the application layer, transport layer, network layer,
data link layer, and physical layer. (Note: The TCP/IP protocol stack is
divided into five layers here to facilitate comparison. In many
documents, the data link layer and physical layer of TCP/IP are
combined into the data link layer, which is also called network access
layer.)
▪ They both use the packet switching technology.
▪ Network engineers must understand both models.
▫ Differences
▪ TCP/IP includes the presentation layer and session layer into the
application layer.
▪ TCP/IP has a simpler structure with fewer layers.
▪ TCP/IP standards are established based on practices during the
Internet development and are thereby highly trusted. In comparison,
the OSI reference model is based on theory and serves as a guide.
Data Encapsulation on the Sender
Data Application layer Data

www.huawei.com
TCP header Data Transport layer Segment
Network layer Packet

IP header Payload
Data link layer Frame

Ethernet header Payload FCS
... Physical layer Bit
0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 ... Transmission
Transmission medium
medium
• Assume that you are using a web browser to access Huawei's official website.
After you enter the website address and press Enter, the following events occur
on your computer:
▫ Internet Explorer (application) invokes HTTP (application-layer protocol) to
encapsulate the application-layer data. (Data in the figure should also
include the HTTP header, which is not shown here.)
▫ HTTP uses TCP to ensure reliable data transmission and thereby transmits
the encapsulated data to the TCP module.
▫ The TCP module adds the corresponding TCP header information (such as
the source and destination port numbers) to the data transmitted from the
application layer. The protocol data unit (PDU) is called a segment.
▫ On an IPv4 network, the TCP module sends the encapsulated segment to
the IPv4 module at the network layer. (On an IPv6 network, the segment is
sent to the IPv6 module for processing.)
▫ After receiving the segment from the TCP module, the IPv4 module
encapsulates the IPv4 header. Here, the PDU is called a packet.
▫ Ethernet is used as the data link layer protocol. Therefore, after the IPv4
module completes encapsulation, it sends the packet to the Ethernet
module (such as the Ethernet adapter) at the data link layer for processing.
▫ After receiving the packet from the IPv4 module, the Ethernet module adds
the corresponding Ethernet header and FCS frame trailer to the packet.
Now, the PDU is called a frame.
▫ After the Ethernet module completes encapsulation, it sends the data to the
physical layer.
▫ Based on the physical media, the physical layer converts digital signals into
electrical signals, optical signals, or electromagnetic (wireless) signals.
▫ The converted signals are then transmitted on the network.
Data Transmission on the Intermediate Network
⚫ Encapsulated data is transmitted on the network.
Data
Data
Application layer Application layer

Transport layer Transport layer
Network layer Network layer Network layer
Data link layer Data link layer Data link layer Data link layer
Physical layer Physical layer Physical layer Physical layer
• In most cases:
▫ A Layer 2 device (such as an Ethernet switch) only decapsulates the Layer 2

header of the data and performs the corresponding switching operation
based on the Layer 2 header information.
▫ A Layer 3 device (such as a router) only decapsulates the Layer 3 header

and performs the corresponding routing operation based on the Layer 3
header information.
▫ Note: The details and principles of switching and routing will be described
in the following chapters.
Data Decapsulation on the Receiver
Web server
Application layer Data Data
Transport layer Data Segment
Network layer Payload Packet
Data link layer Payload Frame
Physical layer ... Bit
Transmission 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 ...
medium
• After being transmitted over the intermediate network, the data finally reaches
the destination server. Based on the information in different protocol headers,
the data is decapsulated layer by layer, processed, transmitted, and finally sent to
the application on the web server for processing.
Contents

 Network Basics
 Network Reference Model and Data Encapsulation
◼ Introduction to Common Protocols
3. Switching Basics
4. Routing Basics
Common TCP/IP Protocols
⚫ The TCP/IP protocol stack defines a set of standard protocols.
Telnet FTP TFTP SNMP

Application layer
HTTP SMTP DNS DHCP
Transport layer TCP UDP
ICMP IGMP
Network layer
IP
PPPoE
Data link layer
Ethernet PPP
Physical layer ...
• Overview of protocols:
▫ Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP): used to access various pages on web
servers.
▫ File Transfer Protocol (FTP): used to transfer data from one host to another.
▫ Domain Name Service (DNS): translates domain names of hosts into IP

addresses.
▫ Transmission Control Protocol (TCP): provides reliable and connection-

oriented communication services for applications. Currently, TCP is used by
many popular applications.
▫ User Datagram Protocol (UDP): provides connectionless communication

services, without guaranteeing the reliability of packet transmission.
▫ Internet Protocol (IP): encapsulates transport-layer data into data packets

and forwards packets from source sites to destination sites. IP provides a
connectionless and unreliable service.
▫ Internet Group Management Protocol (IGMP): manages multicast group
memberships. Specifically, IGMP sets up and maintains memberships
between IP hosts and their directly connected multicast routers.
▫ Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP): sends control messages based

on the IP protocol and provides information about various problems that
may exist in the communication environment. Such information helps
administrators diagnose problems and take proper measures to resolve the
problems.
▫ Address Resolution Protocol (ARP): a TCP/IP protocol that discovers the

data link layer address associated with a given IP address. It maps IP
addresses to MAC addresses, maintains the ARP table that caches the
mappings between IP addresses and MAC addresses, and detects IP address
conflicts on a network segment.
TCP
⚫ TCP provides connection-oriented and reliable services for applications.
⚫ Reliability of TCP
 Connection-oriented transmission
 Maximum segment size (MSS)
 Transmission acknowledgment mechanism

 Checksum of the header and data Source port (16) Destination port (16)
Sequence number (32)
 Flow control Acknowledgment number (32) TCP header
20 bytes
Header Reserved Control Window
length (4) (6) bits (6) (16)
Checksum (16) Urgent (16)
Options
Data (varies)
• TCP provides reliable and connection-oriented services for applications.

• TCP provides reliability in the following aspects:
▫ Connection-oriented transmission: A connection must be established before

either side sends data.
▫ MSS: limits the maximum length of a TCP packet sent to the receiver. When
a connection is established, both parties of the connection advertise their
MSSs to make full use of bandwidth resources.
▫ Transmission acknowledgment mechanism: After the sender sends a data

segment, it starts a timer and waits for an acknowledgment from the
receiver. If no acknowledgment is received when the timer expires, the
sender resends the data segment.
▫ Checksum of the header and data: TCP maintains the checksum of the
header and data, implementing end-to-end check to verify whether the
data changes during transmission. If the checksum of a received segment is
incorrect, TCP discards the segment and does not acknowledge the receipt
of the segment. In this case, TCP starts the retransmission mechanism.
▫ Flow control: Each party of a TCP connection has a buffer with a fixed size.
The receiver allows the sender to send only the data that can be stored in
the receive buffer, which prevents buffer overflow caused by the high
transmission rate of the sender.
UDP
⚫ UDP provides connectionless services for applications. Before data transmission, no
connection is established between the source and destination ends.
⚫ UDP does not maintain connection states or sending and receiving states. Therefore, a server
can transmit the same message to multiple clients at the same time.
⚫ UDP applies to applications that require high transmission efficiency.
Source port (16) Destination port (16) UDP header

Length (16) Checksum (16) 8 bytes
Data (if any)
• UDP provides connectionless services for applications. That is, no connection

needs to be established between the source and destination ends before data
transmission. UDP does not maintain connection states or sending and receiving
states. Therefore, a server can transmit the same message to multiple clients at
the same time.
• UDP applies to applications that require high transmission efficiency or have the
reliability guaranteed at the application layer. For example, the Remote
Authentication Dial-In User Service (RADIUS) protocol used for authentication
and accounting and Routing Information Protocol (RIP) are based on UDP.
TCP vs. UDP
TCP UDP
• Connection-oriented • Connectionless
• Reliable transmission with flow and • Unreliable transmission, with
congestion control packet reliability guaranteed by
• Header length: 20–60 bytes upper-layer applications
• Applies to applications that require • Short header length of 8 bytes
reliable transmission, such as file • Applies to real-time applications,
transfer such as video conferencing
• TCP is reliable, but its reliability mechanism leads to low packet transmission
efficiency and high encapsulation overhead.
• UDP is connectionless and unreliable, but its transmission efficiency is higher.

Telnet
⚫ Telnet provides remote login services on data networks. It allows users to remotely log in to
a device from a local PC. Telnet data is transmitted in plaintext.
⚫ A user connects to a Telnet server through Telnet server
a Telnet client program. The commands

Telnet connection
entered on the Telnet client are executed AP Router
on the server, as if the commands were

LAN
entered on the console of the server. Switch Firewall
Telnet client
...
Server
• Telnet enables network administrators to remotely log in to network devices for

configuration and management.
• However, Telnet has the following disadvantages:
▫ Data is transmitted in plaintext, which does not ensure confidentiality.
▫ The authentication mechanism is weak. Users' authentication information is

transmitted in plaintext and may be eavesdropped. Telnet supports only the
traditional password authentication mode and is vulnerable to attacks.
▫ A client cannot truly identify the server. As a result, attackers can use a
bogus server to launch attacks.
SSH was designed to resolve the preceding issues.

SSH
⚫ SSH is a network security protocol that employs encryption and authentication mechanisms
to implement services such as secure remote access and file transfer.
⚫ SSH was developed to resolve security SSH server

issues that Telnet may bring, ensuring
secure remote access to network devices. SSH connection
AP Router
⚫ SSH uses the client/server architecture and
Network
involves three layers: transport layer,
Switch Firewall
SSH client
authentication layer, and connection layer. ...
Server
• SSH protocol layers:

▫ Transport layer: establishes a secure encryption channel between a client
and a server to provide sufficient confidentiality protection for phases that
require high data transmission security, such as user authentication and
data exchange.
▫ Authentication layer: runs over transport-layer protocols and helps a server

authenticate login users.
▫ Connection layer: divides an encryption channel into several logical

channels to run different applications. It runs over authentication-layer
protocols and provides services such as session interaction and remote
command execution.
• SSH packet exchange consists of the following phases:

▫ Connection setup
▫ Version negotiation
▫ Algorithm negotiation
▫ Key exchange
▫ User authentication
▫ Service request
▫ Data transmission and connection shutdown

Telnet vs. SSH
Telnet SSH
• Data is transmitted in ciphertext.
• User authentication information is transmitted in
ciphertext.
• Data is transmitted in plaintext.
• In addition to password authentication, SSH servers
• Weak authentication mechanism: User authentication
support multiple user authentication modes, such as
information is transmitted in plaintext.
public key authentication that has higher security.
• Only traditional password authentication is available.
• Encryption and decryption keys are dynamically
• A client cannot truly identify a server.
generated for communication between the client and
server.
• Provides the server authentication function for clients.
• SSH encrypts data before sending it, ensuring data transmission security. It
applies to scenarios where encrypted authentication is required.
• Telnet is still used in tests or scenarios where encryption is not required (such as
on a LAN).
Contents
3. Switching Basics
◼ Ethernet Switching Basics
 VLAN Basics
 VLAN Basic Configuration
4. Routing Basics
Ethernet Protocol
⚫ Ethernet is the most common communication protocol standard used by existing local area
networks (LANs). It defines the cable types and signal processing methods that are used on
a LAN.
Host A Host B Switch A
Switch B
Host A Host B
Host C Host D
Host C Host D
Early Ethernet Switch networking
• Early Ethernet:
▫ Ethernet networks are broadcast networks established based on the Carrier

Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD) mechanism.
Collisions restrict Ethernet performance. Early Ethernet devices such as hubs
work at the physical layer, and cannot confine collisions to a particular
scope. This restricts network performance improvement.
• Switch networking:
▫ Working at the data link layer, switches are able to confine collisions to a
particular scope, thereby helping improve Ethernet performance. Switches
have replaced hubs as mainstream Ethernet devices. However, switches do
not restrict broadcast traffic on the Ethernet. This affects Ethernet
performance.
Layer 2 Ethernet Switch
⚫ Layer 2 Ethernet switches forward data
Internet Internet
through Ethernet interfaces. Specifically, a
switch performs addressing and forwards
data only based on the MAC address in the
Layer 2 header of an Ethernet data frame.
Layer 2 Ethernet
switch
• We have discussed the architecture and composition of a communication

network. Layer 2 Ethernet switches are located at the edge of a communication
network and function as access devices for user and terminal access.
• Layer 2 Ethernet switch:
▫ On a campus network, a switch is the device closest to end users and is

used to connect terminals to the campus network. Switches at the access
layer are typically Layer 2 switches.
▫ A Layer 2 switch works at the second layer (data link layer) of the TCP/IP
model and forwards data packets based on MAC addresses.
• Layer 3 Ethernet switch:
▫ Routers are required to implement network communication between

different LANs. As data communication networks expand and more services
emerge on the networks, increasing traffic needs to be transmitted between
networks. Routers cannot adapt to this development trend because of their
high costs, low forwarding performance, and small interface quantities.
New devices capable of high-speed Layer 3 forwarding are required. Layer 3
switches are such devices.
• Note: The switches involved in this course refer to Layer 2 Ethernet switches.
MAC Address Table
⚫ Each switch has a MAC address table that stores the mappings between MAC addresses and
switch interfaces.
Host 1 Host 2
GE0/0/1 GE0/0/2
IP 1 Switch IP 2
MAC 1 MAC 2
MAC Address Port

MAC 1 GE0/0/1
MAC 2 GE0/0/2
... ...
• A MAC address table records the mappings between MAC addresses learned by a
switch and switch interfaces. When forwarding a data frame, the switch looks up
the MAC address table based on the destination MAC address of the frame. If the
MAC address table contains an entry mapping the destination MAC address of
the frame, the frame is directly forwarded through the outbound interface in the
entry. If there is no match of the destination MAC address of the frame in the
MAC address table, the switch floods the frame to all interfaces except the
interface that receives the frame.
Working Principles of Switches
Host 1 Host 2
GE0/0/1 GE0/0/2
Switch
IP1: 192.168.1.1 IP2: 192.168.1.2
MAC1: 0050-5600-0001 MAC2: 0050-5600-0002
Frame sent by Host 1

After receiving a data frame, the switch learns the
Source MAC: MAC1 Destination MAC: MAC2
source MAC address of the frame, searches the MAC
Source IP: IP1 Destination IP: IP2 address table for the destination MAC address (MAC2:
0050-5600-0002 in this example) of the frame, and
Payload
forwards the frame through the corresponding
interface.
• Layer 2 switches work at the data link layer and forward frames based on MAC
addresses. Different interfaces on a switch send and receive data independently,
and each interface belongs to a different collision domain. This effectively isolates
collision domains on the network.
• Layer 2 switches maintain the mappings between MAC addresses and interfaces
by learning the source MAC addresses of Ethernet frames in a table called a MAC
address table. Layer 2 switches look up the MAC address table to determine the
interface to which a frame is forwarded based on the destination MAC address of
the frame.
Three Frame Processing Behaviors of a Switch
⚫ A switch processes the frames entering an interface over a transmission medium in
three ways:
Switch
Flooding
Port 1 Port 2 Port 3 Port 4
Switch
Forwarding
Forwarding path
inside a switch
Switch Outgoing frame
Discarding Incoming frame
Data frame
• A switch forwards each frame that enters an interface over a transmission

medium, which is also the basic function of a switch.
• A switch processes frames in three ways: flooding, forwarding, and discarding.
▫ Flooding: The switch forwards the frames received from an interface to all
other interfaces.
▫ Forwarding: The switch forwards the frames received from an interface to

another interface.
▫ Discarding: The switch discards the frames received from an interface.

Contents
3. Switching Basics
 Ethernet Switching Basics
◼ VLAN Basics
 VLAN Basic Configuration
4. Routing Basics
Why Do We Need VLANs?
⚫ Broadcast packets have a wide-ranging impact on a network. However, Ethernet has no
method for forwarding control.
A B C
User: Administrator:
I don't want to receive I want to stop B from
broadcast packets from C. accessing A.
• Traditional Ethernet switches learn source MAC addresses (MAC addresses of

hosts connected to the switch interfaces) of received frames to generate a
forwarding table, based on which the switch then forwards frames. All the
interfaces can communicate with each other, meaning that maintenance
personnel cannot control forwarding between interfaces. Such a network has the
following disadvantages:
▫ Low network security: The network is prone to attacks because all

interfaces can communicate with each other.
▫ Low forwarding efficiency: Users may receive a large number of

unnecessary packets such as broadcast packets, which consume a lot of
bandwidth and host CPU resources.
▫ Low service scalability: Network devices process packets on an equal basis

and cannot provide differentiated services. For example, Ethernet frames
used for network management cannot be preferentially forwarded.
Objectives of the VLAN Technology
⚫ The Virtual Local Area Network (VLAN) technology divides users into multiple logical groups
(networks). Intra-group communication is allowed, whereas inter-group communication is prohibited.
Layer 2 unicast, multicast, and broadcast packets can be forwarded only within a group. In addition,
group members can be easily added or deleted.
A B C
Group 2 Group 1
• The VLAN technology provides a management method for controlling the

communication between terminals. As shown in the figure above, PCs in Group 1
and PCs in Group 2 cannot communicate with each other.
What Is VLAN?
⚫ The VLAN technology logically divides a physical LAN into multiple VLANs (broadcast
domains).
Router
Switch A Switch B Switch C
VLAN 1
VLAN 2
VLAN 3
• Hosts within a VLAN can communicate with each other but cannot communicate
directly with hosts in other VLANs. This confines broadcast packets within a single
VLAN. Inter-VLAN communication is not allowed, which improves network
security. For example, if enterprises in the same building establish their own LANs,
the cost is high. If enterprises share the same LAN in the building, there may be
security risks. In this case, the VLAN technology can be adopted to enable
enterprises to share the same LAN while ensuring information security.
• The figure above shows a typical VLAN networking. Three switches are deployed
at different locations, for example, on different floors of a building. Each switch is
connected to three PCs that belong to different VLANs (for example, VLANs for
different enterprises).
VLAN Frame Format
6B 6B 2B 64–1500 B 4B
DA SA TYPE DATA FCS Untagged frame
6B 6B 4B 2B 64–1500 B 4B
DA SA TAG TYPE DATA FCS Tagged frame
2B 2B
0x8100 PRI CFI VLAN ID (12 b)
TPID TCI
• IEEE 802.1Q adds a 4-byte VLAN tag to an Ethernet frame header.
• Tag Protocol Identifier (TPID): identifies a frame as an 802.1Q-tagged frame. This

field is of 2 bytes and has a fixed value of 0x8100.
• Tag Control Information (TCI): indicates the control information of an Ethernet
frame. This field is of 2 bytes.
▫ Priority: identifies the priority of an Ethernet frame. This field is of 3 bits.

The value of this field ranges from 0 to 7, providing differentiated
forwarding services.
▫ Canonical Format Indicator (CFI): indicates the bit order of address

information in an Ethernet frame. This field is used in token ring or FDDI
source-routed MAC methods and is of 1 bit.
▫ VLAN Identifier (VLAN ID): controls the forwarding of Ethernet frames

based on the VLAN configuration on a switch interface. This field is of 12
bits, with its value ranging from 0 to 4095.
• Since VLAN tags are adopted, Ethernet frames are classified as untagged frames
(without 4-byte VLAN tags) or tagged frames (with 4-byte VLAN tags).
• In this course, only the VLAN ID field is discussed.

VLAN Assignment Methods
⚫ How are VLANs assigned on a network?
SW1
VLAN
Assignment VLAN 10 VLAN 20
Method
Interface-based GE0/0/1, GE0/0/3 GE0/0/2, GE0/0/4
MAC address–
MAC 1, MAC 3 MAC 2, MAC 4
based
IP subnet–based 10.0.1.* 10.0.2.*
Host 1 Host 2 Host 3 Host 4 Protocol-based IP IPv6

10.0.1.1 10.0.2.1 10.0.1.2 10.0.2.2
MAC 1 MAC 2 MAC 3 MAC 4 10.0.1.* + 10.0.2.* + GE0/0/2 +
Policy-based
GE0/0/1+ MAC 1 MAC 2
• PCs send only untagged frames. After receiving such an untagged frame, a switch
that supports the VLAN technology needs to assign the frame to a specific VLAN
based on certain rules.
• Available VLAN assignment methods are as follows:
▫ Interface-based assignment: assigns VLANs based on switch interfaces.
▪ A network administrator preconfigures a port VLAN ID (PVID) for
each switch interface. When an untagged frame arrives at an
interface of a switch, the switch tags the frame with the PVID of
the interface. The frame is then transmitted in the specified VLAN.
▫ MAC address–based assignment: assigns VLANs based on the source MAC
addresses of frames.
▪ A network administrator preconfigures the mapping between MAC
addresses and VLAN IDs. After receiving an untagged frame, a
switch tags the frame with the VLAN ID mapping the source MAC
address of the frame. The frame is then transmitted in the
specified VLAN.
▫ IP subnet–based assignment: assigns VLANs based on the source IP
addresses and subnet masks of frames.
▪ A network administrator preconfigures the mapping between IP
addresses and VLAN IDs. After receiving an untagged frame, a
switch tags the frame with the VLAN ID mapping the source IP
address of the frame. The frame is then transmitted in the
specified VLAN.
▫ Protocol-based assignment: assigns VLANs based on the protocol (suite)
types and encapsulation formats of frames.
▪ A network administrator preconfigures the mapping between

protocol (suite) types and VLAN IDs. After receiving an untagged
frame, a switch tags the frame with the VLAN ID mapping the
protocol (suite) type of the frame. The frame is then transmitted in
the specified VLAN.
▫ Policy-based assignment: assigns VLANs based on a specified policy, which

means VLANs are assigned based on a combination of interfaces, MAC
addresses, and IP addresses.
▪ A network administrator preconfigures a policy. After receiving an

untagged frame that matches the policy, a switch adds a specified
VLAN tag to the frame. The frame is then transmitted in the
specified VLAN.
Interface-based VLAN Assignment
Interface-based VLAN assignment
10 • Principles
SW1 SW2
PVID 1 PVID 1 ▫ VLANs are assigned based on interfaces.
▫ A network administrator preconfigures a PVID for
PVID 10 PVID 10 PVID 20 PVID 20 each switch interface to assign each interface to the
VLAN corresponding to the PVID.
▫ After an interface receives an untagged frame, the
switch adds a tag carrying the PVID of the interface
to the frame. The frame is then transmitted in the
specified VLAN.
Host 1 Host 2 Host 3 Host 4
VLAN 10 VLAN 20 • PVID (Port VLAN ID)
▫ Default VLAN ID of an interface
The network administrator must
reconfigure VLANs when hosts move. ▫ Value range: 1–4094
• Assignment rule:
▫ VLAN IDs are configured on physical interfaces of a switch. All PC-sent

untagged frames arriving at a physical interface are assigned to the VLAN
corresponding to the PVID configured on the interface.
• Characteristics:
▫ This VLAN assignment method is simple, intuitive, and easy to implement.

Currently, it is the most widely used VLAN assignment method.
▫ When a PC is connected to another switch interface, the frames sent by

the PC may be assigned to a different VLAN.
• PVID: default VLAN ID
▫ Each switch interface must be configured with a PVID. All untagged

frames arriving at a switch interface are assigned to the VLAN
corresponding to the PVID configured on the interface.
▫ The default PVID is 1.

VLAN Interface Types
Interface type
• Access interface
An access interface is used to connect a switch to a terminal, such as a
PC or server. In general, the NICs on such terminals receive and send
only untagged frames. An access interface can be added to only one
VLAN.
• Trunk interface
A trunk interface is used to connect a switch to another switch or a
sub-interface on a device such as a router or firewall. This type of
interface allows frames that belong to multiple VLANs to pass
through and differentiates the frames using the 802.1Q tag.
• Hybrid interface
Similar to a trunk interface, a hybrid interface also allows frames that
VLAN 10 VLAN 20 VLAN 10 VLAN 20 belong to multiple VLANs to pass through and differentiates the
frames using the 802.1Q tag. You can determine whether to allow a
hybrid interface to send frames that belong to one or multiple VLANs
Access interface Trunk interface VLAN-tagged.
• The interface-based VLAN assignment method varies according to the switch

interface type.
• Access interface
▫ An access interface often connects to a terminal (such as a PC or server)

that cannot identify VLAN tags, or is used when VLANs do not need to be
differentiated.
• Trunk interface
▫ A trunk interface often connects to a switch, router, AP, or voice terminal

that can accept and send both tagged and untagged frames.
• Hybrid interface
▫ A hybrid interface can connect to a terminal (such as a PC or server) that

cannot identify VLAN tags or to a switch, router, AP, or voice terminal that
can accept and send both tagged and untagged frames.
▫ By default, hybrid interfaces are used on Huawei devices.

Contents
3. Switching Basics
 Ethernet Switching Basics
 VLAN Basics
◼ VLAN Basic Configuration
4. Routing Basics
Basic VLAN Configuration Commands
⚫ Create VLANs.
[Huawei] vlan vlan-id
 Create a VLAN and enter the VLAN view, or enter the view of an existing VLAN.
 The value of vlan-id is an integer that ranges from 1 to 4094.
[Huawei] vlan batch { vlan-id1 [ to vlan-id2 ] }
Create VLANs in a batch.

 batch: creates VLANs in a batch.
 vlan-id1: specifies the start VLAN ID.
 vlan-id2: specifies the end VLAN ID.
• The vlan command creates a VLAN and displays the VLAN view. If the VLAN to
be created exists, the VLAN view is displayed directly.
• The undo vlan command deletes a VLAN.
• By default, all interfaces belong to the default VLAN, that is, VLAN 1.
▫ Commands:
▫ vlan vlan-id
▪ vlan-id: specifies the VLAN ID. The value is an integer that ranges
from 1 to 4094.
▫ vlan batch { vlan-id1 [ to vlan-id2 ] }
▪ batch: creates VLANs in a batch.
▪ vlan-id1 to vlan-id2: specifies the IDs of VLANs to be created in a
batch.
− vlan-id1 specifies the start VLAN ID.
− vlan-id2 specifies the end VLAN ID. The value of vlan-id2
must be greater than or equal to that of vlan-id1. vlan-id1
and vlan-id2 identify a VLAN range.
▪ If to vlan-id2 is not specified, the VLAN specified by vlan-id1 is
created.
▪ The values of vlan-id1 and vlan-id2 are integers that range from 1
to 4094.
Basic Access Interface Configuration Commands
⚫ Set the interface type.
[Huawei-GigabitEthernet0/0/1] port link-type access
 In the interface view, set the link type of the interface to access.
⚫ Configure the default VLAN of the access interface.
[Huawei-GigabitEthernet0/0/1] port default vlan vlan-id
 In the interface view, configure the default VLAN of the interface and add the interface to the VLAN.
 vlan-id: specifies the default VLAN ID. The value is an integer that ranges from 1 to 4094.
Basic Trunk Interface Configuration Commands
[Huawei-GigabitEthernet0/0/1] port link-type trunk
 In the interface view, set the link type of the interface to trunk.
⚫ Add the trunk interface to specified VLANs.

[Huawei-GigabitEthernet0/0/1] port trunk allow-pass vlan { { vlan-id1 [ to vlan-id2 ] } | all }
 In the interface view, add the trunk interface to specified VLANs.
⚫ (Optional) Configure the default VLAN of the trunk interface.

[Huawei-GigabitEthernet0/0/1] port trunk pvid vlan vlan-id
 In the interface view, configure the default VLAN of the trunk interface.
• Command: port trunk allow-pass vlan { { vlan-id1 [ to vlan-id2 ] | all }
▫ vlan-id1 [ to vlan-id2 ]: specifies the VLANs to which the trunk interface is

added.
▪ vlan-id1 specifies the start VLAN ID.
▪ to vlan-id2 specifies the end VLAN ID. The value of vlan-id2 must
be greater than or equal to that of vlan-id1.
to 4094.
▫ all: adds the trunk interface to all VLANs.
• Command: port trunk pvid vlan vlan-id
▫ vlan-id: specifies the default VLAN ID of the trunk interface. The value is
an integer that ranges from 1 to 4094.
Basic Hybrid Interface Configuration Commands
[Huawei-GigabitEthernet0/0/1] port link-type hybrid
 In the interface view, set the link type of the interface to hybrid.
⚫ Add the hybrid interface to specified VLANs.
[Huawei-GigabitEthernet0/0/1] port hybrid untagged vlan { { vlan-id1 [ to vlan-id2 ] } | all }
 In the interface view, add the hybrid interface to specified VLANs. Frames that belong to these VLANs then
pass through the hybrid interface in untagged mode.
[Huawei-GigabitEthernet0/0/1] port hybrid tagged vlan { { vlan-id1 [ to vlan-id2 ] } | all }
 In the interface view, add the hybrid interface to specified VLANs. Frames that belong to these VLANs then
pass through the hybrid interface in tagged mode.
⚫ (Optional) Configure the default VLAN of the hybrid interface.
[Huawei-GigabitEthernet0/0/1] port hybrid pvid vlan vlan-id
 In the interface view, configure the default VLAN of the hybrid interface.
• Command: port hybrid untagged vlan { { vlan-id1 [ to vlan-id2 ] } | all }

▫ vlan-id1 [ to vlan-id2 ]: specifies the VLANs to which the hybrid interface
is added.
to 4094.
▫ all: adds the hybrid interface to all VLANs.
• Command: port hybrid tagged vlan { { vlan-id1 [ to vlan-id2 ] } | all }
▫ vlan-id1 [ to vlan-id2 ]: specifies the VLANs to which the hybrid interface
is added.
to 4094.
▫ all: adds the hybrid interface to all VLANs.
• Command: port hybrid pvid vlan vlan-id
▫ vlan-id: specifies the default VLAN ID of the hybrid interface. The value is
an integer that ranges from 1 to 4094.
Configuration Example: Configuring Interface-based VLAN Assignment
⚫ Networking requirements
 There are many users connected to an enterprise's switches. Currently, users of the same service access the enterprise network
through different switches. To ensure communication security, the enterprise requires that users with the same service can directly
communicate only with each other.
 To meet this requirement, configure interface-based VLAN assignment on the switches and add interfaces connecting users with
the same service to the same VLAN. In this way, users in the same VLAN can directly communicate only with each other at Layer
2.
SW1 GE0/0/3 GE0/0/3 SW2

PVID 1 PVID 1
GE0/0/1 GE0/0/2
GE0/0/2 GE0/0/1
PVID 10 PVID 20
PVID 20 PVID 10

VLAN 10 VLAN 20 VLAN 10 VLAN 20
Access interface Trunk interface
• Configuration roadmap:
▫ Create VLANs and add interfaces connecting users to the VLANs to isolate
Layer 2 traffic between users with different services.
▫ Configure interface types and specify allowed VLANs for interfaces on

SW1 and SW2 to allow users with the same service to communicate
through SW1 and SW2.
Creating VLANs
SW1 SW2
GE0/0/3 GE0/0/3
PVID 1 PVID 1
GE0/0/1 GE0/0/2 GE0/0/1 GE0/0/2

Create VLANs: PVID 10 PVID 20 PVID 10 PVID 20
[SW1] vlan 10
[SW1-vlan10] quit
[SW1] vlan 20
[SW1-vlan20] quit Host 1 Host 2 Host 3 Host 4
[SW2] vlan batch 10 20
Access interface
Trunk interface
Configuring Access and Trunk Interfaces
Configure access interfaces and add the interfaces to
corresponding VLANs.
[SW1] interface GigabitEthernet 0/0/1
SW1 SW2
[SW1-GigabitEthernet0/0/1] port link-type access GE0/0/3 GE0/0/3
PVID 1 PVID 1
[SW1-GigabitEthernet0/0/1] port default vlan 10
GE0/0/1 GE0/0/2 GE0/0/1 GE0/0/2
[SW1] interface GigabitEthernet 0/0/2 PVID 10 PVID 20 PVID 10 PVID 20
[SW1-GigabitEthernet0/0/2] port link-type access
[SW1] vlan 20
[SW1-vlan20] port GigabitEthernet0/0/2
[SW1-vlan20] quit
Configure a trunk interface and configure

allowed VLANs for the interface.
[SW1] interface GigabitEthernet 0/0/3
[SW1-GigabitEthernet0/0/3] port link-type trunk
[SW1-GigabitEthernet0/0/3] port trunk pvid vlan 1 Access interface
[SW1-GigabitEthernet0/0/3] port trunk allow-pass vlan 10 20 Trunk interface
Note: The configuration on SW2 is similar to that on SW1.
Verifying the Configuration
[SW1]display vlan SW1 SW2

GE0/0/3 GE0/0/3
The total number of vlans is: 3 PVID 1 PVID 1
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
U: Up; D: Down; TG: Tagged; UT: GE0/0/1 GE0/0/2 GE0/0/1 GE0/0/2
PVID 10 PVID 20 PVID 10 PVID 20
Untagged;
MP: Vlan-mapping; ST: Vlan-stacking;
#: ProtocolTransparent-vlan; *: Management-vlan;
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
VID Type Ports
------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Host 1 Host 2 Host 3 Host 4
1 common UT:GE0/0/3(U) ... VLAN 10 VLAN 20 VLAN 10 VLAN 20
10 common UT:GE0/0/1(U)
TG:GE0/0/3(U)
20 common UT:GE0/0/2(U)
Access interface
TG:GE0/0/3(U)
Trunk interface
• The display vlan command displays information about VLANs.
• Description of the command output:
▫ Tagged/Untagged Port: interfaces that are manually added to a VLAN in

tagged or untagged mode.
▫ VID or VLAN ID: VLAN ID.
▫ Type or VLAN Type: VLAN type. The value common indicates a common
VLAN.
▫ Ports: interfaces added to a VLAN.

Contents
3. Switching Basics
4. Routing Basics
◼ Basic Routing Principles
 Static and Default Routes
Routes
⚫ Routes are the path information that is used to guide packet forwarding.
⚫ A routing device is one that forwards packets to a destination network segment based on routes. The most
common routing device is a router.
⚫ A routing device maintains an IP routing table that stores routing information.
Route-based packet forwarding path
Router R4
Data R1 R2 R3
N M
Gateway Gateway
Destination-based forwarding
• A gateway and an intermediate node (a router) select a proper path according to

the destination address of a received IP packet, and forward the packet to the
next router. The last-hop router on the path performs Layer 2 addressing and
forwards the packet to the destination host. This process is called route-based
forwarding.
• The intermediate node selects the best path from its IP routing table to forward
packets.
• A routing entry contains a specific outbound interface and next hop, which are
used to forward IP packets to the corresponding next-hop device.
Routing Information
⚫ A route contains the following information:
 Destination network: identifies a destination 1.1.1.2
10.1.1.0/24
network segment.
 Mask: identifies a network segment together with a GE0/0/0
1.1.1.3
destination IP address.
 Outbound interface: indicates the interface through
which a data packet is sent out of the local router.
IP routing table
 Next hop: indicates the next-hop address used by Destination/Mask Outbound Interface Next Hop
the router to forward the data packet to the 10.1.1.0/24 GE0/0/0 1.1.1.2
destination network segment.
⚫ The information identifies the destination
network segment and specifies the path for
forwarding data packets.
• Based on the information contained in a route, a router can forward IP packets to

the destination network segment along the corresponding path.
• The destination address and mask identify the destination address of an IP packet.
After an IP packet matches a specific route, the router determines the forwarding
path according to the outbound interface and next hop of the route.
• The next-hop device for forwarding the IP packet cannot be determined based
only on the outbound interface. Therefore, the next-hop device address must be
specified.
Routing Table
• A router discovers routes using Destination/ Outbound
Next Hop
multiple methods. Mask Interface
14.0.0.0/8
11.0.0.0/8 2.2.2.2 GE0/0
• A router selects the optimal route and R4
13.0.0.0/8 3.3.3.2 GE0/1
installs it in its IP routing table. 1.1.1.2/30
14.0.0.0/8 1.1.1.2 GE0/2
• A router forwards IP packets based on ...
GE0/2
routes in the IP routing table. 1.1.1.1/30 1.1.1.0/30 1.1.1.1 GE0/2
• Routers manage path information by GE0/0 GE0/1 1.1.1.1/32 127.0.0.1 GE0/2

2.2.2.1/30 3.3.3.1/30
managing their IP routing tables. R2
2.2.2.2/30 3.3.3.2/30
R1 R3
11.0.0.0/8 13.0.0.0/8
• A router forwards packets based on its IP routing table.
• An IP routing table contains many routing entries.
• An IP routing table contains only optimal routes.
• A router manages routing information by managing the routing entries in its IP

routing table.
Checking the IP Routing Table
<Huawei> display ip routing-table

Route Flags: R - relay, D - download to fib
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Routing Tables: Public
Destinations: 6 Routes: 6
Destination/Mask Proto Pre Cost Flags NextHop Interface
1.1.1.1/32 Static 60 0 D 0.0.0.0 NULL0

2.2.2.2/32 Static 60 0 D 100.0.0.2 Vlanif100
100.0.0.0/24 Direct 0 0 D 100.0.0.1 Vlanif100
100.0.0.1/32 Direct 0 0 D 127.0.0.1 Vlanif100
127.0.0.0/8 Direct 0 0 D 127.0.0.1 InLoopBack0
127.0.0.1/32 Direct 0 0 D 127.0.0.1 InLoopBack0
Destination Protocol Flag Next-hop IP Outbound

network type address interface
address/Mask Route Cost
preference (metric)
• Destination/Mask: indicates the destination network address and mask of a

specific route. The network segment address of a destination host or router is
obtained through the AND operation on the destination address and mask. For
example, if the destination address is 1.1.1.1 and the mask is 255.255.255.0, the
IP address of the network segment to which the host or router belongs is 1.1.1.0.
• Proto (Protocol): indicates the protocol type of the route, that is, the protocol
through which a router learns the route.
• Pre (Preference): indicates the routing protocol preference of the route. There
may be multiple routes to the same destination, which have different next hops
and outbound interfaces. These routes may be discovered by different routing
protocols or manually configured. A router selects the route with the highest
preference (with the lowest preference value) as the optimal route.
• Cost: indicates the cost of the route. When multiple routes to the same
destination have the same preference, the route with the lowest cost is selected
as the optimal route.
• NextHop: indicates the local router's next-hop address of the route to the
destination network. This field specifies the next-hop device to which packets are
forwarded.
• Interface: indicates the outbound interface of the route. This field specifies the
local interface through which the local router forwards packets.
Route-based Forwarding Process
Destination/Mask Next Hop Outbound Interface
20.0.1.0/24 20.0.1.2 GE0/0
Destination
IP address: 30.0.1.0/24 30.0.1.1 GE0/1
40.0.1.2 10.0.1.0/24 20.0.1.1 GE0/0
40.0.1.0/24 30.0.1.2 GE0/1
R2's IP routing table

Data
Gateway Gateway
GE0/1 GE0/0 20.0.1.0/24 GE0/0 GE0/1 GE0/0 GE0/1 40.0.1.0/24
10.0.1.0/24 30.0.1.0/24
10.0.1.1 20.0.1.1 20.0.1.2 30.0.1.1 30.0.1.2 40.0.1.1
R1 R2 R3
R1's IP routing table R3's IP routing table
Destination/Mask Next Hop Outbound Interface Destination/Mask Next Hop Outbound Interface
10.0.1.0/24 10.0.1.1 GE0/1 40.0.1.0/24 40.0.1.1 GE0/1
20.0.1.0/24 20.0.1.1 GE0/0 30.0.1.0/24 30.0.1.2 GE0/0
30.0.1.0/24 20.0.1.2 GE0/0 10.0.1.0/24 30.0.1.1 GE0/0
40.0.1.0/24 20.0.1.2 GE0/0 20.0.1.0/24 30.0.1.1 GE0/0
• The IP packets from 10.0.1.0/24 need to reach 40.0.1.0/24. These packets arrive at
the gateway R1, which then searches its IP routing table for the next hop and
outbound interface and forwards the packets to R2. After the packets reach R2,
R2 forwards the packets to R3 by searching its IP routing table. After receiving
the packets, R3 searches its IP routing table, finding that the destination IP
address of the packets belongs to the network segment where a local interface
resides. Therefore, R3 directly forwards the packets to the destination network
segment 40.0.1.0/24.
Contents
3. Switching Basics
4. Routing Basics
 Basic Routing Principles
◼ Static and Default Routes
Introduction to Static Routes
• Static routes are manually configured by network Static route
administrators, have low system requirements, and
apply to simple, stable, and small networks.
• However, static routes cannot automatically adapt Destined for

20.1.1.0/24 GE0/0/0 GE0/0/1
to network topology changes and so require manual 10.0.0.2/24 20.1.1.3/24
intervention. GE0/0/0 GE0/0/1

RTA 10.0.0.1/24 RTB 20.1.1.2/24 RTC
• Packets destined for 20.1.1.0/24 do not match the
direct route in RTA's IP routing table. In this case, a
static route needs to be manually configured so that Destination
Source Next Hop
the packets sent from RTA to 20.1.1.0/24 can be Network
forwarded to the next hop 10.0.0.2. 20.1.1.0 Static 10.0.0.2
10.0.0.0 Direct 10.0.0.1
Configuration Example
GE0/0/0 S1/0/0
10.0.0.2/24 20.1.1.3/24
Configure RTA.
GE0/0/0 S1/0/0
RTA 10.0.0.1/24 RTB 20.1.1.2/24 RTC [RTA] ip route-static 20.1.1.0 255.255.255.0 10.0.0.2
Destined for Destined for Configure RTC.

20.1.1.0/24 10.1.1.0/24
[RTC] ip route-static 10.0.0.0 255.255.255.0 S1/0/0
⚫ Configure static routes on RTA and RTC for communication between 10.0.0.0/24 and 20.1.1.0/24.
⚫ Packets are forwarded hop by hop. Therefore, all the routers along the path from the source to the
destination must have routes destined for the destination.
⚫ Data communication is bidirectional. Therefore, both forward and return routes must be available.
Default Route
• Default routes are used only when packets to be forwarded do not match any routing entry in an IP
routing table.
• In an IP routing table, a default route is the route to network 0.0.0.0 (with the mask 0.0.0.0), namely,
0.0.0.0/0.
RTA needs to forward packets to a network
segment that is not directly connected to it
and forwards the packets to 10.0.0.2.
192.168.1.0/24
RTA RTB 192.168.2.0/24
GE0/0/0 GE0/0/0
10.0.0.0/24 192.168.3.0/24
10.0.0.1 .
10.0.0.2 .
192.168.254.0/24
[RTA] ip route-static 0.0.0.0 0 10.0.0.2
Application Scenarios of Default Routes
⚫ Default routes are typically used at the egress of an enterprise network. For example, you
can configure a default route on an egress device so that the device forwards IP packets
destined for any address on the Internet.
Enterprise network
RTA
1.2.3.0/24 Internet
GE0/0/1 GE0/0/0 1.2.3.254
PC 192.168.1.254 1.2.3.4
192.168.1.100
Gateway: 192.168.1.254
[RTA] ip route-static 0.0.0.0 0 1.2.3.254
Quiz
1. Which of the following are functions of firewalls?

A. Isolating networks of different security levels
B. Authenticating user identities
C. Implementing NAT
D. Performing route calculation
2. Default routes are typically used at the egress of an enterprise network. For example, you
can configure a default route on an egress device so that the device forwards IP packets
destined for any address on the Internet.
A. True
B. False
• Answers:
▫ ABCD
▫ A
Summary
⚫ In this course, we have learned the composition of IP addresses, subnetting,

basic principles of network communication, and basic operations and
application scenarios of common network protocols. In the following course,
we will learn operating system basics. Stay tuned.
Recommendations
⚫ Huawei Learning
⚫ Huawei Support Knowledge Base
intelligent world.


Operating System Basics
Foreword
⚫ The operating system (OS) plays an important role in the interaction

between the user and the computer. But what exactly is an OS? What are
the types of OSs? What are the basic commands of the Linux system? This
course explores these questions, and more, to help you better understand
OSs.
Objectives

 Understand the definition and composition of the operating system.
 Familiarize yourself with the classification of operating systems.
 Master the basic operations of the Linux operating system.
Contents
1. Operating System Basics

◼ Definition
 Components of an OS
 Different Types of OSs
2. Linux Basics
Operating System Definition and Functions
⚫ An operating system (OS) is a computer program (system software) that
manages and controls computer hardware and software resources.
User Core functions:

⚫ System call interface
Application ⚫ Process management
software
⚫ Memory management
Operating ⚫ File system

system management
⚫ Driver management
Hardware
• An operating system is a special computer program that controls the computer,

connects the computer and the user, and coordinates and manages hardware
resources, including the CPU, drive, memory, and printer. These resources are
required for running programs.
• Mainstream OSs:
▫ From the perspective of application field, OSs are classified into the
following types:
▪ Desktop OS, server OS, host OS, and embedded OS.
▫ Based on whether an OS is open source, it is classified as:
▪ Open source OS (Linux and Unix) or close source OS (Windows and

Mac OS).
Contents

 Definition
◼ Components of an OS
 Different Types of OSs
2. Linux Basics
Components of an Operating System
⚫ From the perspective of users, an OS consists of a kernel and various applications, that is, the kernel space and user space.
⚫ The user space is where upper-layer applications run.
⚫ The kernel is essentially a software program used to manage computer hardware resources and provide a system call interface to
run upper-layer application programs.
Applications
and shells
Function
libraries
System Calls
Kernel
• System calls: The execution of applications depends on resources provided by the

kernel, including the CPU, storage, and I/O resources. To enable upper-layer
applications to access these resources, the kernel must provide an access
interface, that is, the system call interface.
• Library functions: System calls are encapsulated as library functions to provide

simple service logic interfaces to users. Simple access to system resources can be
completed using system calls. Library functions allow for complex access to
system resources.
• Shell: A shell is a special application program, which is also called the command
line interface. It is a command interpreter in essence. It can execute texts (scripts)
that comply with the shell syntax. Some shell script statements encapsulate
system calls for convenient use.
• The kernel controls hardware resources, manages OS resources, and provides a
system call interface for applications.
▫ Process scheduling and management: The kernel creates and destroys
processes and handles their input and output.
▫ Memory management: The kernel creates a virtual address space for all
processes based on limited available resources.
▫ File system management: Linux is based on the concept of file system to a
large extent. Almost anything in Linux can be seen as a file. The kernel
builds a structured file system on top of unstructured hardware.
▫ Device driver management: Drivers of all peripherals in the system, such as
hard drives, keyboards, and tape drives, are embedded in the kernel.
▫ Network resource management: All routing and address resolution
operations are performed in the kernel.
• Summary: User-mode applications can access kernel-mode resources using the
following:
▫ System calls
▫ Shell scripts
▫ Library functions
Contents

 Definition
 Components of an OS
◼ Different Types of OSs
2. Linux Basics
Common Server OSs
A multi-user and multi-process OS. It supports large-scale file Common Unix OSs:
HP-UX, IBM AIX, Solaris,
UNIX system services and data service applications, provides powerful and A/UX.
functions, and ensures high stability and security.
Linux is a general term for Unix-like OSs. Linux runs with high Common Linux OSs:
GNU/ SUSE Linux, Kylin, Red Flag
Linux security and stability and has a complete permission control Linux, CentOS, RHEL, and
openEuler.
mechanism.
Windows Server is a server OS released by Microsoft. It is mainly Common Windows

Server versions:
Windows used on servers and provides a user-friendly GUI. 2000, 2003, 2008, 2012,
2016, and 2019.
• Relationship between Linux and Unix:
▫ Linux is a Unix-like OS with optimized functions and user experience. Linux

mimics Unix in terms of appearance and interaction.
▫ The Linux kernel was initially written by Linus Torvalds for a hobby when
he was studying at the University of Helsinki. Frustrated by MINIX, a Unix-
like OS for educational purposes, he decided to develop his own OS. The
first version was released in September 1991 with only 10,000 lines of code.
▫ Unix systems are usually compatible only with specific hardware. This
means that most Unix systems such as AIX and HP-UX cannot be installed
on x86 servers or PCs. On the contrary, Linux can run on various hardware
platforms.
▫ Unix is commercial software, while Linux is open source and free of charge.
• The GNU Project:
▫ The GNU Project was publicly announced on September 27, 1983 by

Richard Stallman, aiming at building an OS composed wholly of free
software.
▫ GNU is a recursive acronym for "GNU's Not Unix". Linux provides a kernel,
and GNU provides a large amount of free software to enrich the various
applications run on the kernel.
Contents
2. Linux Basics
◼ Introduction to Linux
 Introduction to openEuler
 Introduction to File Systems on openEuler
 Basic openEuler Operations
Features of Linux
⚫ Multi-platform design
 Linux can run on multiple hardware platforms. The Linux kernel is also used in embedded systems
that run on devices such as handheld computers and set-top boxes.
⚫ Multi-user and multitasking
 System resources can be used by different users. Multiple programs can run simultaneously and
independently.
⚫ Free to use
 The source code of Linux is available for free. Users can edit and modify the source code as required.
⚫ Fully compatible with the POSIX.1 standard
⚫ Inherits the design concept of Unix
 Everything is a file.
• The Portable Operating System Interface (POSIX) is a family of standards

specified by IEEE. POSIX defines the application programming interfaces (APIs) of
software runs on Unix. The family of POSIX standards is formally designated as
IEEE 1003 and the ISO/IEC standard number is ISO/IEC 9945. The name of POSIX
consists of the abbreviation of Portable Operating System Interface and an X that
indicates the inheritance of Unix APIs.
• Linux is a popular multitasking and multi-user OS with the following features:
▫ Multitasking: Linux is a multitasking operating system that allows multiple
tasks to run at the same time. DOS is a single-task OS and cannot run
multiple tasks at the same time. When the system executes multiple tasks,
the CPU executes only one task at a time. Linux divides the CPU time into
time slices and allocates them to multiple processes. The CPU runs so
quickly that all programs (processes) seem to be running at the same time
from the user's perspective.
▫ Multi-user: Linux is a multi-user OS that allows multiple users to use it at
the same time. In Linux, each user runs their own or public programs as if
they had a separate machine. DOS is a single-user OS and allows only one
user to use it at a time.
▫ Pipeline: Linux allows the output of a program to be used as the input of
the next program. Multiple programs are chained together as a pipeline. By
combining simple tasks, you can complete complex tasks, improving the
operation convenience. Later versions of DOS learned from Linux and
implemented this mechanism.
▫ Powerful shells: Shells are the command interpreters of Linux. Linux
provides multiple powerful shells, each of which is an interpreted high-level
language. Users can create numerous commands through programming.
Linux File Directory Structure
⚫ Linux OS adopts "Everything is a file" design.
⚫ Linux directories are organized in a tree structure, where / indicates the root directory.
[root@localhost ~]# ls /
bin dev home lib64 media opt root sbin sys usr
Root directory /
boot etc lib lost+found mnt proc run srv tmp var
/bin /dev /lib /media /opt

Directory for all Device file System library Removable media Directory for
user program directory directory device directory storing application
binary files software
/boot /etc /lib64 /mnt

Directory for Configuration 64-bit system Mount
boot loader files file directory library directory
directory
• The core philosophy of Linux is "everything is a file", which means that all files,
including directories, character devices, block devices, sockets, printers, processes,
threads, and pipes, can be operated, read, and written by using functions such as
fopen(), fclose(), fwrite(), and fread().
• After logging in to the system, enter the ls / command in the current command
window. The command output similar to the figure is displayed. The directories
are described as follows:
▫ /bin: short for binary. This directory stores the frequently used commands.
▫ /boot: stores some core files used for booting the Linux OS, including some
links and images.
▫ /dev: short for device. This directory stores peripheral device files of Linux.
The method of accessing devices on Linux is the same as that of accessing
files.
▫ /etc: stores all configuration files and subdirectories required for system
management.
▫ /lib: stores basic shared libraries of the system. A library functions similarly
to a dynamic link library (DLL) file on Windows. Almost all applications
need to use these shared libraries.
▫ /mnt: temporary mount point for other file systems. You can mount the
CD-ROM drive to /mnt and then go to this directory to view the contents in
the CD-ROM.
▫ /opt: stores additional software installed on the host. For example, if you
install an Oracle database, you can save the installation package to this
directory. By default, this directory is empty.
Contents
2. Linux Basics
 Introduction to Linux
◼ Introduction to openEuler
Background of openEuler
⚫ EulerOS is a server OS that runs on the Linux kernel and supports processors of multiple
architectures, such as x86 and ARM. It is ideal for database, big data, cloud computing, and
artificial intelligence (AI) scenarios.
⚫ Over the past decade, EulerOS has interconnected with various Huawei products and
solutions. It is respected for its security, stability, and efficiency.
⚫ Cloud computing, in addition to Kunpeng processors, has sparked the growth of EulerOS to
become the most powerful software infrastructure in the Kunpeng ecosystem.
⚫ To develop the Kunpeng ecosystem and build prosperity of the computing industry in China
and around the world, the open source version of EulerOS was officially released as
openEuler at the end of 2019.
Introduction to openEuler
⚫ openEuler is a free open source Linux distribution that supports multiple processor
architectures including x86, ARM, and RISC-V.
⚫ All developers, enterprises, and business organizations can simply use the openEuler
community version, or use it to build, develop, and release their own OS versions.
https://openeuler.org/
https://gitee.com/openeuler
Relationship Between openEuler and Mainstream OSs
Linux
Kernel
Community edition
Fedora • The upstream community
Red Hat Commercial edition Free edition of openEuler, SUSE,
RHEL CentOS Debian, and Red Hat is
the kernel community
www.kernel.org.
Debian Ubuntu • The openEuler
community releases free
long-term support (LTS)
Commercial edition versions, enabling
SLES
SUSE operating system vendors
Free edition
openSUSE (OSVs) such as Kylinsoft,
iSoft, Sinosoft, and
Kylin V10 GreatDB to develop
Community edition
openEuler openEuler Commercial
iSoft V5.1 commercial releases.
releases
EulixOS 1.0
Contents
2. Linux Basics
◼ Introduction to File Systems on openEuler
File System Overview
⚫ A file system is a method and a data structure used by an OS to identify files on a storage
device or a partition, that is, a method of organizing files on a storage device.
⚫ In an OS, a software structure that manages and stores file data is referred to as a file
management system, or file system for short.
User-friendly interfaces File system APIs
Disk management software, Software stack for object

similar to middleware control and management File system
Underlying storage
hardware, such as drives and Objects and properties
partitions
• Function: The file system organizes and allocates the space on file storage
devices, stores files, and protects and retrieves the stored files. Specifically, it is
responsible for creating files for users, saving, reading, modifying, and dumping
files, controlling access to files, and canceling a file that is no longer in use.
Functions of a file system include: manages and schedules storage space of a file,
and provides the logical structure, physical structure, and storage method of the
file; maps file identifiers to actual addresses, controls and accesses files, shares
file information, provides reliable file confidentiality and protection measures,
and provides file security measures.
File Systems on openEuler
⚫ The openEuler kernel is derived from Linux. The Linux kernel supports more than 10 types of
file systems, such as Btrfs, JFS, ReiserFS, ext, ext2, ext3, ext4, ISO 9660, XFS, Minix, MSDOS,
UMSDOS, VFAT, NTFS, HPFS, SMB, SysV and PROC. The following table describes the
common file systems.
⚫ The default file system on openEuler is ext4.
Common File System Description
Ext File system specially designed for Linux. The latest version is ext4.
A high-performance log file system developed for the IRIX OS by Silicon Graphics
XFS in 1993. Later ported to the Linux kernel, it excels in large-file processing and
provides smooth data transfer.
On Linux, VFAT is the name of the FAT (including FAT16 and FAT32) file systems
VFAT
in DOS and Windows.
The standard file system for optical disc media. Linux supports this file system,
ISO 9600
allowing the system to read CD-ROMs and ISO image files, and burn CD-ROMs.
Contents
2. Linux Basics
◼ Basic openEuler Operations
Contents
Basic openEuler Operations

◼ Basic Knowledge of Linux Commands
 Basic openEuler Commands
 Text Processing on openEuler
 Network Management on openEuler
Linux GUI and CLI
⚫ A graphical user interface (GUI) presents all elements as graphical. The mouse is used as the
main input tool, and buttons, menus, and dialog boxes are used for interaction, focusing on
ease of use.
⚫ All elements on a command line interface (CLI) are character-based. The keyboard is used as
the input tool to enter commands, options, and parameters for executing programs,
achieving high efficiency.
• Example:
▫ Start the calculator on the Windows GUI. Choose Start > Programs >
Windows Accessories > Calculator. In the calculator, click buttons to enter
an expression. Similarly, a small keyboard is displayed when a certain
program requires you to enter a password, asking you to click the numbers.
This method is very user-friendly, and the calculator looks similar to the
input device used at bank ATMs all around the world. The difference here is
that you click it using a mouse, rather than using your own hands.
▫ In the Linux CLI, enter bc to start the calculator. Enter the calculation 1 + 1
and press Enter. Result 2 is obtained.
Why We Use CLIs
⚫ Higher efficiency
 On Linux, it is faster to perform operations on a keyboard than using the mouse.
 A GUI-based operation cannot be repeated, while a CLI script can be used to complete all required
tasks, for example, deleting outdated log files.
⚫ Lower overheads compared with a GUI

 Running a GUI requires a large amount of system resources. With the CLI, system resources can be
released and allocated to other operations.
⚫ Sometimes, the only choice

 Most servers choose not to install a GUI.
 Tools for maintaining and managing network devices do not provide a GUI.
Linux CLI Shortcuts
⚫ Tab completion
 Use the Tab key to complete a command or file name, which is time-saving and accurate.
 When no command is entered, press Tab twice to list all available commands.
 If you have entered a part of the command name or file name, press Tab to complete it
automatically.
⚫ Cursor control
 ↑: Press ↑ several times to display historical commands for quick execution.
 ↓: Press ↓ together with ↑ for choosing a historical command.
 Home: Press Home to move the cursor to the beginning of the line.
 Ctrl+A: Press Ctrl+A to move the cursor to the beginning of the line.
 Ctrl+E: Press Ctrl+E to move the cursor to the end of the line.
 Ctrl+L: Press Ctrl+L to clear the screen.
Login to Linux
⚫ You can log in to Linux in either of the following ways:
 Local login
 Remote Login
◼ Using clients such as PuTTY and Xshell to remotely log in to openEuler.
• After you log in to the system as the root user, # is displayed in the command
prompt.
Changing the Password
⚫ Passwords are used to ensure the security of system and data.
⚫ To ensure system security, you should:
 Change the password upon the first login.
 Change passwords periodically.
 Set a complex password, for example, a password containing more than eight characters and at least three
types of the following characters: uppercase letters, lowercase letters, digits, and special characters.
⚫ You can run the passwd command to change the password.
[root@openEuler ~]# passwd # Change the password of the current user.

Changing password for user root.
New password: # Enter the new password.
Retype new password: # Enter the new password again.
passwd: all authentication tokens updated successfully
[root@openEuler ~]# passwd test1 # Change the password of a common user as the root user.
Changing password for user test1.
New password:
BAD PASSWORD: The password is a palindrome
Retype new password:
passwd: all authentication tokens updated successfully.
• For security purposes, openEuler does not display the password when you enter it
and does not use any placeholders to indicate the number of characters.
Types of Linux Users
⚫ On Linux, a UID is used to uniquely identify a user.
⚫ Based on different UIDs, there are three types of users in Linux (openEuler is used as an
example):
 Super user
◼ The super user is also called the super administrator. Its UID is 0. The super user has all system permissions.
It is similar to the administrator in Windows.
 System user
◼ System users, also called program users, have UIDs ranging from 1 to 999. A system user is created by a
program and is used to run the program or service.
 Common user
◼ Common users are generally created by the super administrator (the root user) to perform limited
management and maintenance operations on the system. UIDs of common users range from 1000 to 60000.
Creating and Deleting a Linux User
⚫ Creating a user (common user by default): useradd username
⚫ Viewing user information: id username
⚫ Switching users: su - username
⚫ Deleting a user: userdel username
[root@openEuler ~]# useradd user01 # Create user user01.

[root@openEuler ~]# id user01 # View information about user01 as the root user.
uid=1001(user01) gid=1001(user01) groups=1001(user01)
[root@openEuler ~]# su - user01 # Switch to the user01 user. The command prompt changes to $.
[user01@openEuler ~]$ id # Use the id command to view information about the current user
by default.
uid=1001(user01) gid=1001(user01) groups=1001(user01)
[user01@openEuler ~]$ exit # Log out of the current user.
logout
[root@openEuler ~]# userdel user01 # Delete user user01.
Contents

 Basic Knowledge of Linux Commands
◼ Basic openEuler Commands
Power Supply Commands: shutdown and reboot
⚫ shutdown is used to shut down the computer, which requires root permissions.
 Main options:
◼ -h: powers off the computer after it is shut down.
◼ -r: powers on the computer after it is shut down. (This operation is equivalent to restarting the computer.)
◼ -p: explicitly indicates that the system will be shut down and the main power supply will be cut off.
⚫ reboot is used to restart the computer, which requires system administrator permissions.
 Main options:
◼ -w: writes records to the /var/log/wtmp file. It does not restart the system.
◼ -d: does not write records to the /var/log/wtmp file.
◼ -i: restarts the system with network settings disabled.
• The shutdown command can safely shut down the system. It is dangerous to
shut down the Linux system by directly powering off the system.
• Different from Windows, Linux runs many processes in the background. Therefore,
forcible shutdown may cause loss of process data, making the system unstable
and even damaging hardware in some systems.
• If you run the shutdown command to shut down the system, the system notifies
all users who have logged in that the system will be shut down and the login
command will be frozen, prohibiting new user logins.
File Paths
⚫ Absolute path: a path starting from the root directory (/), for example, /root/Desktop.
⚫ Relative path: a path starting from the current path, for example, ./Desktop.
⚫ ./ or . indicates the current path. ../ or .. indicates the upper-level directory of the current path.
⚫ pwd: Viewing the current path.
⚫ cd: Switching paths.
[root@localhost ~]# pwd # View the current path.

/root
[root@localhost ~]# cd /root/Desktop # Go to the Desktop directory using the absolute path.
[root@localhost Desktop]# cd # Run the cd command without a parameter to go to the home directory
of the current user by default.
[root@localhost ~]#
[root@localhost ~]# cd ./Desktop # Go to the Desktop directory using a relative path.
[root@localhost Desktop]# pwd
/root/Desktop
[root@localhost Desktop]# cd ~ # Switch to the home directory of the user. ~ indicates the home
directory of the current user.
[root@localhost ~]# pwd
/root
• The cd command is used to change the current working directory.
• Syntax: cd [directory]
▫ cd /usr: goes to the /usr directory.
▫ cd ..: goes to the upper-level directory. Double dot indicates the upper-level
directory.
▫ cd.: goes to the current directory.
▫ cd: goes to the home directory by default if no parameter is added.
▫ cd -: goes to the previous directory. This command is used to quickly switch

between two directories.
▫ cd ~: goes to the home directory.

Viewing Files
⚫ ls: Viewing the content of a directory.
[root@localhost ~]# ls –a # List all files and directories.
ifcfg-lo ifdown-eth ifdown-isdn ifdown-routes
[root@localhost ~]# ls –l # Display detailed information about types, permissions,
owners, and sizes of the files.
total 228
-rw-r----- 1 root root 86 Jun 15 19:03 ifcfg-eth0
-rw-r----- 1 root root 254 Jun 15 19:03 ifcfg-lo
⚫ cat, tail, or head: Viewing the content of a common file.

[root@localhost ~]# cat ifcfg-eth0 # View all contents of the file.
DEVICE="eth0"
BOOTPROTO="dhcp"
ONBOOT="yes"
TYPE="Ethernet"
PERSISTENT_DHCLIENT="yes"
[root@localhost ~]# tail -2 ifcfg-eth0 # View the last two lines of the file.
TYPE="Ethernet"
PERSISTENT_DHCLIENT="yes"
[root@localhost ~]# head -2 ifcfg-eth0 # View the first two lines of the file.
DEVICE="eth0"
BOOTPROTO="dhcp"
• The ls command is used to view contents of a directory.
▫ -a: lists all files including hidden files.
▫ -l: displays file details in long format.
▫ -R: lists files in the subdirectories recursively.
▫ -t: lists files by modification time.
• The cat command is used to view contents of a small file. This command displays
all lines in a file.
• The tail command is used to view the last 10 lines of a file by default.
▫ -n: followed by a number, for example, 5, indicating that the last five lines
of a file are viewed. You can also enter a number directly without the -n
option.
▫ -f: dynamically displays file changes. This option is commonly used for
viewing log files.
• The head command is used to view the first 10 lines of a file by default.
• The less and more commands are used to view large files page by page. Enter q
to exit. Enter a slash (/) and a keyword to search for the keyword in the file.
Creating Files
⚫ mkdir: Creating directories (folders)
 -p: cascades to create multiple directories recursively.
[root@localhost ~]# mkdir my_dir_01 # Create a my_dir_01 directory.
[root@localhost ~]# ls
anaconda-ks.cfg my_dir_01
[root@localhost ~]# mkdir -p my_dir_02/sub_dir # Create a my_dir_02 directory and its subdirectory sub_dir.
⚫ touch: Creating common files.
[root@localhost ~]# touch test01.log test02.log # Create files test01.log and test02.log.
[root@localhost ~]# ls -lt
total 0
-rw-------. 1 root root 0 Jul 29 15:06 test01.log
Copying Files
⚫ cp: Copying files or directories
 -a: copies the files of a directory while retaining the links and file attributes.
 -r: If the source file is a directory, all subdirectories and files in the directories are copied recursively
and the attributes are retained.
test01.log test02.log
[root@localhost ~]# cp /etc/passwd passwd.back # Copy the /etc/passwd file to the current directory and rename the
file to passwd.back.
[root@localhost ~]# cp -r /var/log/audit ./ # Copy the audit directory and all files in it to the current directory.
audit passwd.back test01.log test02.log
[root@localhost ~]# cp -s /etc/passwd passwd_link # Create a symbolic link passwd_link of the passwd file.
audit passwd.back passwd_link test01.log test02.log
[root@localhost ~]# ls -l
total 8
drwx------. 2 root root 4096 Jul 29 15:24 audit
-rw-------. 1 root root 2546 Jul 29 15:24 passwd.back
lrwxrwxrwx. 1 root root 11 Jul 29 15:25 passwd_link -> /etc/passwd
-rw-------. 1 root root 0 Jan 2 19:20 test01.log
[root@localhost ~]#
• The cp command is used to copy files and directories. You can copy one or more
files at a time. Exercise caution when running this command because data loss
risks are involved.
• Syntax: cp [OPTION]... SOURCE... DIRECTORY
▫ -a: copies the files of a directory while retaining the links and file attributes.
▫ -p: copies the file content, modification time, and access permissions to the
new file.
▫ -r: if the source file is a directory, all subdirectories and files in the
directories are copied recursively.
▫ -l: creates a hard link of the source file instead of copying it.
▫ -s: creates a soft link of the source file instead of copying it.
• cp f1 f2: copies file f1 and renames it to f2.
• cp f1 d1/: copies f1 to the d1 directory without renaming it.
• cp f1 f2 f3 d1/: copies multiple files to a directory.
• cp -i f1 f2: waits for the user's confirmation before overwriting f2 if f2 already
exists.
• cp -r d1 d2: copies a directory recursively if the -r option is added.
• cp -a f1 f2: if the -a option is added, the attributes of the source file are retained.
This option is used to copy block devices, character devices, and named pipes.
• By default, the cp command does not ask the user before overwriting files.
Therefore, many shells have made cp as an alias for cp -i. The -f option in the cp
command does not indicate forcible overwriting.
Moving and Renaming Files
⚫ mv: Moving or renaming a file
 The mv command is used to move a file or directory. Exercise caution when running this command
because data loss risks are involved.
 If the source file and target file are in the same directory, the mv command is used to rename the
file.
passwd_link test01.log test02.log
[root@localhost ~]# mv test02.log test03.log #Change the name of the test02.log file to test03.log
passwd_link test01.log test03.log
[root@localhost ~]# mv test01.log /root/test # Move the test01.log file to the /root/test directory.
[root@localhost ~]# mv –f test01.log test03.log # Forcibly overwrite the test03.log file with the content of
the test01.log file.
• The mv command is used to move a file or directory. Exercise caution when

running this command because data loss risks are involved.
• If the source file and target file are in the same directory, the mv command
renames the file.
• Syntax: mv [option] source_file_or_directory target_file_or_directory
▫ -b: backs up a file before overwriting it.
▫ -f: forcibly overwrites the target file without asking the user.
▫ -i: overwrites the target file after obtaining the user's consent.
▫ -u: updates the target file only when the source file is newer than the
target.
Deleting Files
⚫ rm: Deleting files or directories
 The rm command is a high-risk command. No tool can guarantee recovery of files deleted by the
rm command, which does not move a file to a recycle bin like in GUIs. Therefore, you cannot undo
the deletion.
audit_back passwd.back test01.log test03.log
[root@localhost ~]# rm test01.log # Delete the test01.log file with a prompt
before deletion.
rm: remove regular empty file 'test01.log'? yes
[root@localhost ~]# rm -rf test03.log # Forcibly delete the test03.log file.
[root@localhost ~]# rm -rf audit_back/ # Delete the mail.bak directory, including all
files and subdirectories in it.
passwd.back
[root@localhost ~]#
Obtaining Help Information About a Command
⚫ help: Obtaining simple help information about a command.
 To navigate the massive number of commands on Linux, you can run the help command to obtain
help information.
 Syntax: [command] --help or help [command].

[root@localhost ~]# help pwd
pwd: pwd [-LP]
Print the name of the current working directory.
Options:
-L print the value of $PWD if it names the current working directory
-P print the physical directory, without any symbolic links
By default, `pwd' behaves as if `-L' were specified.
Exit Status:
Returns 0 unless an invalid option is given or the current directory cannot be read.
[root@localhost ~]# systemctl --help
systemctl [OPTIONS...] {COMMAND} ...
Query or send control commands to the systemd manager.
-h --help Show this help

--version Show package version
--system Connect to system manager
-H --host=[USER@]HOST……
Contents

◼ Text Processing on openEuler
Linux Text Editor - Vim
⚫ Vim is a customizable text editor derived from Visual Editor (vi) that inherits, improves and
adds many features to vi's original base.
⚫ Common Vim modes:
 Normal mode: used to copy, paste, and delete text, undo previous operations, and navigate the cursor.
 Insert mode: used to edit and modify text.
 Command line mode: used to save, exit, search for, or replace text. Enter a colon (:) to switch to this mode.
Normal mode
Esc Esc
: or / a, i, o, or s
Command Insert mode

line mode
• Vim is not installed on openEuler 20.03 LTS by default. You need to manually
install it.
Normal Mode of Vim
⚫ By default, Vim begins to run in normal mode after you open a file with the vim command.
vim [options] [file]... Edit specified files.
vim [options] - Read text from standard input (stdin).
vim [options] -t tag Edit the file where the tag is defined.
vim [options] -q [errorfile] Edit the file where the first error occurs.
⚫ Common options:
 -c: runs a specified command before opening a file.
 -R: opens a file in read-only mode but allows you to forcibly save the file.
 -M: opens a file in read-only mode and does not allow you to forcibly save the file.
 -r: recovers a crashed session.
 +num: starts at line num.
Common Operations in Vim Normal Mode
⚫ Cursor control
 Arrow keys or k, j, h, and l keys move the cursor up, down, left, and right, respectively.
 0: moves the cursor to the beginning of the current line.
 g0: moves the cursor to the leftmost character of the current line that is on the screen.
 :n: moves the cursor to line n.
 gg: moves the cursor to the first line of the file.
 G: moves the cursor to the last line of the file.
⚫ Data operations
 yy or Y: copies an entire line of text.
 y[n]w: copies 1 or n words.
 d[n]w: deletes (cuts) 1 or n words.
 [n] dd: deletes (cuts) 1 or n lines.
Insert Mode of Vim
⚫ Use the vim filename command to open a file and enter the normal mode by default. Type
i, I, a, A, o, or O to enter the insert mode.
⚫ If the filename file exists, the file is opened and the file content is displayed; otherwise, Vim
displays [New File] at the bottom of the screen and creates the file when saving the file for
the first time.
⚫ Press Esc to exit the insert mode and return to the normal mode.
[root@openEuler ~]# vim test.txt # Enter the normal mode by default.
~
~
"test.txt" [New File]
[root@openEuler ~]# vim test.txt # Press i, I, a, A, o, or O to enter the insert mode.
~
~
-- INSERT --
Command Line Mode of Vim
⚫ Search
 :/word or /word: searches for a word string after the cursor. Press n to continue to search forwards or press Shift+n to search
backwards.
⚫ Replace
 :1,5s/word1/word2/g: replaces all occurrences of word1 in lines 1 to 5 with word2. If g is not specified, only the first occurrence
of word1 in each line is replaced.
 %s/word1/word2/gi: replaces all occurrences of word1 with word2. i ignores the case of matches.
⚫ Save and exit

 :w: Save the file and do not exit.
 :wq: Save the file and exit.
 :q: Exit without saving the file.
 :q!: Exit forcibly without saving changes to the file.
 :wq!: Forcibly save the file and exit.
Contents

◼ Network Management on openEuler
Important Network Concepts in openEuler
⚫ Host network device: a network adapter on the host.
⚫ Interface
 Interfaces on devices are created by drivers for the system access.
⚫ Broadcast address
 An IP address used to send packets to all hosts on the network segment
⚫ Subnet mask
 A number that distinguishes the network address and the host address within an IP address
⚫ Route
 Next-hop IP address when IP packets are transmitted across network segments
⚫ Link: connection between the device and the network.
Commands for Querying IP Addresses
⚫ ip and ifconfig commands are used to view IP addresses of the current host.
⚫ Viewing information about all network adapters on a host.
[root@openEuler ~]# ifconfig –a
[root@openEuler ~]# ip addr show
⚫ Viewing information about a specified interface on a host.
[root@openEuler ~]# ifconfig enp0s3

[root@openEuler ~]# ip addr show enp0s3
• Viewing the current IP addresses and subnet masks of all interfaces: ip addr
Configuring Static IP Addresses Using Network Adapter Configuration Files
⚫ Query the path of the network adapter configuration file:
[root@openEuler ~]# ls /etc/sysconfig/network-scripts/ifcfg-*
/etc/sysconfig/network-scripts/ifcfg-enp0s3 /etc/sysconfig/network-scripts/ifcfg-enp0s8
⚫ Parameter description: Parameter Description
TYPE Interface type
BOOTPROTO Boot-time protocol
ONBOOT Whether to activate the device at boot-time
IPADDR IP address
NETMASK Subnet mask
GATEWAY Gateway address
BROADCAST Broadcast address
MAC address. Only one MAC address needs to be set. New MAC addresses
HWADDR/MACADDR
cannot share the same name as another when they are set at the same time.
Whether to specify the DNS server address. If the DHCP protocol is used, the
PEERDNS
default value is yes.
DNS{1, 2} DNS server addresses
USERCTL User permission control
NAME Network connection name
DEVICE Physical interface name
Configuring the IP Address - Configuration File Example
⚫ Set the static IP address of the enp0s3 interface to 192.168.56.100/24.
TYPE=Ethernet
BOOTPROTO=static
NAME=enp0s3
DEVICE=enp0s3
ONBOOT=yes
IPADDR=192.168.56.100
NETMASK=255.255.255.0
⚫ Restart the network.

[root@openEuler ~]# nmcli connection reload enp0s3
[root@openEuler ~]# nmcli connection up enp0s3
Connection successfully activated (D-Bus active path: /org/freedesktop/NetworkManager/ActiveConnection/12)
• Sometimes, too many configuration items increase the difficulty of network

troubleshooting.
Configuring the Static IP Address Using the nmcli Command
⚫ Check network connections of the current host.
[root@openEuler ~]# nmcli connection show
NAME UUID TYPE DEVICE
enp0s3 3c36b8c2-334b-57c7-91b6-4401f3489c69 ethernet enp0s3
enp0s8 00cb8299-feb9-55b6-a378-3fdc720e0bc6 ethernet enp0s8
⚫ Configure a static IP address.

[root@openEuler ~]# nmcli connection modify enp0s3 ipv4.method manual ipv4.addresses "10.0.2.10/24" ipv4.gateway "10.0.2.2"
⚫ Restart the network.

[root@openEuler network-scripts]# nmcli connection reload enp0s3
[root@openEuler network-scripts]# nmcli connection up enp0s3
Connection successfully activated (D-Bus active path: /org/freedesktop/NetworkManager/ActiveConnection/18)
⚫ View the IP address.
[root@openEuler ~]# ip addr show enp0s3
2: enp0s3: <BROADCAST,MULTICAST,UP,LOWER_UP> mtu 1500 qdisc fq_codel state UP group default qlen 1000
link/ether 08:00:27:7d:e1:a5 brd ff:ff:ff:ff:ff:ff
inet 10.0.2.10/24 brd 10.0.2.255 scope global noprefixroute enp0s3
valid_lft forever preferred_lft forever
• conn: indicates that an operation is to be performed on a connection.
• add: adds (a connection)
• type: type of the connection
• con-name: connection name
• <ifname>: name of the network adapter
• mod: modifies (a connection)

Introduction to Routes
⚫ To facilitate communication between two hosts in different subnets, a mechanism is required
to describe the path for traffic. This mechanism is called routing, which is set using routing
entries.
⚫ A routing entry is a pair of predefined addresses, including the destination and gateway. It
indicates a gateway through which the destination can be reached.
⚫ The routing table is a collection of routing entries.
• Detailed description of routes:

https://docs.freebsd.org/en/books/handbook/advanced-networking/#network-
routing
Route Management and Configuration
⚫ In openEuler, the route command is used to view, configure, and manage local routes.
⚫ In addition to the route command, the ip command can also be used to manage system
routes.
⚫ These commands will modify the routing table of the system. When the system is started,
the routing table is loaded to the memory and maintained by the kernel.
• The route, ip, and nmcli commands can be used to manage routes. The
following uses the route command as an example.
Viewing the Routing Table Using the route Command
⚫ Run the route command to view the routing table.
[root@openEuler ~]# route -n

Kernel IP routing table
Destination Gateway Genmask Flags Metric Ref Use Iface
0.0.0.0 192.168.110.254 0.0.0.0 UG 100 0 0 enp4s0
192.168.110.0 0.0.0.0 255.255.255.0 U 100 0 0 enp4s0
192.168.122.0 0.0.0.0 255.255.255.0 U 0 0 0 virbr0
• When the -n option is used to display routes, the values in the Destination
column are IP addresses.
• Eight fields are displayed when you run the route command to view routes. The
possible values of the Flags field include:
▫ U (up) indicates that the route is up.
▫ H (host) indicates that the gateway is a host.
▫ G (gateway) indicates that the gateway is a router.
▫ R (reinstate) indicates that the route is reinstated for dynamic routing.
▫ D (dynamically) indicates that the route is dynamically written.
▫ M (modified) indicates that the route is dynamically modified by the

routing daemon or redirect.
▫ ! indicates that the route is closed.

Adding a Route Using the route Command
⚫ Add a (temporary) route to a network segment or host.
route [-f] [-p] [Command [Destination] [mask Netmask] [Gateway] [metric Metric]] [if Interface]]
⚫ Example:
[root@openEuler ~]# route add -net 192.168.101.0 netmask 255.255.255.0 dev enp4s0
[root@openEuler ~]# route add -host 192.168.100.10 dev enp4s0
[root@openEuler ~]# route
default _gateway 0.0.0.0 UG 100 0 0 enp4s0
192.168.100.10 0.0.0.0 255.255.255.255 UH 0 0 0 enp4s0
192.168.101.0 0.0.0.0 255.255.255.0 U 0 0 0 enp4s0
192.168.110.0 0.0.0.0 255.255.255.0 U 100 0 0 enp4s0
192.168.122.0 0.0.0.0 255.255.255.0 U 0 0 0 virbr0
• You can use the route command to add routes. The added routes are stored in
the memory and become invalid after the system is restarted.
• The route add -net 192.168.101.0 netmask 255.255.255.0 dev enp3s0

command adds a route to the 192.168.101.0/24 segment through the enp3s0
device.
• The route add -host 192.168.101.100 dev enp3s0 command adds a route to the
192.168.101.100 host through the enp3s0 device.
• The output of the route command shows that routes to hosts have a higher
priority than routes to network segments.
Deleting a Route Using the route Command
⚫ Deleting a route to a network segment or host using the route del command.
⚫ Syntax:
route del [-net|-host] [netmask Nm] [gw Gw] [[dev] If]
⚫ Example:
[root@openEuler ~]# route del -host 192.168.100.10 dev enp4s0

[root@openEuler ~]# route
default _gateway 0.0.0.0 UG 100 0 0 enp4s0
192.168.101.0 0.0.0.0 255.255.255.0 U 0 0 0 enp4s0
192.168.110.0 0.0.0.0 255.255.255.0 U 100 0 0 enp4s0
192.168.122.0 0.0.0.0 255.255.255.0 U 0 0 0 virbr0
• The route del -net 192.168.101.0 netmask 255.255.255.0 dev enp3s0

command deletes the route to the 192.168.101.0/24 segment. To delete a route
to a network segment, the network segment and subnet mask parameters are
mandatory, while the device parameter is optional.
• The route del -host 192.168.101.100 dev enp3s0 command deletes the route to
the 192.168.101.100 host. The device parameter is optional.
• To delete routes in the route file, use the vi editor to edit the file and restart the
network.
Host Name
⚫ A host name identifies a device in a local area network (LAN).
⚫ The device can be a physical or virtual machine.
⚫ The host name is stored in the /etc/hostname file.
[root@openEuler ~]# cat /etc/hostname

openEuler
Setting the Host Name
⚫ Setting a temporary host name: hostname new-name
⚫ Setting a permanent host name: hostnamectl set-hostname new-name
⚫ Setting a host name by modifying the file: write new-name to the /etc/hostname file.
[root@openEuler ~]# hostname

openEuler
[root@openEuler ~]# hostname huawei
huawei
[root@openEuler ~]# hostnamectl set-hostname openEuler01
openEuler01
[root@openEuler ~]# echo "HCIA-openEuler" > /etc/hostname
• To make the setting take effect, log in again or run the source .bashrc command.
• Run the hostname command to view the host name of the current system.
Introduction to the hosts File
⚫ Hosts in a LAN can be accessed through IP addresses.
⚫ IP addresses are difficult to remember when a large number of hosts exist in the LAN.
Therefore, we want to access the hosts directly through their host names.
⚫ In this case, the hosts can be located using a table that records the mapping between host
names and IP addresses. This table is the hosts file.
[root@openEuler ~]# cat /etc/hosts
127.0.0.1 localhost localhost.localdomain localhost4 localhost4.localdomain4
::1 localhost localhost.localdomain localhost6 localhost4.localdomain6
• The hosts file is a system file without a file name extension. Its basic function is
to establish a "database" of frequently used domain names and their
corresponding IP addresses.
• When a user enters a website URL in the web browser, the system searches for
the corresponding IP address in the hosts file. Once the IP address is found, the
system opens the corresponding web page.
• If the URL is not found, the system sends the URL to the DNS server for IP
address resolution.
• Run the cat /etc/hosts command to view the hosts file.

Modifying the hosts File
⚫ You can edit the hosts file in the following format:
# Ip domain.com
192.168.10.20 www.example.com
⚫ To delete an entry, add # to comment it out. For example:
#ip domain.com
#192.168.10.20 www.example.com
Quiz
1. Which of the following statements is incorrect about file systems?
A. A file system is a method and a data structure used by an OS to identify files on a
storage device or a partition.
B. The software structure that manages and stores file data is referred to as a file
management system.
C. The file system manages and controls computer hardware and software resources.
D. The file system organizes and allocates the space on file storage devices, stores files,
and protects and retrieves the stored files.
2. Linux is a multi-user OS that allows multiple users to log in at the same time and
allows one user to log in multiple times.
A. True
B. False
• Answer:
▫ C
▫ A
Summary
⚫ This course discusses the basic components and types of OSs and basic
operations of Linux. Now, we have finished learning the basics about
computing, storage, network, and OS technologies. In cloud computing,
how can we use and manage the resources to provide services for
applications? We will address these issues in the next course about
virtualization technology.
Recommendations
⚫ Huawei Support Knowledge Base
⚫ CLI: Command Line Interface
⚫ GUI: Graphical User Interface
⚫ POSIX: Portable Operating System Interface
intelligent world.



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Server Basics

⚫ Servers are the foundation of all service platforms, including cloud

⚫ On completion of this course, you will be able to:

2. Key Server Technologies

• A server is a mainstream computing product developed in 1990s. It can provide

• A server has the following features:

▫ R: Reliability – the duration that the server operates consecutively

▫ A: Availability – percentage of normal system uptime and use time

▫ S: Scalability – including hardware expansion and operating system (OS)

▫ U: Usability – easy to maintain and restore server hardware and software

▫ M: Manageability – monitoring and alarm reporting of server running

• Server application deployment architecture:

2. Key Server Technologies

• Cloud computing era

Computing 1.0 Computing 2.0 Computing 3.0

Dedicated General-purpose Intelligent

2. Key Server Technologies

Tower server Rack server Blade server

▫ The appearance of a rack server is different from that of a computer, but is

▫ Each blade server is a plugboard equipped with processors, memory

2. Key Server Technologies

• 3D model display for a Huawei TaiShan 200 server: https://support-

Input Arithmetic Output

• Storage, an important computer component, is used to store programs and data.

Capacity (TB) 1TB/2TB/3TB 0.6TB/0.9TB 2TB/3TB/4TB 0.6TB/0.8TB/1.2TB/1.6TB

• MTBF: Mean Time Between Failures

• LSI SAS3108 RAID Controller Card User Guide:

Physical Physical Physical Physical

• Generally, RAID cannot be used as an alternative to data backup. It cannot

Hardware RAID mode 1: built- Hardware RAID mode 2: external

• Hardware RAID is implemented using a hardware RAID adapter card.

• The hardware RAID can be a built-in or external RAID.

numbers of RAID 5 XOR operations.

• Software RAID does not provide the following functions:

▫ Hot swap of drives

▫ Drive hot spare

▫ Remote array management

▫ Support for bootable arrays

▫ Array configuration on drives

▫ S.M.A.R.T. for disks

Mode Software RAID Built-in RAID External RAID

External RAID, connecting to a server

 Data protection and high speed  Provides ultra-large-capacity storage

computer network system. An NIC enables a computer to access networks.

 Link management TCP header Data Transport layer

IP header TCP header Data Network layer

• FusionServer Rack Server Product Documentation

• TaiShan 200 DA121C Server Node Maintenance and Service Guide

• E9000 Blade Server Product Documentation

⚫ The power supply subsystem includes:

• Power supply redundancy modes:

• E9000 Blade Server Product Documentation

2. Key Server Technologies

The IPMI is embedded into the

• The IPMI is an industrial specification used for peripherals in Intel-based

• The BMC provides the following functions:

▫ Device information management