Unit 1 Guided Notes Student

Name ___________________________________________
UNIT 1:
LIMITS &
CONTINUITY
NOTES
Lesson 1: The Concept of Instantaneous Rate of Change
Topic 1.1: Introducing Calculus: Can Change Occur at an Instant?
As students of life, and algebra, you have studied many rates of change for different situations: how
fast we drive, how our savings grow over time, the rate that the world population changes, our
growth rate every year, unemployment rates, and so much more. In each of these studies, we can
express one variable in terms of another, that is, as a function, 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥).
Velocity
Consider an object that travels in a straight line. The average velocity over some given time interval
can be defined as the ratio of the change in position (displacement or net change) to the elapsed
time period:
Average Velocity =
However, when we think of velocity, we usually mean instantaneous velocity, which indicates the
speed and direction of some object at a particular moment, which could be faster or slower than the
average velocity.
Can you explain why we can’t define instantaneous velocity as a ratio?
How can you estimate an instantaneous velocity?
Let’s generalize that big idea with this principle:

Average velocity over a very small time interval is very close to instantaneous velocity.
EX #1: If you climb to the top of the Tower of Pisa and drop a coin to the
ground, estimate the instantaneous velocity at 𝑡𝑡 = 0.7 seconds.
Use Galileo’s formula 𝑠𝑠 𝑡𝑡 = 16𝑡𝑡 2 to compute the average velocity,
in feet/second , over the time intervals listed in the table below.
Time Average
What is your estimate for the
Interval Velocity
Instantaneous Rate of Change
[0.7, 0.71] 22.56 (IROC) at 𝑡𝑡 = 0.7 second?
[0.7, 0.705]
[0. 7, 0.7001]
[0.7, 0.70005]
Photo: Jean Adams
[0.7, 0.700001]
© 2020 Jean Adams Flamingo Math.com 1

THE STUDY OF RATE OF CHANGE IS FUNDAMENTAL TO THE STUDY OF CALCULUS.
In our first example, we allowed the time interval to shrink to zero, so can say that the average
velocity converges to the instantaneous velocity or that the instantaneous velocity is the limit
of the average velocity.
Graphical Representation of Velocity

Average Speed (AROC) is defined by the total distance
traveled, d, divided by the elapsed time period, t.
Graphically, the average speed is the slope of the

secant line.
∆ 𝑑𝑑
Analytically, average speed AROC = ∆ 𝑡𝑡
Sketch the secant line through a and b. Estimate the a b

average velocity.
Instantaneous Speed (IROC) is the speed at a specific

instant in time, where 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑡𝑡0 is the limit of the average
rates of change.
Graphically, the instantaneous speed is the slope

of the tangent line at a specific point.
Analytically, we need calculus to determine this

instantaneous speed.
c
Sketch the tangent line through point c. Can you estimate the instantaneous velocity at 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑐𝑐?
EX #2: Spin Class Heart Rate and Exercise
Have you ever taken a Spin Class at the gym? Then you know that after the class is over, your rapid
heart rate decreases as time passes. Let 𝐻𝐻(𝑡𝑡) represent your heart rate. Write an expression for
the rate of change of your heart rate over the period from 𝑡𝑡 = 0 seconds to 𝑡𝑡 = 90 seconds, after
you have stopped exercising.

EX #3: Roller Coaster
A hypercoaster is a special circuit roller coaster with a height measuring greater than 200 feet. If
a new hypercoaster is under design to have its largest drop on the circuit modeled by the equation
below, where 𝑑𝑑(𝑡𝑡) is measured in feet, and time 𝑡𝑡, is measured in seconds.
𝑑𝑑 𝑡𝑡 = 1.87𝑡𝑡 3 − 20.64𝑡𝑡 2 + 112.79𝑡𝑡 + 132.56
A. Find the average speed (velocity) of the hypercoaster from 2 seconds to 8 seconds.
B. What is the average speed (velocity) of the hypercoaster from 4 seconds to 6 seconds?
C. Estimate the instantaneous speed (velocity) of the hypercoaster at exactly 5 seconds.
Time Interval Average Velocity
[5, 5.1]
[5, 5.01]
[5, 5.001]
D. Explain the meaning of the instantaneous speed (velocity)in the context of the question at
𝑡𝑡 = 5 seconds.

EX #4: Airport Departures
The traffic pattern of departing flights at Orlando International Airport on a fall afternoon
𝑡𝑡
can be modeled by the function V defined by 𝑉𝑉 𝑡𝑡 = 92 − 15 sin 3 where 𝑉𝑉 𝑡𝑡 is measured in
vehicles and 𝑡𝑡 is measured in minutes 0 ≤ 𝑡𝑡 ≤ 30.
A. Find 𝑉𝑉 𝑡𝑡 for 𝑡𝑡 = 18. V(t)
B. Make a sketch of the graph of time vs. number

of vehicles. Be sure your graph has a scale.
t
C. What is the average rate of change of the vehicles

at the departing flights over the time interval 15 ≤ 𝑡𝑡 ≤ 20 ?
Indicate units of measure.
D. Estimate the instantaneous rate of change of vehicles at 𝑡𝑡 = 18 by finding the average rates
from 𝑡𝑡 = 18 to 𝑡𝑡 = 18.1, 𝑡𝑡 = 18 to 𝑡𝑡 = 18.01, and 𝑡𝑡 = 18 to 𝑡𝑡 = 18.001.
Time Interval Average Velocity
[18, 18.1]
[18, 18.01]
[18, 18.001]
E. Why can’t the instantaneous rate of change of traffic in the departure lane with respect to
time be calculated using the method in part C?

Lesson 2: Understanding Limits Graphically and Numerically
Topic 1.2: Defining Limits and Using Limit Notation
Limits are the “backbone” of understanding that connect algebra and geometry to the mathematics of
calculus. In basic terms, a limit is just a statement that tells you what height a function INTENDS TO
REACH as you get close to a specific x-value. Recall from Pre-Calculus that you evaluated three types
of limits. Complete the table below:
PROPER LIMIT NOTATIONS
TYPE OF LIMIT PROPER NOTATION VERBALLY:
Right-hand limit
Left-hand limit
General limit
Let’s begin our discussion of limits by analyzing a rational function and examining the graph.
EX #1: Use the equation for 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 and the graph of the function to analyze completely.
3𝑥𝑥 2 − 8𝑥𝑥 − 3
𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) =
𝑥𝑥 2 − 9
Factor and
Simplify
Coordinates
of Hole
Domain
Range
Vertical
Asymptote
Horizontal
Asymptote

Understanding Limit Notation
Let’s revisit the notation we learned in Pre-Calculus. We 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥)

need to convert these old methods of explaining extreme
behaviors into limit notation for use in calculus.
EX #2: Use the graph to complete the table below.
Pre-Calculus Notation vs. Calculus Notation
As 𝑥𝑥 − , the graph of 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 _________ As 𝑥𝑥 , the graph of 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 _________
As 𝑥𝑥 −3 from the right, the graph As 𝑥𝑥 3 from the left, the graph
of 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) _______ of 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) _________
As 𝑥𝑥 −3 from the left, the graph of As 𝑥𝑥 3 from the right, the graph of
𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 ________ 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 _______
Can you explain what the value of a limit represents in terms of the graph?
Informally, a limit is a y-value which a function approaches as x approaches some value.

lim 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = means as x approaches c, 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) approaches the y-value of L.

Topic 1.3: Estimating Limit Values from Graphs
Consider the function shown at right.
Say you want to find lim 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 , the positive sign in the

limit notation indicates a right-hand limit. If you think
of the function as a highway and imagine you are
traveling along the graph of 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 toward 𝑥𝑥 = 4 FROM
THE RIGHT, NOT TO THE RIGHT, and you stop at the
vertical line 𝑥𝑥 = 4, the y-value where you stop is 3.
Therefore, lim 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 3.
EX #3: Use the graph above to evaluate each of the following limits:
A. 𝑓𝑓(2) B. 𝑓𝑓(−1)
C. lim 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 D. lim 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥
2
E. lim 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 F. lim 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥
2
G. lim 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 H. lim 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥
I. lim 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 J. lim 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥
K. lim 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 L. lim 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥
2
M. lim 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 N. lim 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥
0
Think about this!
If we think of the function as a highway, then the point at 2, −1 could be considered the
end of the road, while the point at −1, 2 is more like a “pothole.” How would you describe
the points located at
(2, 1) : ______________________________________________________________________________________________
(4, 3) : _______________________________________________________________________________________________
Hopefully, this analogy gives you a visual reference for understanding limits from a graphical
approach. Let’s get a little more formal with our definition now.

EX #4: Limits can fail to exist in three situations:
CASE 1: __________________________________________________________________
Justify why the limit does not exist at 𝑥𝑥 = −1 for 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 =
CASE 2: ___________________________________________________________________
Justify why the limit does not exist at 𝑥𝑥 = 0 for 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = sin
CASE 3: ___________________________________________________________________
Justify why the limit does not exist at 𝑥𝑥 = 2 for 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 =

2

Topic 1.4: Estimating Limit Values from Tables
3
EX #5: Now, consider the function 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 2
. Complete the table below to find the limit
as 𝑥𝑥 3.
2.9 2.99 2.999 3 3.001 3.01 3.1
( )
Based on your analysis, what are the values of each of the limits below?
lim 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = lim 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = lim 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 =

3 3 3
By evaluating certain types of functions at a particular value, we may not necessarily have a sufficient
understanding of the function’s behavior at a specific point. This is especially true for rational
functions that contain discontinuities.
This is why the idea of a limit is so important!

Rather than just going directly to some x-value using
direct substitution , we can approach a point from
either side to get some sense of behavior in the
neighborhood.
Look at the photo of the arch support construction for

the Hoover Dam Bypass Bridge (2009). We can tell
where the missing section is going to be. The actual
height at that point would be the limit. With limits, we
can discuss behavior at a point whether the point exists
or not. With limits, we are looking at the y-value the
graph approaches, not the actual y-value at that point. This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-SA
When finding limits, ask yourself, “What is happening to y as x gets close to a certain number?”
You are finding the y-value for which the function is approaching as x approaches c.
LIMIT EXISTENCE THEOREM:
lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) exists if and only if lim 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = lim 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 =
where L is a real number.
Verbally: The limit as x approaches c on 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) will exist if and only if the limit as x approaches c
from the left is equal to the limit as x approaches c from the right.

EX #6: YOU OWN IT! In the box below, complete the sentence in your own words.
In order for the GENERAL LIMIT to exist, the function:
EX #7: Sketch a graph to satisfy each set of conditions.
1. 𝑓𝑓( ) is undefined 1. lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) DNE
2. 𝑥𝑥 = is a point discontinuity
2. 𝑥𝑥 = is a jump discontinuity
3. lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) exists 3. 𝑓𝑓( ) is defined

Lesson 3: Properties of Limits
Topic 1.5: Determining Limits Using Algebraic Properties of Limits
There will be times when you need to consider limits of functions symbolically, such as, 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥), 𝑥𝑥 ,
and (𝑥𝑥) . When you are given combinations, compositions, and other modifications of these
nonspecific functions, there are some important properties of limits that will prove essential to these
general function types.
LIMIT PROPERTIES
Let b and c be real numbers, let n be a positive integer, and let 𝑓𝑓and be functions.
1. Constant Rule: 2. Identity Rule:

lim = lim 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑐𝑐
3. Coefficient Rule: 4. Sum or Difference Rule:

lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) lim 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 ± (𝑥𝑥) = lim 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 ± lim (𝑥𝑥)
5. Product Rule: 6. Quotient Rule:
lim 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 (𝑥𝑥) = lim 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 lim (𝑥𝑥) 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥)

lim = ; lim 𝑥𝑥 0
(𝑥𝑥) lim 𝑥𝑥
7. Power Rule: 8. Composite Function Rule:
lim 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = lim 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 , n is rational lim 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑓𝑓 lim (𝑥𝑥)
9. Root Rule:
lim 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = lim 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 if the root on the right side exists.
Being skilled at reciting these rules in English will help you truly understand them. For example, The
Sum or Difference Rule can be stated as “The limit of a sum (difference) is the sum (difference) of the
limits. Can you give a description for each property in your own words?

EX#1: Use the properties of limits to find each of the following limits. If a limit does not exist,
state why.
Graph of 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥)
A. lim 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 + (𝑥𝑥)
3
B. lim 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 − (𝑥𝑥)
Graph of (𝑥𝑥)
C. lim 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 − (𝑥𝑥)
3 ( )
D. lim ( )
E. lim 4 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 (𝑥𝑥) F. lim 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 2

3 3
G. lim 8 (𝑥𝑥) H. lim 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 + (𝑥𝑥)

3
J. lim
( )
K. lim 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥
( ) 2

EX #2: Find the limits if lim 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 3 , lim 𝑥𝑥 = −2 , and lim 𝑥𝑥 = 4
A. lim 3 𝑥𝑥 − 2 𝑥𝑥 B. lim 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 5 𝑥𝑥
C. lim 7 − 𝑥𝑥 2
D. lim
2 3 ( )
( )
E. lim 𝑥𝑥 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 + 6 F. lim
EX #3: Given lim 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 8 and lim 𝑥𝑥 = −4, then find the following:
2
lim 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 + 2 𝑥𝑥

EX #4: Find the limits of the following composition functions.
A. Given 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥 3 − 𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑥𝑥 − 1 and B. Given 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥 3 − 𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑥𝑥 − 1 and

𝑥𝑥 = − 𝑥𝑥, find lim 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 . 𝑥𝑥 = − 𝑥𝑥, find lim 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥
2
2
EX #5: Use the graphs of 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) and (𝑥𝑥) below to find the limits.
A. lim 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 B. lim 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥
3
C. lim 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 D. lim 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥
3

Lesson 4: Finding Limits by Analytic Methods
Topic 1.6: Determining Limits Using Algebraic Manipulation
If you only observe the graph of a function, it can be misleading when finding the limit of a function.
In this lesson we will explore how to find limits using algebraic techniques and limit theorems.
You will learn to analyze limits by the following methods:
Methods to Analyze Limits:
1. Direct substitution.
2. Basic Limit Theorems
3. Factor, cancellation technique. Then go back to step 1.
4. The conjugate method, rationalize the numerator. Then, go back to step 2.
5. Special trig limits of lim = 1 or lim =0

0 0
6. L’Hospital’s Rule (presented in Unit 3)
Substitution Theorem
If 𝑓𝑓 is a polynomial function or rational function, then lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑓𝑓(𝑐𝑐) provided that if
𝑓𝑓 is a rational function the value of the denominator does not equal 0.
0
NOTE: Always try DIRECT SUBSTITUTION first. If you get 0
or the goal will be to simplify the
expression using algebraic techniques and then try substitution again.
EX #1: Find each of the following limits analytically using direct substitution.
A. lim 3𝑥𝑥 2 − 𝑥𝑥 + 4 B. lim

2
2
C. lim D. lim 𝑥𝑥 + 4
3
E. lim sin F. lim log 3 𝑥𝑥 + 4

Topic 1.10: Exploring Types of Discontinuities
What is the process for finding discontinuities of a rational function from Pre-calculus?
You can perform the same algebraic analysis to find the limit of the removable, or point discontinuities
and the non-removable, or infinite discontinuities using what we will call the Factoring Method or
Cancellation Technique.
𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑥𝑥 − 6
lim
2 𝑥𝑥 2 − 𝑥𝑥 + 8
Topic 1.9: Connecting Multiple Representations of Limits
Graphically looking at the function, we see that just because it is undefined at a specific x-value doesn’t
mean that we can’t find the limit. Remember the Hoover Dam construction example. Use the graph of
the function to determine the value of each limit below.
𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑥𝑥 − 6
lim =
2 𝑥𝑥 2 − 6𝑥𝑥 + 8 _________________
𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑥𝑥 − 6
lim = _________________
𝑥𝑥 2 − 6𝑥𝑥 + 8
𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑥𝑥 − 6 Hole:
lim = _________________
𝑥𝑥 2 − 6𝑥𝑥 + 8
2, −
2
Algebraically Finding Limits of Functions at Undefined Values

Consider what happens when you try to evaluate this limit using direct substitution.

0
REMEMBER: When you get indeterminate form of 0 or your goal is to algebraically manipulate the
expression in an effort to remove the point(s) of discontinuity. Then, try direct substitution again.
Let’s explore a few techniques.
Finding One-Sided Limits

Recall, in our example there is a vertical asymptote at = .
How can we determine the behavior of a function at this value of x?
𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑥𝑥 − 6 𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑥𝑥 − 6
lim = lim =
𝑥𝑥 2 − 𝑥𝑥 + 8 𝑥𝑥 2 − 𝑥𝑥 + 8
As 𝑥𝑥 4 , pick a value to the right of 4, As 𝑥𝑥 4 , pick a value to the left of 4,

then analyze the simplified function: then analyze the simplified function:
lim 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = lim 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 =
EX #2: Finding limits analytically of piecewise functions. Show your algebraic steps.
𝑥𝑥 3 + 1, 𝑥𝑥 > 1 𝑥𝑥 2 − 𝑥𝑥 + 7, 𝑥𝑥 ≤ 2
A. lim (𝑥𝑥) given, 𝑥𝑥 = B. lim (𝑥𝑥) given, 𝑥𝑥 =
𝑥𝑥 + 1, 𝑥𝑥 ≤ 1 2 −𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑥𝑥 − 1, 𝑥𝑥 > 2

Topic 1.7: Selecting Procedures for Determining Limits
EX #3: The Factoring or Cancellation Technique
2
A. lim
20
2
B. lim 2
3
EX #4: The LCM/LCM Method for Complex Fractions
A. lim
0 B. lim
0

EX #5: The Rationalization Technique or Conjugate Method
The technique of rationalization can be used to find the limit when there is a radical in the
numerator or denominator.
2
A. The graph of 𝑥𝑥 = is shown at right.
𝑥𝑥 + 2 − 1
lim
𝑥𝑥 + 1
𝑥𝑥 − 5
B. lim
3 − 𝑥𝑥 + 4
EX #6: Find each of the following limits analytically. Show your algebraic steps.
2
A. lim 𝑥𝑥 + 1 3 B. 𝑥𝑥 + 1 − 2
3 lim
3 𝑥𝑥 − 3

𝑥𝑥 2 𝑥𝑥 + 6 𝑥𝑥 − 12
C. lim D. lim
3 4𝑥𝑥 + 12 3 𝑥𝑥 2 − 𝑥𝑥 + 9
2
E. F. 𝑥𝑥 + − 3 𝑥𝑥 + − 𝑥𝑥 2 − 𝑥𝑥
lim lim
0
0
Topic 1.8: Determining Limits Using the Squeeze Theorem

The Squeeze Theorem is a technique used to confirm the limit of a function by comparison with two
other functions whose limits are known or easily computed. Consider some function 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) is “trapped
between two functions” on an interval containing point c. Let f, g, and h be functions defined on the
interval except possibly at c itself. Then for 𝑥𝑥 𝑐𝑐, in the interval 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 ≤ 𝑥𝑥 ≤ (𝑥𝑥) and, also that
lim 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = lim 𝑥𝑥 = . Then lim 𝑥𝑥 =
EX #7: The Squeeze Theorem

A. If 1 ≤ 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 ≤ 𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑥𝑥 + 2 , find lim 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥
c
Photo: Public Domain

B. Suppose 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) and 𝑥𝑥 are boundaries of 𝐻𝐻(𝑥𝑥), as shown on the graph below.
Given 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = ln 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑥𝑥 2 and 𝑥𝑥 = , for all x in the interval containing 𝑥𝑥 = 1,
except possibly at 𝑥𝑥 = 1 itself, find lim 𝐻𝐻 𝑥𝑥 . Justify.
𝑥𝑥 =
𝑦𝑦 = 𝐻𝐻(𝑥𝑥)
𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = ln 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑥𝑥 2

Lesson 5: Limits of Transcendental Functions
If you research the definition of a transcendental function you will find this explanation on
Wolfram’s Math World:
A function which is not an algebraic function. In other words, a function which "transcends," i.e.,
cannot be expressed in terms of, algebra. Examples of transcendental functions include
the exponential function, the trigonometric functions, and the inverse functions of both.
Analyzing Limits of Exponential Functions

EX #1: Recall that exponential equations are written in the form 𝑦𝑦 = + . You will need to
find limits of exponential functions without the aid of a graph or calculator in this course.
Do you remember the rules for transformations of exponential functions? Evaluate the limits
using the graphs and look for patterns.
Exponential Growth Exponential Decay

2
3 1
A. 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = − 3 D. 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = − 3
2 2
3
1
B. 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = − +2 E. 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = − +2
2
2
C. 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = +1 F. 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 2 −2
3

EX #2: WHAT JUST HAPPENED? Did you see that? Basically, the end-behavior of any exponential
function tends toward three places.
CASE #1: CASE #2: CASE #3:
In PreCalculus, we learned the following rules without considering the behavior for negative a-values.
= +
> and > > and < <
𝑓𝑓 is increasing 𝑓𝑓 is decreasing
is exponential growth factor is exponential decay factor
Growth and decay are not synonymous with increasing and decreasing.
Consider the behavior of the function in relation to the horizontal asymptote. Notice whether the
function is moving away from or toward the horizontal asymptote.
Also, what effect does the negative coefficient on x do to the function behavior?
EX #3: Now, use the equations from example #1 to complete the table below:
Increase or
Graph of 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) Base lim 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 lim 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥
Decrease
GROWTH >1
3
𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = − 3
2
𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = − +2
2
𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = +1
3
DECAY 0< <1

2
1
𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = − 3
2
3
1
𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = − +2
2
𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 2 −2

EX #4: You got this! Find the limits of each of the following exponential functions.
A. lim − 0.3 +2 B. lim −3
C. lim −3 −3 D. lim − +1
3
E. lim 3
−1 F. lim 2
+5
2 3
Analyzing Limits of Trigonometric Functions

Most of the work you have done with limits to this point have dealt with polynomial or rational
functions. When confronted with trigonometric functions, you will find throughout the course, that
there are several methods to use. Let’s begin with the basics in this section.
Topic 1.7: Selecting Procedures for Determining Limits
EX#5: Use direct substitution to find each limit.

cos lim 3 sin2
A. lim B.
3 2
Just like some polynomial functions where a function value is not defined, yet a limit will exist…the
same will occur with trigonometric functions.
sin − 1
EX #6: Evaluate the limit by direct substitution. lim
cos2
2

A few thoughts to consider:
If you algebraically determine that a function is
undefined at a value, does that mean the limit does not
exist? Can you look at the graph? How do you analyze
the limit when no calculator or graph is permitted?
We need to use some trig identities and rewrite the
function. Try that here:
Topic 1.6: Determining Limits Using Algebraic Manipulation
EX #7: You Got This! Use your new skills to evaluate each limit below by first rewriting the function
and using identities.
lim 2 cos cot sin cos sin csc

A. B. lim C.
2 tan lim
HAVE YOU DISCOVERED A PATTERN IN ALL OF THIS YET? If you ALWAYS try direct substitution
first, three things will occur!

Later in the course you will learn a smooth technique known as L’Hospital’s Rule. It will be a quicker
method for evaluating many functions. For now, you might like to memorize these special rules, as
well.
SPECIAL TRIGONOMETRIC LIMITS

𝑠𝑠 1 − 𝑐𝑐 𝑠𝑠
lim =1 lim =0
0 0
EX #8: Use a graphing calculator and the table feature to evaluate the following trigonometric limits.
−0.1 −0.01 0 0.01 0.1

sin
A. lim
0
−0.1 −0.01 0 0.01 0.1

cos − 1
B. lim
0
−0.1 −0.01 0 0.01 0.1

sin
C. lim
0
−0.1 −0.01 0 0.01 0.1

1 − cos
D. lim
0
EX#9: Some algebraic tricks with properties.
A. 3 sin 5 B. 1 − cos + sin 3

lim lim
0 2 0
26
Topic 1.8: Determining Limits Using the Squeeze Theorem
EX #10: Evaluate the limit using the squeeze theorem.
1
lim 𝑥𝑥 2 sin
0 𝑥𝑥
A. Explain why you cannot use the Product Limit Law.
B. Consider the range of the sine function −1 ≤ sin 𝑥𝑥 ≤ 1. We can conclude that
−1 ≤ sin ≤ 1. Multiply through by 𝑥𝑥 2 to use the Squeeze Theorem.
1
EX #11: Find the limit. lim 𝑥𝑥 2 cos
0 𝑥𝑥 2
27
Lesson 6: Limits and Continuity
Now that we have an understanding of limits and using limit notation, we can use limits to define
continuity at a point. This will be a very important concept throughout our course.
Topic 1.11: Defining Continuity at a Point
EX #1: A Discovery Exploration.

Use the graph below to complete the table. You should look for three conditions that are
necessary to satisfy the definition of continuity. That is, what three conditions must exist
in order for to be continuous at a point = ?
Definition of Continuity
Find the function Find Find Find Is 𝑥𝑥

𝑥𝑥 = 𝑐𝑐 value, if it exists, left-hand limit right-hand limit general limit continuous
for given x-value (𝑥𝑥) (𝑥𝑥) (𝑥𝑥) at 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑐𝑐 ?
𝑥𝑥 = 9
𝑥𝑥 = 4
𝑥𝑥 = 3
𝑥𝑥 = 0
𝑥𝑥 = −3
𝑥𝑥 = −5
Analyze this table and write the three conditions for continuity above.
Memorize the rules!

While limits told us where a function intended to go.
Continuity guarantees that the function actually made it there.
Classifying Discontinuities
Topic 1.10: Exploring Types of Discontinuities
Non-Removable
Removable or Point
(Holes) Infinite
Jump
2-sided limit exists At least one of the 1-sided limits
1-sided limits exists
doesn’t exist
EX #2: Find the points (intervals) at which the function is continuous, and the points at which
the function is discontinuous on the interval − < < .

Definition of Continuity – More Facts and Theorems
One-Sided Continuity
A function 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) is called
 Left-continuous at 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑐𝑐 if lim 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑐𝑐)
 Right-continuous at 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑐𝑐 if lim 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑐𝑐)
Continuity at a Point
Suppose 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) is defined on an open interval containing 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑐𝑐 .
Then 𝑓𝑓 is continuous at 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑐𝑐 if
𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑐𝑐)
Continuity on an Open Interval Continuity on a Closed Interval
A function is continuous on an open interval A function is continuous on a closed interval

(a , b ) if it is continuous at each point in the [a, b ] if it is continuous on the open interval
interval. (a , b ) and the function is continuous from the
right at a and continuous from the left at b.
Continuity Laws of Some Basic Functions
 Polynomial functions (𝑥𝑥) are continuous over reals

 Rational Functions (𝑥𝑥)/ (𝑥𝑥) is continuous on its domain such that 𝑐𝑐 0.
 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 /
is continuous on all reals if n is odd and continuous on [0, ) if n is even.
 𝑦𝑦 = sin 𝑥𝑥 and 𝑦𝑦 = cos 𝑥𝑥 are continuous over reals
 𝑦𝑦 = is continuous for > 0, 1
 𝑦𝑦 = log 𝑥𝑥 is continuous for 𝑥𝑥 > 0, > 0, 1
 Inverse functions - if 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) is continuous on an interval with range R and 𝑓𝑓 (𝑥𝑥) exists,
then 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 is continuous on domain R.
Properties of Continuity
Given functions f and g continuous at 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑐𝑐 , then the following functions are also
continuous at 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑐𝑐.
1. Scalar multiple: 𝑓𝑓
2. Sum or difference: 𝑓𝑓 ±
3. Product: 𝑓𝑓
4. Quotient: ; if 𝑐𝑐 0
5. Compositions: If g is continuous at c and f is continuous at g (c ), then the composite

function is continuous at c, 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑓𝑓( 𝑥𝑥 )

EX #3: For = − , = , = , find ( ), ( ) , ( ) , and ( ) . Justify
your findings using the three-part definition of continuity.
Topic 1.12: Confirming Continuity over an Interval
You must be able to confirm continuity without a graph or a calculator by using your knowledge of
function behavior for parent functions and their transformations.
EX #4: Find the values of x where the function is discontinuous. Describe the type, infinite or
removable. Justify your answer by using the definition of continuity.
A. 1 B. 2𝑥𝑥 2 + 7𝑥𝑥 + 6
𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥 =
𝑥𝑥 − 3 𝑥𝑥 + 2

Topic 1.13: Removing Discontinuities
EX #4: Use the definition of continuity to find the value of k so that the function is continuous
for all real numbers.
A. 𝑥𝑥 2 , 𝑥𝑥 ≤ 2 B.
𝑥𝑥 − 4
𝑥𝑥 = , 𝑥𝑥 < 4
𝑥𝑥 − 6, 𝑥𝑥 > 2 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥 − 4
− 𝑥𝑥, 𝑥𝑥 4
− 𝑥𝑥 − 5 ; 𝑥𝑥 < −2
EX #5: Given 𝑥𝑥 = 3 ; 𝑥𝑥 = −2 for what values of x is (𝑥𝑥) not continuous? Justify.
3
𝑥𝑥 − 𝑥𝑥 + 3; 𝑥𝑥 > −2

EX #6: Use the three-part definition of continuity to create a system of equations. Then, find
the values of a and b so that is continuous for all real numbers.
2 𝑥𝑥 − ; 𝑥𝑥 < −1
𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 6 ; 𝑥𝑥 = −1
2
𝑥𝑥 + ; 𝑥𝑥 > −1
You know that the function value and the limit value can exist independently of each other. Let’s
summarize the big ideas of continuity on intervals, at points, and one-sided limits.
2𝑥𝑥 + 1, 𝑥𝑥 < 3
EX #7: Given 𝑥𝑥 = find each of the following.
𝑥𝑥 2 , 𝑥𝑥 3
A. lim (𝑥𝑥) B. lim (𝑥𝑥) C. (3)

3 3
D. lim (𝑥𝑥) F. Is 𝑥𝑥 continuous at 𝑥𝑥 = 3? Justify.

3
Summary:
If a function is continuous at a point, then the function value
and the limit value are the same at that point!

Lesson 7: Infinite Limits and Limits at Infinity
In our first lesson on Understanding Limits you were confronted with these two situations. Here we
begin to compare and contrast the behavior of functions as they approach infinity, as well as,
functions that tend toward infinity in certain circumstances. Let’s go…
Topic 1.14: Connecting Infinite Limits and Vertical Asymptotes
Topic 1.15: Connecting Limits at Infinity and Horizontal Asymptotes
EX #1: Use the graphs of ( ) and ( ) shown below to compare and contrast behaviors
involving infinity. Then, write your discovery and definition.
−2𝑥𝑥 2 − 𝑥𝑥 + 12
𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = lim 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = lim 𝑥𝑥 =
𝑥𝑥 2 − 𝑥𝑥 + 8
lim 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = lim 𝑥𝑥 =
Your Discovery:
An Infinite Limit is:
𝑥𝑥 2 − 2𝑥𝑥 + 5
𝑥𝑥 = lim 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = lim 𝑥𝑥 =
2𝑥𝑥 − 2
lim 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = lim 𝑥𝑥 =
Your Discovery:
A Limit at Infinity is:

In Pre-Calculus you learned some basic truths about rational functions.
1. When a factor cancelled from the denominator a ______________________________________ occurred.

2. When a factor would not cancel from the denominator a _________________________________ occurred.
EX #2: Use the previous equations to find the one-sided limits analytically.
−2𝑥𝑥 2 − 𝑥𝑥 + 12 −2𝑥𝑥 2 − 2𝑥𝑥 + 12

A. lim B. lim
𝑥𝑥 2 − 𝑥𝑥 + 8 𝑥𝑥 2 − 6𝑥𝑥 + 8
𝑥𝑥 2 − 2𝑥𝑥 + 5 𝑥𝑥 2 − 2𝑥𝑥 + 5
C. lim D. lim
2𝑥𝑥 − 2 2𝑥𝑥 − 2
Definition and Justification of Vertical Asymptotes

Case #1: Case #2:
−
𝑐𝑐 = 𝑐𝑐 =
𝑥𝑥 = 𝑐𝑐 is: 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑐𝑐 is:
IN CALCULUS, YOU MUST USE NEW LANGUAGE IN ORDER TO JUSTIFY!
LIMIT DEFINITION (JUSTIFICATION) OF

A VERTICAL ASYMPTOTE

Topic 1.13: Removing Discontinuities
EX #3: Use the function below to find any vertical asymptote(s) that exist. Justify your answer
using limits.
2𝑥𝑥 2 + 9𝑥𝑥 − 5
𝑥𝑥 = 2
𝑥𝑥 + 3𝑥𝑥 − 10
Limits at Infinity
Next, we will explore limits at infinity in order to differentiate between the two conditions. Recall the
lessons from Pre-Calculus related to analyzing the end behavior of functions. In the exercise below,
use this prior knowledge to find each limit at infinity.
EX #4: Find each limit at infinity, explain your thinking.
A. lim 𝑥𝑥 2 − 4)(𝑥𝑥 2 + 3 B. lim (5𝑥𝑥 3 − 𝑥𝑥 + 4)
C. 3𝑥𝑥 2 − 4 D.
5𝑥𝑥 − 2
lim lim
𝑥𝑥 2 + 1 𝑥𝑥 2 + 1

EX #5: There are only four possible outcomes when you explore behavior to the extreme
right or left.
A. The curve can increase without bound. B. The curve can decrease without bound.
C. The curve can become asymptotic to the D. The curve can become asymptotic to a specific
x-axis. y-value.
Calculus Knowledge for Asymptotes
Revisiting the rules for finding potential horizontal asymptotes for rational functions from
PreCalculus, you can use the idea of a limit and calculus to see why those rules hold true.
1. If degree of numerator is less than degree of denominator (bottom heavy), then limit is zero.
lim 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 0
±
2. If degree of numerator equals degree of denominator (powers equal), then limit is the ratio of
coefficients of the highest degree.
coefficient of numerator s highest power

lim 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 =
± coefficient of denominator s highest power
3. If degree of numerator is greater than degree of denominator (top heavy*), then limit does not
exist.
lim 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = ±
±

EX #6: Divide every term in the rational expression by the highest power of that appears in the
denominator. Then, apply the Properties of Limits to evaluate each “piece” to find the limit at infinity,
end behavior.
A. 2𝑥𝑥 2 − 10𝑥𝑥
lim
𝑥𝑥 2 − 8𝑥𝑥 + 15
𝑥𝑥 + 3
B. lim
𝑥𝑥 2 + 4𝑥𝑥 + 5
C. 𝑥𝑥 2 − 4𝑥𝑥 − 3
lim
𝑥𝑥 − 2

EX #7: Summarize and discuss characteristics and end behavior at horizontal asymptotes and slant
asymptotes based on your observations in EX #6.
Functions with Horizontal Asymptotes Functions with Slant Asymptotes
IN CALCULUS, YOU MUST USE NEW LANGUAGE IN ORDER TO JUSTIFY!
LIMIT DEFINITION (JUSTIFICATION) OF

A HORIZONTAL ASYMPTOTE
EX #8: CHALLENGE! Use algebraic techniques to find the

3 3
limits for 𝑥𝑥 = , whose graph is shown.
3𝑥𝑥 − 3
lim =
𝑥𝑥 2 + 4
3𝑥𝑥 − 3
lim =
𝑥𝑥 2 + 4

Lesson 8: Intermediate Value Theorem
Continuity of a function will prove to be an important characteristic in many theorems for our course.
In order for theorems to be properly applied, we need to meet the certain conditions. Namely, the “if”
part, called the hypothesis, must be satisfied before we can apply the “then” part, or conclusion
(consequence) of the theorem.
In this lesson, we will explore our first existence theorem. Existence theorems allow us to draw
conclusions about a function’s behavior on an interval without precisely locating that behavior.
Topic 1.16: Working with the Intermediate Value Theorem (IVT)
Intermediate Value Theorem
The Big Idea:

The IVT says that a continuous function on an interval cannot skip values.
Using If/Then statements:

If a function 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) is continuous on a closed interval [ , ] and 𝑓𝑓 𝑓𝑓( ), Then 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥)
takes on every value between 𝑓𝑓( ) and 𝑓𝑓 on that interval.
Another Approach:
Said in a different fashion, if we know a y-value, say 𝑦𝑦 = , that resides between the two
endpoints, 𝑓𝑓( ) and 𝑓𝑓( ), then we are guaranteed at least one x- value, 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑐𝑐 , between the
endpoints that generates that y-value, such that 𝑓𝑓 𝑐𝑐 = .
EX #1: Graphical representation of the Intermediate Value Theorem and its corollary:
An important outcome of I.V.T. is that it can

A continuous function on an interval
be helpful in finding zeros of a continuous
cannot skip values.
function on an interval.

EX #2: Does the Intermediate Value Theorem apply on the specified intervals for the piecewise
functions shown below? Be sure to explain completely.
A. Is there a value of 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑐𝑐 on the interval [−2, 5] such that

𝑓𝑓 𝑐𝑐 = 1 ?
= ( )
B. Does I.V.T. guarantee a value of 𝑐𝑐 on the interval [−2, 5]

such that 𝑓𝑓 𝑐𝑐 = 1? Justify.
C. Is there a value of 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑐𝑐 on the interval [1, 6] such that

𝑐𝑐 = 3 ?
= ( )
D. Does I.V.T. guarantee a value of 𝑐𝑐 on the interval [1, 6]

such that 𝑐𝑐 = 3? Justify.
What three conditions are necessary to apply the

Intermediate Value Theorem?
1.
2.
3.

EX #3: Apply the IVT, if possible, on [0, 5] so that 𝑓𝑓 𝑐𝑐 = 1 for the function 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑥𝑥 − 1.
EX #4: Use the Intermediate Value Theorem to show that 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥 3 + 𝑥𝑥 − 1 has a zero in the
interval [0, 1].
EX #5: A car travels on a straight track. During the time interval 0 ≤ 𝑡𝑡 ≤ 60 seconds, the car’s
velocity v, measured in feet per second is a continuous function. The table below shows
selected values of the function.
t, in seconds 0 15 25 30 35 50 60
(𝑡𝑡) in ft/sec −20 −30 −20 −14 −10 0 10
A. For 0 < 𝑡𝑡 < 60, must there be a time t when 𝑡𝑡 = −5 ?

B. Justify your answer.

EX #6: Let (𝑥𝑥) be a continuous function. Selected values of 𝑦𝑦 = (𝑥𝑥) are given in the table below.
For which value of will the equation 𝑥𝑥 = 3/4 have at least two solutions on the closed
interval [2, 8] ?
2 3 4 5 8
( ) 3 4 5 2
3 3
(A) 1 (B) (C) ( ) 2
𝑥𝑥 − 3 2 , 𝑥𝑥 = 5
EX #7: For the function 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = . Find 𝑓𝑓(5) and 𝑓𝑓(10) . Does IVT guarantee a
6, 5 < 𝑥𝑥 ≤ 10
y-value on 5 ≤ 𝑥𝑥 ≤ 10 such that 𝑓𝑓 5 < 𝑓𝑓( ) < 𝑓𝑓(10) ? Justify your answer.
EX #8: The functions f and g are continuous for all real numbers. The table below gives values of
the functions at selected values of x The function h is given by 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 + 2.
Explain why there must be a value w for 1 < < 6 such that = 0.
1 2 6 8
( ) 2 9 8 13
( ) 3 −12 5 28

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Name ___________________________________________

Can you explain why we can’t define instantaneous velocity as a ratio?

How can you estimate an instantaneous velocity?

Let’s generalize that big idea with this principle:

© 2020 Jean Adams Flamingo Math.com 1

Graphical Representation of Velocity

Graphically, the average speed is the slope of the

Sketch the secant line through a and b. Estimate the a b

Instantaneous Speed (IROC) is the speed at a specific

Graphically, the instantaneous speed is the slope

Analytically, we need calculus to determine this

EX #2: Spin Class Heart Rate and Exercise

© 2020 Jean Adams Flamingo Math.com 2

C. Estimate the instantaneous speed (velocity) of the hypercoaster at exactly 5 seconds.

Time Interval Average Velocity

© 2020 Jean Adams Flamingo Math.com 3

B. Make a sketch of the graph of time vs. number

C. What is the average rate of change of the vehicles

Time Interval Average Velocity

© 2020 Jean Adams Flamingo Math.com 4

Topic 1.2: Defining Limits and Using Limit Notation

PROPER LIMIT NOTATIONS

TYPE OF LIMIT PROPER NOTATION VERBALLY:

© 2020 Jean Adams Flamingo Math.com 5

Let’s revisit the notation we learned in Pre-Calculus. We 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥)

EX #2: Use the graph to complete the table below.

Pre-Calculus Notation vs. Calculus Notation

As 𝑥𝑥 − , the graph of 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 _________ As 𝑥𝑥 , the graph of 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 _________

Informally, a limit is a y-value which a function approaches as x approaches some value.

© 2020 Jean Adams Flamingo Math.com 6

Consider the function shown at right.

Say you want to find lim 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 , the positive sign in the

Think about this!

© 2020 Jean Adams Flamingo Math.com 7

Justify why the limit does not exist at 𝑥𝑥 = −1 for 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 =

Justify why the limit does not exist at 𝑥𝑥 = 0 for 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = sin

Justify why the limit does not exist at 𝑥𝑥 = 2 for 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 =

© 2020 Jean Adams Flamingo Math.com 8

2.9 2.99 2.999 3 3.001 3.01 3.1

lim 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = lim 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = lim 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 =

This is why the idea of a limit is so important!

Look at the photo of the arch support construction for

LIMIT EXISTENCE THEOREM:

lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) exists if and only if lim 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = lim 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 =

where L is a real number.

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In order for the GENERAL LIMIT to exist, the function:

EX #7: Sketch a graph to satisfy each set of conditions.

1. 𝑓𝑓( ) is undefined 1. lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) DNE

3. lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) exists 3. 𝑓𝑓( ) is defined

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1. Constant Rule: 2. Identity Rule:

3. Coefficient Rule: 4. Sum or Difference Rule:

5. Product Rule: 6. Quotient Rule:

lim 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 (𝑥𝑥) = lim 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 lim (𝑥𝑥) 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥)

7. Power Rule: 8. Composite Function Rule:

lim 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = lim 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 , n is rational lim 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑓𝑓 lim (𝑥𝑥)

lim 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = lim 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 if the root on the right side exists.

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As 𝑥𝑥 − , the graph of 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 _ As 𝑥𝑥 , the graph of 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 _