Tpm201 Basic History of Transport DR Wale Salami Updated

NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA
SCHOOL OF MANAGEMENT SCIENCES
COURSE CODE: TPM 201
COURSE TITLE: BASIC HISTORY OF TRANSPORT
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COURSE
GUIDE
TPM201
BASIC HISTORY OF TRANSPORT
Course Team Wale Salami, PhD and Mr. Seun Soile

(Course Developers/Writers) - OOU
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NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA
National Open University of Nigeria

Headquarters
91, Cadastral Zone University Village Jabi-Abuja
Nigeria
Abuja Office
No. 5 Dar es Salaam Street
Off Aminu Kano Crescent
Wuse II, Abuja
Nigeria
E-mail: centralinfo@nou.edu.ng
URL: www.nou.edu.ng
Published By:
National Open University of Nigeria
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CONTENTS PAGE
Introduction…………………………………………………….……...... 1
Aims of this Course………………………………………...................... 1
Course Objectives……………………………………………................. 1
Course Requirements…………………………………………………… 2
Course Materials………………………………………………………... 2
Study Units……………………………………………………………... 3
Textbooks and References…………………………………….………... 4
Assessment File………………………………………………………… 4
Tutor Marked Assignments (TMA)……………………………………. 4
Final Examination and Grading………………………………………... 5
Course Marking Scheme………………………………..………........... 5
Presentation Schedule…………………….. ……….………………….. 5
Course Overview ……………………………………………….……… 5
How to Get the Most from this Course………………………………… 7
Facilitators/Tutors and Tutorials………………………………………. 8
Summary……………………………………………………………….. 9
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INTRODUCTION
Welcome to TPM 201: The Basic History of Transport. TPM 201 is a two-credit unit
course that has the minimum duration of one semester. It is suitable for all undergraduate
students of Transport Planning and Management. The course consists of fourteen units
and a course guide. It has been designed to examine the historical evolution and
development of transport from the Ancient period to contemporary times. The method
adopted in writing this course material is historiographical. Hence, the material herein are
structured and developed to reflect global to local developments in the world of transport.
This course guide avails you an overview of the course. It also provides you with
information on the organisation and general requirements of the course and gives you
some guidance on your Tutor Marked Assignments (TMA). Other basic and general
rudiments of the course are contained here for your perusal. You are advised to attend
tutorial classes to discuss challenges with course facilitators at the study centre.
COURSE AIMS
The aim of this course is to give the undergraduate students of Transport Planning and
Management sound and comprehensive knowledge of the evolution of transport from the
ancient historical period to the modern era. It appraises the major contributions of four
epochs in human history – the Ancient/Classical period, the Renaissance period, the
period of the Industrial Revolution and the Contemporary period, to the development of
modes of travelling or transport. By this approach, it is expected that students’
understanding of the subject matter of this course will be deep and penetrating. Following
from this perspective, this course has been meticulously prepared and it is poised to:
i. expose students to the meaning, concept, modes, scope and functions of transport.
ii. trace the changes that have taken in the evolution and technologies of transport
with regards to land, water and air transport.
iii. interrogate the development of transport infrastructure in Nigeria, for example, the
development of ports and inland waterways, road, rail and air transport.
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iv. analyse the impact of the development of these transport modes in Nigeria, which
was an essential component of the colonial enterprise in Nigeria.
v. Investigate the development of communication and its impact on spatial
interaction in Nigeria
COURSE OBJECTIVES
To achieve the aims set out above, TPM 201: Basic History of Transport has certain
overall objectives; while each unit also has specific objectives. The unit objectives are
stated at the beginning of each unit. You should endeavour to read the objectives before
going through the unit. You may wish to refer to them during the study of the unit to
assess your progress. Highlighted here are the major objectives for the course as a whole.
It must be said that meeting the stated objectives is as good as realizing the aims of this
course. On successful completion of the course, students should be able to:
(a) Understand and explain the concept of transport
(b) Identify and highlight advantages of the different modes of transport
(c) Assess the scope and boundaries of the study of transport
(d) Explain the importance/functions of transport
(e) trace the historical evolution of transport from the earliest times to contemporary
period
(f) Discuss the development of transport infrastructure in Nigeria with particular
reference to the development of ports and inland waterways, road, railway and air
transport
(g) Portray the motives, challenges and impact of the development of transport
infrastructure on the socio-economic and political life of the people of Nigeria
(h) Describe the development of telecommunication and the impact it has had on spatial
interaction and intergroup relations in Nigeria.
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WORKING THROUGH THE COURSE
To complete the course, you are required to read the study units and other related
materials. You will also need to undertake practical exercises for which you need a pen, a
note-book, and other materials that will be listed in this guide. The exercises are to aid
you in understanding the concepts being presented. At the end of each unit, you will be
required to submit written assignment for assessment purposes.
At the end of the course, you will write a final examination.
THE COURSE MATERIAL

The basic material you will need for this course are:
1. Course Guide
2. Study Units
3. Writing material such as pencil, biro, jotter etc.
4. Assignments file for your tutor-marked assignments.
5. Study references and textbooks that are recommended at the end of each unit of the
course.
6. Other relevant material you may come across in the course of personal study.
7. As a history course, you will do well to take note of personages, important events and
their dates and pay attention to detail as you go through the units of this course.
STUDY UNITS
There are four (4) modules, made up of fourteen (14) units in this course. They are listed
as follows:
Module 1: Concept, Definition and Scope of transport

Unit 1: What is Transport?
Unit 2: The Scope of Transport
Unit 3: The Functions and Importance of Transport
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Module 2: Historical Evolution of Transport
Unit 1: Transport during the Ancient and Classical Periods (Pre-1300 A.D)
Unit 2: Transport during the Renaissance Period (1300 – 1600 A.D)
Unit 3: Transport during the Industrial Revolution (1700 – 1900 A.D)
Unit 4: Transport in the Contemporary Times (1900 – Present)
Module 3: Historical Development of Transport Infrastructure in Nigeria

Unit 1: The Development of Ports and Inland Waterways in Nigeria
Unit 2: The Development of Road Transport in Nigeria
Unit 3: The Development of Railway Transport in Nigeria
Unit 4: The Development of Air Transport in Nigeria
Module 4: The Development of Telecommunications in Nigeria

Unit 1: Telecommunications in Pre-Colonial Nigeria
Unit 2: Telecommunications in Colonial Nigeria
Unit 3: Telecommunications in Post-Colonial Nigeria
TEXTBOOKS AND REFERENCES

Certain books have been recommended in this course. You may wish to purchase them
for further reading.
ASSIGNMENT FILE
An assessment file will be made available to you. In the assessment file, you will find
details of the works you must submit to your tutor for marking. There are two aspects of
the assessment for this course; the tutor marked assignment and the written examination.
The marks you obtain in these two areas will make up your final grade for the course.
The assignments must be submitted to your tutor for formal assessment in line with the
deadline stated in the presentation schedule and the assignment file. The work you submit
to your tutor for assessment will count for 30% of your total score.
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TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT
You will have to submit a specified number of TMAs. Every unit in this course has a
tutor- marked assignment. You will be assessed on four of them but the best three
performances from the TMAs will be used for your 30 per cent grading. When you have
completed each assignment, send it together with a tutor-marked assignment form, to
your tutor. Make sure each assignment reaches your tutor on or before the deadline for
submissions. If, for any reason, you cannot complete your work on time, contact your
tutor for a discussion on the possibility of an extension. Extensions will not be granted
after the due date unless under exceptional circumstances.
FINAL EXAMINATION AND GRADING

The final examination will be a test of three hours. All areas of the course will be
examined. Find time to read the unit all over before your examination. The final
examination will attract 70% of the total course grade. The examination will consist of
questions, which reflect the kinds of self- assessment exercises and tutor marked
assignments you have previously encountered. And all aspects of the course will be
assessed. You should use the time between completing the last unit, and taking the
examination to revise the entire course.
COURSE MARKING SCHEME

The table below lays out how the actual course mark allocation is broken down.
Assessment Marks Marks
Assignments (Best Three Assignments out of Four) = 30%
Final Examination =70%
Total 100%
PRESENTATION SCHEDULE
The dates for submission of all assignments will be communicated to you. You will also
be told the date for completing the study units and dates for examinations.
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COURSE OVERVIEW
Unit Title of Work Week of Assessment

Activity (End of Unit)
Course Guide
Module 1: Concepts, Definition and Scope of Transport
1. What is Transport? Week 1 Assignment 1
2. The Scope of Transport Week 3 Assignment 3
3. The Functions/Importance of Transport Week 3 Assignment 4
1. Transport in the Ancient and Classical Periods (pre- Week 4 Assignment 1
1300A.D)
2. Transport during the Renaissance Period, c.1300- Week 5 Assignment 2
1600
3. Transport during the Industrial Revolution, c. 1700 – Week 6 Assignment 3
1900
4. Transport during the Contemporary Period, 1900 – Week 7 Assignment 4
Present
Module 3: The Development of Colonial Transport in Nigeria

1. The Development of Ports and Inland Waterways in Week 8 Assignment 1
Nigeria
2. The Development of Road Transport in Nigeria Week 9 Assignment 2
3. The Development of Railway in Nigeria Week 10 Assignment 3
4. The Development of Air Transport Week 11 Assignment 4
1. Telecommunications in Pre-Colonial Nigeria Week 12 Assignment 1
2. Telecommunications in Colonial Nigeria Week 13 Assignment 2
3. Telecommunications in Post-Colonial Nigeria Week 14 Assignment 3
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HOW TO GET THE MOST FROM THIS COURSE
In distance learning, the study units replace the university lectures. This is one of the
great advantages of distance learning; you can read and work through specially-designed
study materials at your own pace, and at a time and place that suits you best. Think of it
as reading the lecture instead of listening to the lecturer. In the same way a lecturer might
give you some reading to do the study units tell you where to read, and which are your
text materials or text books. You are provided exercises to do at appropriate points, just
as a lecturer might give you an in-class exercise. Each of the study units follows a
common format. The first item is an introduction to the subject matter of the units, and
how a particular unit is integrated with the other units and the course as a whole. Next to
this is a set of learning objectives. These objectives let you know what you should be able
to do by the time you have completed the unit. These learning objectives are meant to
guide your study. The moment a unit is finished, you must go back and check whether
you have achieved the objectives. If this is made a habit, then you will significantly
improve your chances of passing the course. The main body of the unit guides you
through the required reading from other sources. This will usually be either from your
text books or from a reading section. The following is a practical strategy for working
through the course. When you need assistance, do not hesitate to call and ask your tutor
to provide it.
1. Read this Course Guide thoroughly, it is your first assignment.

2. Organise a Study Schedule. Design a ‘Course Overview’ to guide you through the
Course. Note the time you are expected to spend on each unit and how the
Assignments relates to the units. Whatever method you choose to use, you should
decide on and write in your own dates and schedule of work for each unit.
3. Once you have created your own study schedule, do everything to stay faithful to
it. The major reason why students fail is that they get behind with their course
work. If you get into difficulties with your schedule, please, let your tutor know
before it is too late to help.
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4. Turn to Unit 1, and read the introduction and the objectives for the unit.
5. Assemble the study materials. You will need your text books and the unit you are
studying at any point in time. As you work through the unit, you will know what
sources to consult for further information.
6. Keep in touch with your study centre. Up-to-date course information will be
continuously available there.
7. Well before the relevant due dates (about 4 weeks before due dates), keep in mind
that you will learn a lot by doing the assignment carefully. They have been
designed to help you meet the objectives of the course and, therefore, will help
you pass the examination. Submit all assignments not later than the due date.
8. Review the objectives for each study unit to confirm that you have achieved them.
If you feel unsure about any of the objectives, review the study materials or
consult your tutor.
9. When you are confident that you have achieved a unit’s objectives, you can start
on the next unit. Proceed unit by unit through the course and try to pace your study
so that you can keep yourself on schedule.
10. When you have submitted an assignment to your tutor for marking, do not wait for
its return before starting on the next unit. Keep to your schedule. When the
assignment is returned, pay particular attention to your tutor’s comments, both on
the tutor-marked assignment form and also the written comments on the ordinary
assignments.
FACILITATORS/TUTORS AND TUTORIALS
Information relating to the tutorials will be provided at the appropriate time. Your tutor
will mark and comment on your assignments, keep a close watch on your progress and on
any difficulties, you might encounter and provide assistance to you during the course.
You must take your tutor-marked assignments to the study centre well before the due date
(at least two working days are required). They will be marked by your tutor and returned
to you as soon as possible.
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Do not hesitate to contact your tutor if you need help. Contact your tutor if:
 you do not understand any part of the study units or the assigned readings;
 you have difficulty with the exercises;
 you have a question or problem with an assignment or with your tutor’s comments
on an assignment of with the grading or an assignment.
You should try your best to attend the tutorials. This is the only chance to have face-to-
face contact with your tutors and ask questions which are answered instantly. You can
raise any problem encountered in the course of your study. To gain the maximum benefit
from course tutorials, prepare a question list before meeting them. You will learn a lot
from participating actively in discussions.
SUMMARY
This course guide is designed to enlighten you on what to expect in TPM 201: The Basic
History of Transport. You will find the course guide very useful in familiarizing you
with the basic and potential rudiments of the course. A diligent and painstaking study of
this course guide will get you prepared to master the course easily.
We wish you success in the course and look forward to your successful completion of
TPM201: Basic History of Transport.
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CONTENTS
Module 1: Definition, Concept and Scope of Transport

Module 3: The Development of Colonial Transport in Nigeria

Unit 1: The Development of Ports and Inland Waterways in Nigeria

Unit 1: Telecommunication in the Pre-colonial Period in Nigeria
Unit 2: Telecommunications during the Colonial Period
Unit 3: Telecommunications during the Post-Colonial Period
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MODULE 1: CONCEPT, DEFINITION AND SCOPE OF TRANSPORT

UNIT 1: WHAT IS TRANSPORT?
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Contents
3.1 Concept and Definition of Transport
3.2 Modes of Transport
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Any attempt to define a concept in the social sciences is often faced with some
challenges. This is so because many concepts in the social sciences do not have a
universally accepted definition. There are often many definitions to a concept as there are
many scholars in the academic field. This unit is an introduction to our discourse on the
history of transport. It is dedicated to the general notion of transport as a way to provide
solid foundation for the discussion in subsequent units and modules. It examines the
concept of transport and provides a working definition of the concept for this course. It
discusses the three major modes of transport, that is: land, water and air, and briefly
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brings into perspective the evolution and development of each mode. It also portrays the
advantages that each mode of transport has over the others.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, students should be able to:
 Define and explain the concept of transport
 Identify the different modes of transport
 Discuss the distinctiveness of each mode of transport
 Highlight the advantages of each mode of transport.
3.0 MAIN CONTENTS

3.1 What is Transport?
Transport (British English) or transportation (American English) simply means the
movement of people or goods from one location to another. The term is derived from two
Latin words, trans meaning “across” and portare meaning “to carry”. Hence, transport
literally means “to carry across” which presupposes ‘movement across space.’ Transport
as a human endeavour or activity is as old as human existence. Its history dates back to
the dawn of recorded history or beyond. Right from the start of human history, man has
remained a gyratory or itinerant animal moving from one place to another in search of
food, shelter and for exchange of goods and services. Although the modes used have
changed through ages, its importance to the development of cultures and advancement of
civilisations cannot be overemphasized.
Transport, or mobility, is central to all activities of man and its history is the history of
human civilisation. It laid the foundation for the discovery of agriculture and the
sophisticated tradition of iron metallurgy. For instance, early agricultural activities began
when the early man through his nomadic tendencies observed the germination of
discarded seeds in his environment and also started making simple implements for
hunting games. It has been posited that no society can develop beyond its transport
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system. Hence, a society without an efficient and developed transport system remains
primitive. It is on record that all imperial empires and great kingdoms in history had all
achieved their greatness by first contriving an efficient and developed transport system. It
is therefore no exaggeration that transport is the tonic of human existence.
The meaning and definition of transport are many and varied. Transport, according to
Wayne (1983:1), is “an activity that provides for the movement of goods or individuals
from one place to another”. According to Wikipedia, the online free encyclopedia,
transport is the movement of humans, animals and goods from one location to another.
When people or goods are moved from one place to another, it is known as transport. A
vehicle or system of vehicles such as buses, trains etc. is the means of getting from one
place to another. (Cambridge Advanced Learners Dictionary, 2008). The important
common element in any definition of transport is movement, changing physical location
of people, animals and goods. However, the concept of transport goes beyond the
movement of people and goods from one point to another. It also takes into consideration
the means of conveyance or travel.
From the foregoing, therefore, transport can be defined as the movement of persons,
animals, goods, ideas, information etc. from one point to another and the means by which
such movement is accomplished.
SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

What do you understand by the concept, ‘transport’?
3.2 MODES OF TRANSPORT

By mode of transport, we mean the different ways by which people, goods and things are
generally moved from one point to another. The earliest means of transport for people
and goods in human history included trekking and human porterage, the use of rafts,
canoes, and boats in riverine communities, and the use of pack animals or beasts of
burden such as donkey, mules, camels and horses in the savannah region etc. At present,
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there are lots of means of transport, which help people to move from one place to
another, to get to very distant places in a very short time, to overcome seas and oceans
and even fly to the stars and to transport huge amount of goods and commodities.
People move from one place to another for different reasons. They either travel for fun or
out of necessity. An everyday form of mobility includes going on holidays, shopping;
commuting to workplaces, schools, places of worship; and to visit friends, family and
associates. There are two ways of commuting: one is the use of private means of transport
and the other is to rely on the public transport services. However, there three modes of
transport and they are classified on the basis of the medium, the vehicle, the motive
power and the terminals. The three major modes of transport are: land transport, water
transport and air transport. The other modes are pipeline (for gas or oil transfer), cable
(for internet and energy supply) and space (satellite).
(A) LAND TRANSPORT

Land transport is the mobility or movement of people, animals and goods from one
location to another on land. Land transport is generally classified into three: pathways,
roadways and railways.
I. Pathways
The use of pathways is the oldest means of transport known to man. In remote villages
and distant rural settlements, particularly in developing countries of Africa, Asia and
Latin America, pathways are still very important modes of transport in forest and hilly
areas. Even in desert areas, there are desert paths which connect one location to another.
It involves trekking on foot and the use of human porterage or head loads (also referred to
as human transport) and the use of pack animals or beasts of burden (also known as
animal transport). Animals used in this form of transport include horses, donkeys, asses,
camels, elephants, buffaloes, yaks etc. This mode of transport is very flexible, no
specialised machinery or technique is necessary for its use; however, it is very strenuous
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in the case of long journeys. It is common in backward regions, where civilisation and
modernisation have not yet taken root.
II. Roadways
Road transport is one of the most important modes of transport. Today, it is the
commonest mode of transport and offers the greatest variety of means of transport. This
involves the use of different motor vehicles such as cars, buses, trucks, lorries, bicycles,
tricycles, motorcycles etc. There are different kinds of roads according to size and
functions. While some roads are tarred and metropolitan, others are not tarred and they
serve rural communities. The best of these roads are modern highways (also called
expressways), which links major towns and cities. The history of road transport dates
back to ancient antiquity. Although stone-slab surfaces date back to Persian and Roman
times, it was really until the eighteenth century that road proper ceased to be mere dirt
tracks potholed in summer and water logged in winter. The first metalled surfaces
appeared in Britain (designed by such men as Telford and Macadam), but soon spread
throughout the civilised world. Vehicles, too improved and carriages became swift,
smoother and larger.
Road transport can be sub-divided into two viz: motorised or vehicular transport and
non-motorised or non-vehicular transport. Motorised or vehicular transport involves
the use of road vehicles or automobiles consisting of wheels and powered by an internal
engine. These are used to transport people and items from one location to another on
roads. These include the use of cars, buses, lorries, trucks and tricycles. Non-motorised or
non-vehicular transport involves the use of small-wheeled transport such as skates, push-
scooters, handcarts, rickshaws and wheelchairs. Non-motorised transport is also known
as active transport or human-powered transport; these modes of transport are mostly used
for recreational purposes.
III. Railways
Rail transport is the conveyance of passengers and goods by means of wheeled vehicles
specially designed to run along railways or railroads, which are located on tracks or guide
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ways. In contrast to road transport, where vehicles run on a prepared flat surface, rail
vehicles are directionally guided by the tracks on which they run. Since this system runs
on metal (usually steel) rails and wheels, it has an inherent benefit of lesser frictional
resistance which helps attach more loads in terms of wagons or carriages. This system is
known as a train. Usually, trains are powered by an engine locomotive running on
electricity or on diesel. Rail transport is an important means of land transport and suitable
for carrying heavy and bulky articles over long distances.
Railway has been the pioneer of modern mechanical transport. It has brought the greatest
revolution in transport. Until the introduction of motor transport, railway had the
monopoly as the land transport. Trains are very fast and one of the most dependable
modes of transport in terms of safety. They are least affected by usual weather
turbulences like rain or fog, compared to other transport modes. However, the cost of
construction, maintenance and overhead expenses are very high compared to other modes
of transport. It is as flexible as other modes of transport because it has fixed routes and
schedules. Rail transport originated from human-hauled contraptions that run on ancient
stone-etched “wagon ways” in ancient Greece. Now, it has evolved into a modern,
complex and sophisticated system used both in urban and cross-country (and continent)
networks over long distances.
(B) WATER TRANSPORT

Water transport refers to the movement of people, goods etc. by barges, boats, canoes,
steamers and ships over a river, lake, canal, sea, ocean and other waterways. It is one of
the oldest and cheapest forms of transport known to man. Two-thirds of the world’s
surface is covered by water. Hence, water transport is a natural means of transport. It
does not require large amount of capital expenditure for the construction of roads and
railway tracks, except for canal transport, as in the case of land transport. It is very
flexible and cost of running is comparatively lesser. This mode of transport is common
among people and communities in riverine regions and it is suitable for transporting
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perishable and imperishable goods over long distances. These goods are generally
referred to as cargo.
Water vehicles are suitable for long-distance travels, commuting, cruising, racing, and
off-road riding. Examples of water vehicles include raft-boats, canoes, riverboats,
sailboats, speedboats, ferry, yachts, motorboats, tug boats, cruise ships, cargo ships, etc.
Rivers, if naturally navigable, have always been used for transport since the dawn of
human civilisation. However, but only during the last two hundred years have canals
been specially constructed on a large scale (although the tradition of man-made
waterways or canals dates back to the civilisations of both Egypt and China more than
two hundred years ago). Britain pioneered inland water transport but now has little use of
it, owing among other factors to the narrowness and shortness of her canals.
There are two major types of water transport and they are: Inland water transport and
Ocean water transport.
I. Inland Water Transport

The inland water transport is the system of transport through all navigable rivers, lakes,
man-made canals and other water bodies available for transport within a country. Many
large rivers in different parts of the world are used by ships and barges for transport. The
main rivers where inland water transport is important are the Rhine and Danube in central
Europe, the Congo and Zaire in central Africa, the Nile in North Africa, and the Niger in
West Africa. Others include St. Lawrence in Canada and the Mississippi in the United
States. Inland water transport is further categorised into two; River Transport and
Canal Transport.
River transport, which includes lakes, creeks, backwaters, is dictated by nature. In other
words, rivers are waterways endowed by nature. It was highly developed in the pre-
railway days. But with the development of railways, river transport was neglected and it
decayed over time. On the contrary, canals are artificial or man-made waterways
constructed for the purpose of inland navigation and irrigation. They are sometimes built
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to link up two navigable seas and oceans, for instance, the Suez Canal which links the
Red Sea and the Mediterranean Sea and the Panama Canal which links the Atlantic with
the Pacific Ocean.
II. Ocean Transport

Ocean transport refers to the movement of passengers and freights on/across the high
seas. Ocean transport is indispensable for foreign trade. It has brought the different parts
of the world together and has knitted together all the nations of the world into one big
market. It operates on a natural track, that is, the sea does not require any investment in
the construction and maintenance of its track. It is without any doubt the cheapest mode
of transport. Ocean transport can be categorised into: Coastal Shipping and Overseas
Shipping. Coastal shipping is a speedy, flexible and economical form of transport for the
movement of passengers and commercial goods especially bulky and heavy cargoes from
one coast to another. Though across the sea, the movement is essentially within a
country. Usually, coastal shipping is reserved for the indigenous business and national
shipping line. Coastal shipping is more popular in countries with large coastlines like
India, Japan, United States and Indonesia.
On the contrary, overseas shipping is the most popular method of transporting passengers
and goods internationally. It is now commonly used more for international trade.
Compared to other methods such as air freight transport, overseas shipping is much more
affordable and practical for large quantities of goods. There are four types of vessels
employed in overseas shipping and they are: the Liners, which are ships with regular
fixed route, time and charges. Liners sail on scheduled dates and time, whether full of
cargo or not. They can be Passenger Liners or Cargo Liners; the Tramps, which are
ships with no fixed route, schedule and charges. Usually, they do not sail till they have
full cargo and can be chartered by exporters and are ready to sail anywhere and at any
time. They are not as fast in speed as liners and are more suitable for carrying seasonal
and bulky goods; the Oil Tanker, which are vessels specially designed to carry oil,
petrol and such other liquids. They usually have large capacity to carry several tons of oil
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and finally; the Refrigerated Ships, which are designed for transporting perishable
goods such as fish, meat, dairy products and wines.
(C) AIR TRANSPORT

Air transport refers to movement of passengers and goods from one place to another by
air through the use of aircraft such as aeroplanes, jets, helicopters, airships, gliders etc. It
is the quickest, costliest and most comfortable means of transport. It is suitable for
carrying important articles, mails and high-class passengers. Unlike land transport, it does
not require the construction and maintenance of roads and tracks for its operation but it is
most expensive because of heavy investment in the construction of aircrafts, airports,
hangars, wireless and meteorological stations, wind indicators, control towers, floodlight
houses etc. Air transport can be classified into passenger air transport and cargo air
transport.
It is the most recent mode of transport. It is the gift of the twentieth century to the world.
The two world wars gave a great impetus to the development of air transport. The first
flight in the air was made in1903 lasting only twelve seconds. It was successfully usd as a
means of transport after World War I (1914 – 1918). The first air service was started in
1919 between London and Paris. Today, every nation of the world has an airport. It has
no physical barriers as in the case of other modes of transport. Political boundaries are
also immaterial although it has to observe the requirements of the International Law. The
supreme advantage of air transport lies in its quickness. However, the cost of its operation
is very high and thus it is suitable for only rich and influential passengers, light and costly
cargoes. In advanced countries like Germany, United States etc., air transport offers a
tough competition to the railways.

Identify the different modes of transport and mention the merits and demerits of each
mode?
23
4.0 CONCLUSION
We set out, in this unit, to examine the concept of transport and come up with a definition
of the concept with which to work with in this course. We also intended to describe the
modes of transport, which include three major one: Land transport. Water transport and
Air transport. All these have been exhaustively discussed and presented in this unit. In
our attempt at defining transport, we noted that any definition of the concept must take
into account or consideration the means of conveyance or travel. This is in addition to the
common element which is movement or physical translocation of people (passengers) or
goods (freights). In doing justice to the segment on modes of transport, attempt was made
to compare and contrast the different modes with a view to indicating the advantages and
disadvantages that each mode has over others and vice versa.
5.0 SUMMARY
As an introduction to the much wider and comprehensive discussion in this course, this
unit provides a solid background to the meaning of the subject matter of the course which
is transport. We have defined transport as the movement of people, animals, goods or
anything at all from one geographical point to another and the means by which such
movement or translocation is accomplished. A careful examination of the different modes
of transport was equally carried out. It is believed that a thorough study of this unit will
provide students with a good foundation on which the discussions in subsequent units and
modules of this course will rest.
6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT
1. How would you define ‘transport’?
2. Give and explain the working definition of transport in this unit.
3. Critically examine the three major modes of transport presented in this unit.
7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Adeleke, B.O. et al (2002). Physical and Human Geography for Senior Secondary School
(West African Edition). Ibadan: Oxford.
24
Akpoghomeh, O.S. (1995). “The Development of Air Transportation in Nigeria, 1936 –
1987.” The Nigerian Geographical Journal Vol. 2, 50 – 63.
Cooley, H.C. (1894). “The Theory of Transportation” Publication of the American
Economic Association Vol. 9 (3), 13 – 148.

https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/2485676.pdf
Hilling, D. (1996). Transport and Developing Countries. London: Routledge
Munby, D. (1968). Transport. Harmonsworth: Penguin Books.
Rodrigue, J. (2020). The Geography of Transport Systems (5th Edition). New York:
Routledge.
Waugh, D. (1995). Geography: An Integrated Approach (Second Edition). China: Nelson
25
UNIT 2: THE SCOPE OF TRANSPORT?
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Contents
3.1 Transport Studies and Other Disciplines
3.2 Scope of Transport Studies
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Mobility is a natural instinct in man. There is no activity known with man that does not
entail some form of movement. Hence, the centrality of transport to all human
endeavours is not in doubt. It is against this submission that this unit introduces students
to the relationship between transport studies and other disciplines. It is also the central
objective of the unit to interrogate the development of transport as a distinct field of study
and what constitutes the scope and delimitation of the discipline.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
 Describe how the study of transport is related to other disciplines
 Explore the development of the transport as an academic field of study
 Explain the extent to which these disciplines have influenced the transport studies
 Discuss the scope of transport studies\
 Identify the sub-disciplines of Transport Studies.
26
3.0 MAIN CONTENTS
3.1 Transport Studies and Other Disciplines
Transport, which is the movement of people (passengers) and goods (freights) from one
location to another, is one of the most important human activities the world over. The
centrality of transport to every activity of human endeavour makes its study
interdisciplinary involving among others civil engineers, economists, urban planners and
geographers. Transport, and mobility, has been the subject of inquiry in several academic
fields, where some are at the core such as economics, geography, engineering, planning
and administration. In contrast, others are more peripheral, such as history, sociology and
politics. Until recently, transport did not assume a distinct field of academic study. It was
studied as a subfield of disciplines such as Geography, Economics, History, Engineering,
Planning and Management etc. As a result, there have emerged such fields as Transport
Geography, Transport Economics, Transport History, Transport Engineering, Transport
Planning and Management and so on.
It is valid, therefore, to assert that Transport Studies as a field of inquiry has been greatly
influenced by several concepts and methods initially developed outside the discipline,
which have been adapted to its particular interests and concerns. The key concepts,
methods and paradigms in transport studies are closely linked to geography, economics,
political science, sociology, history, including natural sciences such as mathematics and
engineering. However, transport is an infrastructure intensive activity, implying that
engineering has been the dominant methodological paradigm for transport studies.
The development of transport as a distinct academic field of inquiry dates back a century
ago with the establishment of the British Institute of Transport and its subsequent
incorporation by means of Royal Charter in 1919. Today, the discipline has grown in
leaps and bounds with the discipline being hosted at both the undergraduate and
postgraduate levels in several universities in the United Kingdom, Europe and across the
globe.
27
Explain the relationship between transport studies and other academic disciplines
3.2 SCOPE OF TRANSPORT STUDIES

The scope of study or issues of concern in transport studies include but not limited to the
following areas:
 Transport Modes: This is the study of how the major transport modes such as
roads, railways, waterways and airways and the vehicles employed for movement
play a different though overlapping role in the supply of transportation. It x-rays
the challenges faced by the various modes.
 Transport Networks: This refers to the structure or pattern of the transport routes.
The complementarity and synergy of transport networks is of concern here.
 Urban Transport: This investigates the complexities of various forms of

transportation that move people and cargoes within the territory of a city and the
immediate suburban zones. This is for the purpose of planning and provision of
public services and amenities.
 Rural Transport: This examines the transport demand of rural communities,

constraints and access to facilities as well as mobility and pattern of movement in
rural areas.
 Interrelationships: This considers the effect or impact that transport system may
have on the physical, social and economic environments of a city or region. For
instance, the implication of transport for economic development is an example of
these interrelationships.
 Transport and the Environment: These studies the impact of transport

infrastructure and use of transport vehicles on the environment, especially with
28
regard to noise and air pollution, emission of greenhouse gases, ozone depletion
and global warming among other environmental issues.
 Transport History: This refers to the development or evolution of the various

modes of transport over time and space. It considers change and continuity in the
way travel and transport has been conducted over time.
 Transport and ICT: This examines the relationships between the developments in
information and communication technology and the use of transport facilities.
 Miscellaneous: This encompasses other activities related to transport and its

relevance for human endeavours.

What in your opinion constitutes the issues of concern in transport studies?
4.0 CONCLUSION
Transport is fundamental to all human activities. As a result, its study cuts across many
fields of academic study. It is for this reason that interdisciplinary or multidisciplinary
approach remains at the core of transport studies. Transport is as important in the
preoccupation of economists, geographers, urban planners as it is equally relevant to
sociologists, historians, and politicians. In this unit, the relationship between the study of
transport and other disciplines was examined. It also presents the scope and issues of
concern in transport studies.
5.0 SUMMARY
This primary focus of this unit is the relationship between the study of transport and other
academic disciplines. It was established that the fledging discipline of transport has
borrowed much of its analytical and methodological tools from several cognate
disciplines. It also considered the scope and delimitation as well as the evolution of
transport studies.
29
1. Critically examine the relationship between transport and other related disciplines.
2. Identify and analyse the scope of transport studies.
3. Why do you think interdisciplinary approach so fundamental to the study of transport?

Bonavia, M.R. (1979). “Transport as an Academic Discipline, a Profession and Object of
Common European Economic Policy: A British View”. Transportation Journal 18

(4) URL: www.jstor.org/stable/201712529
Hilling, D. (1996). Transport and Developing Countries. London: Routledge.
Onokala, P.C. (2015). Transportation Development in Nigeria: The Journey So Far and
the Way Forward. Inaugural Lecture delivered at the University of Nigeria in

September, 2015.
Simon, D. (1998). Transport and Development in the Third World. London: Routledge.
30
UNIT 3: FUNCTIONS/IMPORTANCE OF TRANSPORT?
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Contents
3.1 Functions/Importance of Transport
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The role of transport in bringing about development and advancement throughout human
history cannot be contested. Transport cuts across all human endeavours. Without it, life
will come to a halt. Advances in transport have made possible changes in the way people
live and the way in which societies are organised and therefore have a great influence in
the development of civilisations. This unit conveys an understanding of the functions and
importance of transport in modern society. It is the last unit in this module and it closes
our discussion on the background and introduction to transport.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
 Discuss the functions and benefits of a developed and efficient transport system in
any society.
 Explain the importance of transport to the advancement of economic, social and

political development of mankind.
31
3.0 MAIN CONTENTS
3.1 FUNCTIONS/IMPORTANCE OF TRANSPORT
The importance, benefits or functions of transport can be studied under three subheadings
which are: Economic, Social and Political.
A. ECONOMIC BENEFITS/FUNCTIONS
The economic benefits/functions of good transport facilities are more preponderant and
evident than social and political importance and they are as follows:
1. Extensive Market: Transport helps in the assembly of raw materials and distribution
of finished goods. It makes it possible to move goods from the point of production to the
place where they are to be consumed. In the olden days, there were only local markets
due to absence of developed and safe means of transport. Today, however, the
development of safe and efficient means of transport has knit together all the nations of
the world into one big market. Trade is no longer restricted to the boundaries of a nation,
but has spread throughout the world. Even perishable goods like fish, dairy products,
fruits etc are being transported to distant places of the world. But for good transport
system and facilities, such a development in trade and commerce would have been
possible.
2. Industrial Development: Transport facilitates the industrial development of a country.

It helps the growth of industries by making available various factors of production. It
would have been impossible to put together factors of production so easily without
efficient means of transport. It is the functions of transport in bringing about the quick
and easy movement of raw materials, manpower, machinery, finished goods etc. that
makes it a veritable role in fostering rapid industrial development.
3. Development of Agriculture: Transport has helped in the development of agriculture

and agro-allied industries. The business of agricultural products has grown to such a large
and incredible extent due partly to efficient and developed means of transport. It would
32
have been impossible to have access to farm produce, use modern techniques of
agriculture, improved quality seeds etc. from distant lands but for good transport
facilities.
4. Employment Opportunities and Increase in the National Income: Transport is one

of the largest employers of labour. The various modes of transport provide employment
for several millions of people throughout the world, thereby creating wealth for
households. This in turn contributes substantially to national income and therefore the
economic development of a nation.
5. Specialisation and Division of Labour: Transport helps each region and country to
make optimum and efficient use of its national resources. Each region can concentrate on
the production of those goods for which it is best suited. Thus, movement of people and
goods from one place to another leads to specialisation and division of labour which
results in minimum wastage of resources and reduction in the cost of production.
Ogunremi (1982:3) succinctly captured this point in the following words:
Transportation enables society to enjoy advantages of specialization of

resources, and the benefits of domain of labour by making it possible for
products to be brought from distances, thus avoiding the necessity for local
production
6. Mobility of Labour and Capital: Transport reduces the rigours of immobility of

certain factors of production. Mobility of labour and capital is one of the advantages of an
efficient transport system. A developed network of transport services encourages the
movement of people (workers) from one location to another. This is referred to as the
geographical mobility of labour. Labour can migrate to the place where they can get
better job opportunities, which reduces the exploitation of workers. The development of
Australia and the United States would not have been possible without immigrations from
Europe. With the development of transport, the investment of capital is also channelled to
new lands and other places of the world.
33
7. Discouragement to Monopoly and Consumer’s Benefit: The development of
transport has resulted in the easy and quick transport of goods and services across space
and locations. As a result, local producers cannot charge arbitrary prices as commodities
can easily be transported from elsewhere. This discourages monopoly and encourages
competition. In addition, consumers can enjoy the benefit of use of many goods, which
cannot be produced at their place. It also helps in reducing the cost of goods for
consumers and increases their purchasing power.
B. SOCIAL BENEFITS/FUNCTIONS
Beyond economic importance, transport has substantially influenced the life of the
people. Here are some of the social advantages of an efficient transport system.
1. Growth of Cities and Urban Centres: Transport has helped in the discovery of new
lands and settlements and the growth of cities and urban settlements. Due to the
availability of long distance cheap transport, land has been utilised to the maximum
benefit of the people all over the world. Even the wastelands are now being used. It also
increases the value of land. We, generally, find the value of land, situated on the roadside
or near the railway station or bus stops, has increased tremendously.
2. Diffusion of Population: Transport has helped in the diffusion of population and

reducing the concentration of population in the area of production or city centres. In
addition, people have had cause to move away from their place of origin to other lands in
search of greener pastures. All these are possible because of adequate and efficient
system of transport.
3. High Standard of Living: Transport helps in the increase of production thereby

raising the standard of living of the people. It is possible only through the means of
transport that the ‘five M’s – men, material, money, machinery and management’ can be
assembled at the place of production. So, industries depend upon efficient system of
transport and it creates new industries.
34
4. Mutual Understanding and Broad Outlook: Transport removes the problem of
distance and geographical isolation. It also broadens the outlook of the people and helps
the people of different regions to come in contact with each other, encourages exchange
of ideas and culture, and promotes co-operation, understanding and cordial relations,
among the peoples of the world
5. Emergencies and Natural Calamities: Transport enables the society to face natural
calamities and emergencies such as famine, earthquakes, drought, floods, etc. In such
emergencies, rescue intervention, relief materials and commodities can quickly be
transported to the places of mishap.
C. POLITICAL BENEFITS/FUNCTIONS
In addition to the economic and social advantages and functions, transport enjoys a great
political significance:
1. National Unity, Integration and Peace: Transport helps in maintain internal peace
and national unity of a country. It brings about national integration. A vast and
heterogeneous country like India and Indonesia cannot be held together without efficient
means of transport. Transport encourages economic and political interdependence by
promoting specialisation and division of labour and this strengthens the need for unity
and national integration.
2. National Defence and Security: Transport is important for strengthening the national
defence of a country. In the circumstances of war, it is only through improved means of
transport that the defence personnel, material and equipment can be moved rapidly to the
border areas. Defence and security of a country, therefore, necessitates the existence of
improved transport facilities.
3. Political Awareness and Hegemony: Efficient means of transport helps in creating

political awareness in the people; facilitates the growth of civilisation and can also
promote political expansion and domination of a tribe of people over the other.
35
4. Growth of Civilisation: Transport has been responsible for the rise and growth of
great civilisations in history. Such great civilisations include Egyptian, Babylonian,
Persian and Roman empires. Effective administration of great kingdoms and empires had
always been based on the ability of government to send or get information to or about its
peoples. This may include laws to be followed, security and other needful information
needed to generate awareness.
5. International Cooperation: Transport has helped in fostering international

understanding and cooperation. Relations among countries of the world are now all-time
high. It can be economic, political, security, trade-related and socio-cultural. All these
would not have been possible without the cohesion that transport avails.
4.0 CONCLUSION
The transport system of a country plays an integral role in its growth and development for
a number of reasons. Due to the quick and easy movement of raw materials, machinery,
labour, finished products etc., it benefits industries. Beyond this, however, transport has
transformed the way people live and feel about themselves and government. In this unit,
we explored the benefits and importance of transport. We examined this under three
subheadings: economic, social and political functions of transport. The approach
employed is simple and straightforward; it is hoped that this method will enhance
students’ understanding of the subject matter.
5.0 SUMMARY
Our preoccupation in this unit is to explore the benefits and importance of transport in
any society. In doing this, we examined the economic, social and political functions or
benefits of an adequate, efficient and modernised transport system. After a diligent study
of this unit, students are better equipped to appreciate the essence and benefits of a well-
developed and efficient transport in any society.
36
1. No society can develop beyond its system of transport. Discuss.
2. To what extent is the assertion true that transport is central to all human endeavours?
3. Discuss the functions of transport in any society.

Adeleke, B.O. et al (2002). Physical and Human Geography for Senior Secondary School
(West African Edition). Ibadan: Oxford.
Chapter IV. “History of Transportation and Its Workforce” Retrieved from
https://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/69376/11/11_chapter%204%20histor
y%20of%20transportation%20and%20its%20work%20force.pdf
Iloeje, N.P. (1999). A New Geography of West Africa. Hong Kong: Longman.
Ogunremi, G.O. (1982). Counting the Camels: The Economics of Transportation in Pre-
Industrial Nigeria. New York: Nok Publishers International Ltd.
Wayne, T.K. (1983). Introduction to Transportation. Cincinnati, Ohio: Southwest
Publishing Company
37
MODULE 2: HISTORICAL EVOLUTION OF TRANSPORT
UNIT 1: Transport during the Ancient and Classical Periods (Pre-1300 A.D)
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Contents
3.1 Transport in the Ancient Period
3.2 Transport during the Greco-Roman Period (Classical Era)
3.3 Transport during the Middle Ages
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In Module One of this course, we explored the concept and definition of transport, the
modes and scope of transport, and the importance of transport as a solid background to
our discussion in this module and subsequent ones. This module examines the historical
evolution of transport from the Ancient period to contemporary times. However, in this
unit, which is the first in this module, we shall be focusing attention on the major
developments and modes of transport in the Ancient period, the Classical period of the
Greco-Roman civilisation and the Middle Ages. This is with a view to signposting the
38
major contributions of these historical epochs to the development of transport. This unit
is historical and you will do well to pay special attention to events and dates. We wish
you a pleasurable reading.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
 Highlight major developments in transport in the Ancient period, the Classical era and
the Middle Ages.
 Identify the major modes of transport employed during these historical periods.
 Describe the various vehicles that were made use of during these periods in history
 Explain the major improvements that were made during these periods.
3.0 MAIN CONTENTS

3.1 Transport in the Ancient Period
The history of transport is an integral part of the history of mankind. As a matter of fact,
the history of mankind is replete with movement of people across land and space –
movement of armies, of a whole people in migration due to plague, war, famine or
drought and of trade. The evolution of transport, just like that of man, has gone through
trials and errors as it evolved through time. Throughout history, man has had to slowly
but surely and painstakingly evolve his means of transport to where it is today. Many
modes of transport have developed alongside man’s increasing knowledge and
understanding of his environment.
The earliest form of transport was, of course, by human foot. Man from the beginning
was characterised by movement from one place to another, searching for food and game,
attacking his neighbours, in search of wife from other groups and so on. This form of
transport was very slow as man on his own feet could not travel more than three miles per
hour. The main goals of man in early stages were: fruit gathering, hunting and abduction.
Despite the flexibility of his physical structure, he was compared to other animals, which
were stronger, more agile and swifter, but the human animal had certain advantages: big
39
brain, flexible hand structure, he had to walk upright, freeing his hands for the use of
tools.
Later, man started to evaluate and devise substitutes. First, he had dragged any load too
heavy to be carried. But large objects are often of awkward shape and texture, liable to
snag on any roughness in the ground. The natural solution is to move them on a platform
with smooth runners – a sledge. Wooden sledges are first to be known, by at least 7,000
B.C, among communities living by hunting and fishing in Egypt, northern Europe, on the
fringes of the Arctic. It is possible they were drawn behind a man or beast, but the
technological advance is valuable even without human or animal power. On icy ground, a
man can move a heavy load on a sledge with relatively little effort.
With the domestication of cattle, man learned the use of animals for transport. The
animals such as donkeys, horses, camels, oxen and elephants became the first to be used
for the purpose of transport. More importantly, the discovery that a castrated bull
becomes the docile but very powerful ox means that human can transport heavier loads
than before. This is done at first on sledges, which slither adequately over the dry grasses
of the steppes of southern Russia and on the parched earth of Mesopotamia. In both
regions, ox-drawn sledges are in use by the 4th millennium B.C. Donkeys and horses
were probably domesticated between 4,000 and 3,000 B.C. Camels were domesticated
slightly later between 3,000 and 2,000 B.C.
Another mode of transport used during the Ancient period was created in the effort to
transverse water – boats. Those who colonised Australia roughly 60,000 – 40,000 years
ago have been credited as the first people to cross the sea. However, there is some
evidence that seafaring trips were made as far back as 900,000 years ago. The earliest
known boats were simple logboats, also referred to as dugouts, which were made by
hollowing out a tree trunk. Evidence for these floating vehicles comes from artifacts that
date back around 10,000 – 7,000 years ago. The Pesse canoe – a log boat – is the oldest
40
boat unearthed and dates as far back as 7600 BCE. Rafts have been around nearly as
long, with artifacts showing them in use for at least 8,000 years.
About 3,100 B.C, the riverine peoples of Egypt and southern Iraq invented the seagoing
boat. They were made of papyrus reeds tied together. They had simple square sails made
of sheets of papyrus or later of linen. However, the sail could only be used when sailing
in one direction. With the right conditions, sailing vessels could average 5 to 6 knots (5 to
7 miles) per hour. When travelling against the wind, the boat had to be rowed. Later on,
about 2,700 B.C, the Egyptians began using wooden ships for trade by sea. Early ships
were steered by a long oar.
A major advancement in the way transport was conducted during the Ancient period is
the introduction of wheeled transport. Archaeological evidence shows that the oldest
wheeled carts were used in Mesopotamia as from 4,000 B.C, among the Sumerians,
Akkadians, Elamites and Chaldeans. Sumerians were the first people to reach the
civilisation and would have been the first to use the full wheel. The wheels of the first
wagons were made from three planks of wood, which were pegged together in a rough
circle. Speed is not the main characteristics of such a vehicle. By 3,000 B.C, wagons had
acquired a regal status in addition to their practical uses. They can only transport the king
on his throne at about two miles per hour in a public ceremony, but royal tombs reveal
that both wagon and oxen are valued enough to be required in the next world. For more
glamour and far greater speed, two new elements were needed – the horse and wheels
equipped with spokes.
With the introduction of horses from central Asia, horse-drawn chariots made it
appearance in 17 B.C. It became the principal weapons of the Assyrians, who eventually
subdued most of the civilised world. Babylon under Nebuchadnezzar had its famous
‘Procession Street’, which was made with large stones over a foundation of asphalt,
leading through the city to a substantial bridge across the Euphrates. The cutting of canals
for irrigation has been an integral part of the civilisation of Mesopotamia, controlling the
41
water of the Euphrates and the Tigris. Several canals link the two rivers, and small boats
used these waterways. However, the world’s first canal created purely for water transport
is an incomparably more ambitious affair. Between about 520 and 510 B.C, the Persian
emperor, Darius I, invests heavily in the economy of his newly-conquered province of
Egypt. He builds a canal linking the Nile and the Red Sea. Its access to the sea is close to
modern Ismailia, which much later becomes the terminus of another great waterway, the
Suez Canal.

What is your evaluation and assessment of transport in the Ancient period?
3.2 Transport during the Greco-Roman Period (Classical Era)

The Greco-Roman period, also popularly referred to as the Classical antiquity, the
Classical era or the Classical age, is the period of cultural history between the 8th century
and the 6th century A.D. One of the most significant accomplishments of the Ancient
Roman Empire is the great networks of roads and the arterial system they built across
their Empire. Indeed, the famous dictum, “All roads lead to Rome,” attests to the
accessibility of Rome from any corner of the Roman Empire due to adequate road
network. The Roman road networks were important both in maintaining the stability of
the empire and for it expansion. The famous Roman roads were so well designed and
built that many still lie beneath the motorways of many European countries
These highways were elaborate technological undertakings built by the Roman

legionaries, with the assistance of prisoners of war and slave labour. The road served
numerous functions, such as military movements, political control, cultural exchanges
and trade. Although primarily built for military purposes, the roads were equally useful
for long journeys or travels by the rich on covered wagons or by the commoners on foot.
The Roman road system made it possible to use different types of vehicles and also
develop new ones. There was the two-wheeled carpentum, which was very fast and light
42
and a leather hoot for protection of drivers, to the four-wheel carruca, which could carry a
whole family.
In addition to this, many influential and wealthy Romans also employed chariots as a
mean of travelling and getting around. These horse-pulled chariots had two wheels and
looked like a cart. This was a favourite way for the Ancient Romans to travel because the
horses could get where they were going very fast. The rich often travelled lying down in
a litter carried on the shoulders of slave or seated in a sedan chair, also carried by slaves.
Soldiers and officials on important assignments would often ride on horseback. This was
a fast and easy way to get around, and it was affordable for the soldiers to have these
horses. To improve the travelling speed, posthouses with fresh horses were laid at every
fifteen kilometers along the route and lodgings for travellers could be found about every
forty kilometers. This distance corresponded to the average distance a traveler could
cover each day.
For haulage purposes, these roads were less satisfactory, because the straight nature of
the roads results in some steep hills. Anyone with a wagon and horse would prefer an
altitude less severe than that of the Roman engineers. By the 2nd century A.D, the
network spreads all round the Mediterranean and throughout Europe up to Danube, the
Rhine and northern England, amounting to more than 400,000 kilometres of roads,
including over 80,500 kilometres of paved roads. When Rome was at the height of its
power, no fewer than 29 great military highways radiated from the city. Hills were cut
through and deep ravines filled in. At one point, the Roman Empire was divided into one
113 provinces traversed by 372 great road links. In Gaul alone, no less than 21,000
kilometres of road are said to have been developed. In Britain, at least 4,000 kilometres
of such roads were constructed. There were footpaths on each side of the roads.
Transport by water was also important to the Romans. They built wooden barges, boats
and sailing ships that they used to travel on rivers, seas like the Nile River, Rhine River,
Danube River and the Mediterranean Sea. They travelled as far as Africa, China, Britain,
43
Arabia and India. They built large merchant ships called cortia, which could carry up to
one thousand tons of cargo. Roman ships had a single main mast, which carried a
rectangular sail, although some ships also had small sails at the bow and stern. They,
however, did not have rudders; instead, they were steered by oars. The Romans also built
lighthouses to aid shipping. Merchant ships brought silk from China, perfumes from the
Middle East, cotton, precious stones and dyes from India, spices from the Middle East
and India, gold, bronze silver, copper from Britain which they used to make coins and
jewellery and wheat from Egypt make bread and papyrus.
Several reasons accounted for the Romans’ preference for sea travel, if they were given a
choice. First, travel on the sea was generally more comfortable than over the land because
road travel was on foot, or in spring-less carriages, carts or chariots that bounced and
bumped over every cobblestone. Second, roads were often frequented by bandits and one
who travelled without a good company of slaves or armed retainers risked losing his life.
Third, the few inns at which a traveller could find lodging for the night were of dubious
standards or quality at best and downright risky at worst. Most innkeepers were crooks,
the food was bad, and the inns were patronised by cutthroats and drunks. All kinds of lice
and other insects infested the beddings, and the traveller might not even find a bed at all
because they were all taken by other guests by the time he arrived at the inn.
Incredible as it may sound, there were even bridges that were built during the Ancient
Roman times. The bridges were built over rivers, and since there were many Roman
craftsmen, they knew how to use concrete to construct roads and bridges and so they
were sturdy and lasted for many years. The Romans were also famous for constructing
large ditches throughout their Empire. These were drainage ditches that would allow the
central part of major cities and particularly Rome (popularly called “the Area” or the
“Roman Forum”) not to be flooded. There is abundance of evidence that aqueducts and
artificial water channels were extensively constructed to give water to the people of
Ancient Roman Empire.
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What are the major contributions of the Classical period to the development of transport?
3.3 Transport during the Middle Ages

The Middle Ages, or Medieval period, is used to refer to the period of time in European
history between the end of antiquity in the 5th century and the Renaissance, or rebirth of
classical learning, which began in the 15th century and spread to the 16th century. It is
generally believed to have started with the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 A.D
and stretched until the end of the 14th century. The period is probably called the ‘Middle
Ages’ because it is the time that straddles the fall of imperial Roman civilisation and the
beginning of the Early Modern Europe. The Medieval period is also often referred to as
the ‘Dark Ages’ because the great civilisations of Rome and Greece had been conquered.
The period was marked by intellectual darkness due to loss of classical learning, mass
migration, wars and general insecurity, and plagues. This lasted some three hundred years
until the development of feudalism partly diminished the continuous violence.
Transport in the Middle Ages was very much based on the methods and innovations that
came earlier. While the Romans showed great ingenuity in building a network of roads
across Europe, the Middle Ages saw a decline in ease and access of transport. The once
prevalent interconnected roads and bridges collapsed with the fall of Rome and even
those roads that remained from the dynasty of the Roman Empire had long fallen into
poor conditions. The roads reverted to uneven and furrowed dirt paths, which was
disadvantageous in inclement weather such as winter.
With the rising popularity of wheeled-carts, smooth roads were very much needed again,
as wheels could not roll over shaky or unstable ground. Ships were also renovated both in
building techniques and design in order to fit larger quantities of cargo and transport
cargo and passengers over longer distances. The rise in mobility and transport in the
Middle Ages allowed for an increase in trade and travel throughout Europe. Merchants of
45
all types of goods were able to gain access to foreign markets and take more products
with them, which highly benefitted the economy.
The most important and famous benefit of the strides made in improving transport in the
Middle Ages was the discovery of the Americas or the ‘New World,’ which brought new
types of goods (e.g maize, potato, tomato, tobacco and cocoa) to Europe and promoted
communication and travel. Transportation was essential to not only the economic benefit
and development of Europe but also the social improvement. Transport by both land and
sea during the time was integral to the booming economy and major innovations that
resulted in the eras after the Middle Ages.
With regard to transport on land, those in the upper socio-economic echelons in the
Middle Ages occasionally travelled in covered wagons. Another transport option for the
elite was in a carriage-like box balanced on two poles, the front and back ends of which
were attached to two horses that were trained to walk at the same speed. These forms of
transport were generally reserved for the royalty and the nobility, the wealthy and well-
off traders and some other Medieval folks such as knights, diplomats/envoys and
mounted soldiers. They must have been very uncomfortable as they did not have
suspensions and roads were bumpy and rutted.
A common method of transport however, was on horseback, which was not limited to the
upper classes. Any individual who could afford to buy or rent a horse would use the
animal for transport. Long lines of packhorses were used across Britain to transport goods
like wool for trade. These trains contained as many as fifty horses in a single file line that
was led by a horse wearing a bell. Horses in the Middle Ages, however, were different in
size and breed from today’s horses. They were also generally smaller that the modern
horses. Mules were also often used.
In the Middle Ages, it was not unusual for people of all classes and backgrounds and
socio-economic statuses to travel and they often travelled long distances. It was a period
in which travel by foot was the commonest way of journeying for the majority of the
46
people. The speed of transport by land varied greatly depending on the purpose. Large
containers or carts of cargo could potentially slow horses down, thus rendering a day’s
journey into a weeks. Also, trains of horses were often accompanied by servants
travelling by foot, who could definitely impede the pace of the cavalry.
While transport on land showed a decline from the prior era, transport at sea flourished in
the Middle Ages. Sea travel proved to be the quickest, cheapest and most efficient option
for transporting people and goods, especially for distant journeys. Many inventions
helped render transport at sea much more desirable and possible. While technically
invented by the Chinese centuries before, the compass was first used by Europeans in the
Middle Ages, thus helping navigation. The Middle Ages also saw the European discovery
of the rudder (which was, again, developed by the Chinese hundreds of years before),
which made ships much easier to manoeuver. Europeans also made advances in
shipbuilding: by the 15th century, ships were built with three masts. In the Middle Ages,
boats were powered by sails or oars.
In the Early Middle Ages, the sailing ship used the most was a Knarr, which was a kind
of vessel used for cargo. In order to propel, it used a square-rigged sail. In the High
Middle Ages, two types of ships were used: the Trade-Cog and the Hulk. The Trade-Cog
had only one mast, steep sides, and a flat bottom, which allowed them to settle flatly in
harbour, facilitating loading and unloading of cargo. They were also frequently used for
military transport and as warships because the steep sides made it difficult for pirates and
other intruders to board. The Hulk was also flat-bottomed like the Trade-Cog but had
neither a stern nor sternposts. It was chiefly used as a river or canal boat as it had limited
ability for ocean transport.
In the Late Middle Ages, the Caravel and Carrack ships were widely utilised. The
Portuguese developed the Caravel ship for exploration voyages. These ships were either
square and lateen rigged or only lateen rigged. Caravel ships had lateen sails, which gave
the ships speed and the ability to sail towards the wind. Two famous Caravel ships are the
47
Nina and the Pinta, both of which Christopher Columbus used in his first voyage to the
Indies in 1492.
The Carrack ship, developed in southern Europe (particularly Portugal) in the 15th
century, was larger than the Caravel and used four masts. The Santa Maria, another of
Christopher Columbus’ ships on his 1492 voyage is the most famous example of a
Carrack ship. They were big enough to be stable in unsteady waters and large enough to
carry provisions for long voyages.
Galley ships were invented in the 8th century and remain in use for transport throughout
the Early Middle Ages. Chiefly used for trade and warfare (as well as piracy), galleys
were propelled mainly through rowing, which was actually helpful for the erratic wind
conditions of the Mediterranean Sea. The Vikings most famously used long ships,
clinker-built ships with overlapping wooden slates and fitted with oars along practically
the entire length of the vessel. They were used not only for transport but also for trade,
commerce, and warfare. Long ships were refined, long, narrow and light and therefore
intended on being extremely speedy. These ships were also double-ended, which allowed
the ship to reverse its direction quickly without turning around, a facet especially useful
when navigating seas with icebergs.

What was transport and travelling in the Middle Ages like?
4.0 CONCLUSION
This module is meant to introduce students to the historical evolution of transport from
Ancient antiquity to the contemporary period. However, this unit is the first of the four
parts into which the module is divided. It focuses attention on the developments in
transport during the Ancient period, the Classical era of the Greco-Romans and the
Middle Ages. We have been able to demonstrate what transport looked during the
Ancient period, showing the strengths and inadequacies of the transport system. The
major contribution of the Romans, as have been captured in this unit, is their ingenuity in
48
road and bridge construction. The famous Roman Roads were so well-constructed that
they can still be seen in some parts of Italy. Indeed, much of the roads lie underneath
many modern roads throughout Europe. The Middle Ages is generally considered a
period of intellectual darkness, emptiness and backwardness in Europe. However, with
regard to transport, we have shown that progress was made as the period was marked by
unprecedented mass movement or migration of people as a result of warfare, religious
persecution, famine and drought etc. More importantly, the Middle Ages laid the
foundation for the modern transport system that evolved thereafter during the period of
Renaissance and the Industrial Revolution.
5.0 SUMMARY
This unit sets out to interrogate transport in the Ancient and Classical Periods. The period
covered in this unit is pre-1300 A.D, and it is popularly referred to as the Ancient
antiquity. It ends with the Middle Ages, or Dark Ages, which precedes the Renaissance
period. The Renaissance, which was marked by a renewed quest for classical learning or
knowledge of the Greco-Roman era, opened the Early Modern Age in European and
World History. We have in this unit painstakingly highlighted the major contributions
and development in transport and mode of travelling of the period to which the unit is
subdivided. We hope that the simplicity and style of presentation will aid your
understanding of the subject matter of this unit.

1. “The Middle Ages was a dark period as there was no progress in civilisation” How
would you react to this view with regard to transport in that period?
2. Do you agree with the view that the Romans revolutionised the conduct of transport
up to that particular era?
3. “Necessity is the mother of invention.” Would you say this adequately captures the
conduct of transport in the Ancient antiquity?
49
Philips, J.R.S. (1988). The Medieval Expansion of Europe. Oxford: Oxford University
Press.
Newton, P.A. (1968). Travels and Travellers of the Middle Ages. New York: Barnes and
Noble.
Rodrigue, J. (2020). The Geography of Transport Systems (5th Edition). New York:
Routledge.
Nguyen, T.C. (2020). “The History of Transportation” Thought Co. Available online at
www.thoughtco.com/history-of-transportation-4067885
Demartini, J. (2014). “The Evolution of Transportation” Jetset Magazine Online Version
www.jetsetmag.com/travel/avaiation/evolution-of-transportation/
50
UNIT 2: Transport during the Renaissance Period (1400 – 1600)
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Contents
3.1 Transport during the Renaissance Period (1400 – 1600)
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
This unit discusses transport during the Renaissance period in Europe. The Renaissance
was the period in European history marking the transition from the Middle Ages to the
modern era generally covering the period from the 15th to the 17th century. As noted
earlier in the last unit, the Middle Ages, which preceded the Renaissance was referred to
as the “Dark Ages” because there was no progress in science, learning and arts even as
the knowledge of the Classical period was lost. Instead, people made recourse to
fallacies, dogmas and superstitions. The Renaissance therefore marked the period of the
‘rebirth’ or ‘reawakening, of the knowledge and learning of the Ancient Greco-Roman
period. This unit highlights major contributions of the era to the evolution of transport.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
 Understand what Renaissance means and how events of the period significantly
affected the way transport was done at the time.
51
 Discuss the major development in the historical evolution of transport during the
Renaissance period in Europe.
 Identify the major modes of transport employed during the Renaissance period.
 Describe the various vehicle employed in transport during this period.
3.0 MAIN CONTENTS
3.1 Transport during the Renaissance Period (1400 – 1600)
The historical period known as the Renaissance was a period of intellectual resurgence
and activism spanning the period between the 15th and 17th centuries. ‘Renaissance’
means ‘rebirth’ or ‘reawakening’. During this period, Europe left behind the fixed ideas
of the Middle Ages and created the beginning of the modern world as we know it. The
civilisations of ancient Greece and Rome were rediscovered, inspiring an interest in
Classical learning which challenged medieval beliefs and ideas. The Renaissance period
cultivated a new change in art, knowledge and culture. It changed the way the people
thought, with first the rediscovery of classical philosophy, literature, and art, as well as
the new discoveries in travel, invention and style. This era is so important because it
introduced new ways of thinking, with new inventions, styles and explorations that are
still influential and occurring to this day. Of all the areas of human life that Renaissance
had made great impact, the way people travel or conduct transport stood out.
Transport, or mode of travelling, during the early period of Renaissance was not radically
different from that of the medieval period. Generally, travel by ships, boats was more
popular, quicker and more efficient than land transport. However, advances in both land
and sea travel occurred over the course of the Renaissance. People travelled for a number
of reasons during the Renaissance. Explorers sailed far from Europe to discover new
territories for their monarchs and to win glory and riches to themselves. Commerce,
politics and diplomacy accounted for much, if not most, travels at this time. Other
reasons for trips included pilgrimages (journeys to sacred places) and pleasure travel,
though that was only popular among the privileged class.
52
The poor state of roads, which was a hangover from the Medieval period, made travel
over land slow and difficult, especially in winter when many roads could not be
navigated by wheeled vehicles. Most people travelling on land went on foot or rode
mules or donkeys. Rich people tended to ride horses, although many of them preferred
trained mules. Wealthy or sickly individual might rode in litters or sedan chairs, carried
either by animals or by several servants. People of all classes also accepted rides on carts
carrying goods to market. Several models of wagons and cart emerged for different road
conditions. Pack animals, such as donkeys, mules and oxen were used to transport goods
as well.
For most people travelling by land during the Renaissance was limited to the local fair or
farmer’s market. Peasants did not have the time, resources or reasons to travel far from
their farm or home. Getting from place to place was not easy. The roads were rocky
pathways and could be dangerous with bandits ready to attack. For this reason the
wealthy travelled with an army of men-at-arms for protection. Travellers still needed
overnight accommodations. They could rent a bed at inns. These were extremely
expensive and the beds were less than ideal. During peak periods, and perhaps most of
the time, two or three strangers would have to share a bed. Travellers might be
contaminated with illness, odour, and lice and other travellers could get lice of sickness.
The first passenger coaches appeared in Hungary in the early 1400s. These were
essentially heavy wagons pulled by two or more pairs of horses. More advanced coaches,
which were easier to turn, came into use during the 1500s. These new models could carry
up to eight people with luggage. As from the mid-17th century, stagecoaches ran regularly
between the major towns in Europe. However, they were very expensive and very
uncomfortable without springs on rough terrains. There was also the danger of the
highwaymen. By the late 1600s, private carriages became fashionable among the upper
classes. Despite their relative comfort, coaches often moved more slowly than foot on
Europe’s poor roads. The speed of land travel changed little until the late 1700s.
53
As noted earlier, Renaissance witnessed a surge in travelling on the high seas. This is
because water travel was the quickest and cheapest. Travels on the sea were usually done
by merchants, students, missionaries, soldiers and pilgrims. Pilgrims sold metallic items,
souvenirs and candles. This helped improve the economy. As trade and exploration
increased during the Renaissance, overseas travel became more popular. Though you
could travel to distant lands by ship, it was not without serious danger. There were pirates
that were abundant to wreck ships. Storms could also wreck ships. You could not travel
far distances without the danger of storms and sea robbers. They were always a problem.
In many parts of Western Europe, water was also very popular for short travels. Canals,
rivers, lakes were very effective for inland water transport and were of a much quicker
travel time than by land. However, this is not without its own challenges too. If a barge or
boat was trying to travel against the current, it could take three times longer than going
downstream. Tolls along the river or canal would slow travel down even more, if there
was a line at the crossing. The major downside to travelling on a river is that in dry
seasons water levels could drop too low for barges or boats to travel along. So, water
travel has its ups and downs in spite of its popularity and widespread appeal during the
Renaissance period.
As a result of the widespread use of both water and sea or ocean travels, shipbuilders in
Europe produced a variety of ships of different types and sizes for transport, trade,
fishing, exploration or warfare. Ships ranged from single-person fishing vessels to large
carracks that could hold a thousand passengers and up to two tons of cargo. Travel time
was difficult to estimate. The length of time it took to sail from one port to another varied
according to the season, the weather, the tides, the cargo, the crew and a host of other
factors. With time, shipbuilding was also improved upon during the Renaissance, as large
ships called galleons became commonly used. These ships were powered by sail rather
than by men using oars, and were more stable in the face of strong winds and storms.
54
Tools developed in the Middle Ages for exploration continued to be used during the
Renaissance. One of these was the astrolabe, a portable device used by sailors to help
them find their way on the high seas. By measuring the distance of the sun and stars from
the horizon, the astrolabe helped determine latitude, an important tool in navigation.
Another tool, the magnetic compass, which had been invented in the 12th century, was
improved upon during the Renaissance. Maps, too, became more reliable as Portuguese
map makers, called cartographers, incorporated information provided by travellers and
explorers into their work.
The breakthrough in sea exploration came in the 14th and 15th centuries when caravel
was popularly used. The caravel is better suited for sailing in violent oceans. With the
caravel, travel becomes possible to any coast in the world other than the frozen Arctic
and Antarctic. The caravel made the ‘discovery’ of America and the circumnavigation of
the world possible
4.0 CONCLUSION
As have been presented in this unit, Renaissance marked a radical departure from the
practices and beliefs that generally conditioned the preceding period, the Middle Ages.
The superstitions, dogmas and unscientific notions that permeated the Dark Ages were
upturned and disproved. People were eager to test the Classical ideas and knowledge of
the Greek and Roman civilisation. The result of this is that new knowledge and ideas
were generated about exploration and ocean navigation that led to the ‘discovery’ a
hitherto unknown continent, the New World, by Christopher Columbus in 1492 and the
circumnavigation of the globe by Ferdinand Magellan in 1522.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, we set out to examine transport and mobility during the Renaissance period.
As have been pointed out in this unit, transport and travel methods were not radically
different from the period of the ‘Dark Ages’. This is so because for the most part
transport was accomplished through the land and the sea. The major component of
55
transport by land constituted the travelling on foot, which was the commonest form of
mobility among the peasants. There was also travel on horse, donkeys, mules and animal-
driven carts and wagons. However as from the 1600s, passenger coaches operated in
major cities in Europe. However, the state of the roads made travel on land most
inconvenient and tedious. Many people stuck to water and sea travel as a result. The
popular preference for sea and water transport made innovations in the shipbuilding and
maritime travel technology possible, which ultimately resulted in the ‘discovery’ of the
American continent, which was hitherto unknown to the Europe and ultimately the
circumnavigation of the world.
6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMNET

1. How did the people travel during the Renaissance?
2. How did the ideas of the Renaissance affect the way transport was conducted during
the Renaissance?
3. Of what importance is the innovation in shipbuilding and navigation instruments to
the revolution in transport during the Renaissance period?

Darby, G. (2013). “Transport during the Renaissance” Retrieved from http://prezi-
com/9lcqnoz0-a_z/transportation-during-the-renaissance/ on 01/07/2020
Demartini, J. (2014). “The Evolution of Transportation” Jetset Magazine Online Version

www.jetsetmag.com/travel/avaiation/evolution-of-transportation/
Essay, UK. (2018). History of Transportation. Retrieved from
http://www.ukessays.com/essays/transportation/history-of-
transportation.php?vref=1
Lambert, Tim. “A Brief History of Transport.” Retrieved from
http://www.localhistories.org/transport.html
56
Marco Polo. (1958). The Travels. Translated by Ronald Latham. London: Penguin.
57
UNIT 3: Transport during the Industrial Revolution (1700 – 1900 A.D)
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Contents
3.1 The Turnpike Era and the Development of Road Transport
3.2 Water Transport and the Age of Canals
3.3 The Development of Railways
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
This unit explores transport during the period of the Industrial Revolution in Europe. The
Industrial Revolution was a period of major industrialisation and innovation that
transformed largely rural, agrarian societies of Europe and America into industrialised,
urban ones. It is generally believed to have started in the mid-1700s and lasted until
around the 1920s. Fuelled by the use of steam power, the Industrial Revolution began in
Britain and spread to the rest of the world, including the United States. However, scholars
and historians have posited that the world has witnessed two industrial revolutions. The
first began around 1750 and ended around 1850. The second started as from 1860 and
ended around the 1920s. Both revolutions were very important periods in the history of
the human society because they influenced almost every aspect of life and especially
brought the world entirely new kinds of transports. Steam engine, waterway, road and
railroad experienced major improvement during the first revolution, and the second
revolution brought the inventions of automobile and airplane; both have played an
58
essential role in the development of transport in history. Of particular interest to us in this
unit are the changes or improvements that occurred to transport during this period.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
1. Explain what Industrial Revolution is all about and its significance in European and
World history.
2. Discuss the major developments in the evolution of transport during the period of
Industrial Revolution in Europe.
3. Identify the major means of transport popularly employed during the period.
4. Describe the various vehicles employed in transport during this period.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 The Turnpike Era and the Development of Road Transport
As noted earlier, the art of road construction was first introduced into Europe and Britain
by the Romans. These roads were meant primarily to serve military functions; their social
and commercial roles were secondary. They were used for mobilising soldiers and
policing conquered territories. These roads were so solidly made that some of them
survived hundreds of years till the period of the Industrial Revolution. However, much of
the roads suffered neglect and were never maintained after the fall of the Roman Empire
and throughout the Dark Ages.
Consequently, the British road network was generally poor at the beginning of the
Industrial Revolution. British early roads were narrow and often flooded in winter.
Travelling was done on foot or horseback as little wheel traffic was known. In the 17th
and 18th centuries, pack horse was almost the universal means of carrying goods over
land. Before the 17th century, wheel vehicles were little used on the roads. It was not
until the early 18th century that stage coaches driven by a coach man first appeared on
British roads. Even then, the heavy wheeled-vehicles destroyed this type of road and they
were regarded as nuisances.
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However, there was great improvement in road transport in Britain in the late 18th and
19th centuries. This was as a result of the Turnpike system and also improvement in
highway engineering. The idea behind the Turnpike system was that travellers be made
to contribute to the cost of road construction and maintenance through payment of tolls.
The idea was also to relieve the heavy financial burden of road maintenance on the
parishes (local administration). The Turnpike system contributed towards improving the
standard of British roads in the 18th and early 19th centuries. It brought some
improvement in the methods of road construction. Indeed, with little support from the
parishes and the central government, very little road improvement would have been
possible without the Turnpike Trusts.
Turnpike Trusts were statutory bodies created by the parliament to administer the
Turnpike system. By the 19th century, the Trusts produced an ever increasing mileage of
good highways throughout the country. Mere horse tracks were converted into something
resembling modern roads. The Turnpike system laid the foundation for the development
of modern transport system in Britain. In spite of its advantages, the system faced a
number of problems.
(i) Administrative inefficiency
(ii) It failed to establish a national system of road communication. Rather, it produced

a multitude of scattered, unconnected Turnpike administrations.
(iii) Financial mismanagement due to very loose supervision. In the collection of tolls,
the system led to ‘endless evasion, inequalities and favouritism of all kinds,
arbitrary exactions and systematic petty embezzlements.’
These deficiencies, coupled with the bitterness of many people against the Turnpike
trusts, often resulted in confrontations. This was because lots of people were very angry
that they had to pay money to use roads that had previously been free. In some places
there were violent protests and toll houses and toll gates were the targets of angry mobs.
These protests were called the Rebecca Riots.
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Modern road administration in Britain began with the disappearance of the Turnpike
system from the end of the 19th century and the emergence of county councils as the
authority responsible for highway maintenance. This led to a better condition of roads
and their widespread use in Britain. As a result of economic necessity, further efforts
were made to improve British roads in the 19th century. Following improvements in road
quality by 1830 practically every important place was connected with London and
provincial centres by a network of fast stage-coach services. The stage coaches of the
1820s and 1830s were much improved vehicle than the heavy, slow wagons of the 18th
century.
Throughout the 19th century, passenger traffic by road continued to grow and horse-
drawn passenger vehicles of several kinds provided passenger services in London and the
large cities in Europe. The British omnibus, the ancestor of the modern motor bus was
introduced into Britain in 1829. With this, many bought buses and put them in hire-
service. Many of the operators were one-man businesses; few companies participated.
However, the 20th century witnessed an unprecedented growth of the motor road
transport in Europe. This growth was the result of remarkable development of the internal
combustion engine. The commercial success of powered vehicles was preceded by a long
period of experiment dating to the 19th century. Various vehicles were made in the 15th
century including those powered by steam, coal, gas, and later on the gasoline or petrol-
powered engines.
The commercial production of motor vehicles in Europe began in 1880s. It started in

Germany and then France. In 1888, Karl Benz established the world’s first automobile
production. Benz’s automobile was technically a tricycle, but it was the first serial
production motorised vehicle. The following year, Wilhelm Maybach and Gottlieb
Daimler built a new type of vehicle, which was, from ground up, designed as an
automobile, not a carriage or a coach with an engine suspended on it. By the end of the
1890s, several types of cars were produced in Britain. With these developments, the era
of automobiles had effectively begun.
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ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1
Assess the contribution of Turnpike system to the development of British transport
system.
3.2 Water Transport and the Age of Canals

Rivers had been used for transport for centuries, but they have limitations. To be sure,
one of the best ways to travel or transport goods and heavy items before the Industrial
Revolution was the river. However, rivers were restricted to the routes nature had given,
and the sea, taking goods from port to port. More so, boats could travel downstream quite
easily using the wind current but travelling upstream was very difficult. At the beginning
of the revolution, attempts were made to improve water transport such as cutting long
meanders, and out of this grew the canal network, essentially man-made waterways
which could move heavy goods more easily and cheaply. However, the problem of
travelling upstream was solved during the Industrial Revolution through the invention of
the steam engine. In 1807, Robert Fulton built the first commercial steamboat. It used
steam power to travel upstream. Steamboats were soon to transport people and goods
along rivers throughout Europe.
The canal system dates to Roman Britain, but was largely used for irrigation or to link up
rivers. The navigable water network in the British Isles grew as the demand for industrial
transport increased. A canal has several advantages over using roads. First, a boat, or
barge, on a canal is not going to have a bumpy journey. So, fragile, precious goods are
much less likely to break en route. Second, a canal barge is much larger than a horse-
drawn wagon and so it can be used to carry much more than wagons on Turnpike roads
could be expected to. Third, canals are very cheap to use once they are constructed. If a
barge can carry 50 tonnes of coal and it only took two men to look after the barge,
consider how much has been saved in wages if the largest wagon on the road could carry
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two tonnes. Finally, canals were mostly built to connect rivers, lakes, and oceans. They
therefore penetrated interior areas and services on them were more regular.
Industrialists soon realised that canals were a very good idea and invested heavily in the
construction of this new form of transport. One of the first modern canals in the world
was the Bridgewater Canal built by the Duke of Bridgewater in 1761. With the
completion of the canal, the supply of coal to Manchester was greatly improved.
Thereafter, Liverpool was also linked by a canal in 1767. The most important canal built
in the United States was the Erie Canal, which is 363 miles long and connected Lake Erie
to the Hudson River and the Atlantic Ocean. It was completed in 1825 and became a
source of commerce and travel from the Western States to New York.
One of the famous canal builders and engineers of the period was James Brindley, who
built Bridgewater Canal. By the end of ‘canal mania’ of the 1790s, it was just about
possible to use inland waterways to get goods from most cities to any of the major ports.
The canals played a crucial role in determining the location of British industries. Canal
construction, which covered 4,000 miles by 1850, stopped with the invention and
development of steam-powered locomotives. Most of the canals of the industrial age are
still navigable today.
The invention of steam engines, the discovery of fossil fuels such as gas, petrol and
diesel, and the innovation in steel technology were epoch-making in the history of
transport and particularly during the Industrial Era. Modern boats and ships were built of
metal and they had engines in them. Voyage time across the Atlantic using those ships
took four times less than by sailing. As early as 1815, steamships were crossing the
English Channel. The Savannah became the first steamship to cross the Atlantic in 1819.
Meanwhile, it used to take several weeks to cross the Atlantic. Then in 1838, a steamship
called the Sirius made the journey in 19 days. However, steam did not completely replace
sail until the end of the 19th century when the steam turbine was used on ship.
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As from the 1870s, international transport entered a new phase with improvements in
engine propulsion and a gradual shift from coal to oil, which increased the speed and
capacity of maritime transport. Global maritime communication and travel were also
dramatically improved when infrastructures to reduce intercontinental distances, such as
the Suez Canal in 1869 and the Panama Canal in 1914 were constructed. With the Suez
Canal, the far reaches of Asia and Australia became more accessible while the Panama
Canal linking the American East and West coasts shortened maritime journeys by more
than 13,000 kilometres and reduced the distances from various locations globally.
Because of these developments, ships also dramatically increased in size and port
infrastructure had to expand in order to accommodate them. From the 1880s, regular
intercontinental liner passenger transport services linked major ports of the world until
the 1950s when air transportation took over.
Why do you think that the construction of canals was imperative during the Industrial
Revolution?
3.3 The Development of Railway

The inadequacy of canal and road transport prompted the development of the British
railway by the beginning of the 19th century. Indeed in the 1820s, cotton reportedly lay at
Liverpool for weeks waiting for transportation. In fact, it is said that it took longer to
move goods from Liverpool to Manchester than to cross the Atlantic! Additionally, some
of the canals were accused of overcharging and making excessive profits. It was these
inadequacies that induced manufacturers and others to risk money on railway
development. The introduction of trains and railway revolutionised and transformed
inland transport in the second half of the 19th century. Two factors aided railway
development. First was the availability of capital. This was the result of the industrial and
commercial progress brought about by the Industrial Revolution. Second was the
perfecting of the steam locomotive that could run on rails.
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Thomas Newcomen was the first person who invented the steam engines in 1712. They
were successfully put to use in pumping water out of mines in Britain with the engine on
the surface working a pump at the bottom of the mine by a long connecting rod.
However, these were large machines, requiring a lot of capital to build. They were also
largely inefficient and consume a lot of fuel. Despite these shortcomings, Newcomen’s
engine was used in the coal fields until the end of the 19th century because they were
reliable and easy to maintain. In 1765, James Watt, a Scottish inventor and mechanical
engineer, greatly reformed the steam engine to be efficient and consume less fuel. After
the improvement, the steam engine had been used been widely in ships and locomotives.
The first full-scale working railway steam locomotive was built in the United Kingdom
by Richard Trevithick, a British engineer. It however proved unsatisfactory because the
engine was too heavy for the rails. The first commercially successful steam locomotive
was Matthew Murray’s rack locomotive Salamanca built for the Middleton Railway in
Leeds in 1812. This was followed in 1813 by the locomotive Puffing Billy built by
Christopher Blackett and William Hedley.
In 1814 George Stephenson, inspired by the early locomotives of Trevithick, Murray and
Hedley, built the locomotive Blusher. His designs considerably improved on the works of
earlier pioneers. In 1825, he built the locomotive Locomotion for the Stockton and
Darlington Railway in Britain. This is the first public steam railway in the world,
although it used both horse power and steam power on different runs. In 1829,
Stephenson built the locomotive Rocket, which established him as the pre-eminent
builder of steam locomotives for railways in Great Britain, Ireland, the United States and
much of Europe.
The first public railway which operated with only steam locomotives, all the time, was
Liverpool and Manchester Railway, built in 1830. It was the first line built for the sole
purpose of carrying passengers and goods and relying solely on the steam locomotive for
power. It was with this railway that the potentialities of steam were fully realised. As
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most of the early railway companies were very successful, the railway spread across the
country at an amazing rate as many companies were built and run new lines. By 1837,
over 80 of such companies existed. That year alone, over a thousand miles of track were
laid. This was what was termed ‘Railway Mania’.
The importance of railway soon became clear and its use spread across the continent of
Europe and the United States, where it began its rapid expansion across newly-acquired
lands and American long push to “civilise” the western frontiers. Starting with national
railway systems, transcontinental railways were constructed from New York to San-
Francisco in the United States in 1869, the Trans-Canadian Railway in 1886 and the
trans-Siberian railway in 1904. As railway technology progressed, inter-city railway
tracks and underground tunnels emerged. The famous “London Underground” began
work in 1863 and continued to grow until 1890 when entire London train fleet started
using electrical engines. This marked the beginning of new era of urban rapid transit
systems, and underground ‘metros’ started appearing across the entire world.
Another important moment in the history of the railway was the introduction of diesel
engines, which brought the end to the age of steam locomotives. This is often termed
‘dieselisation.’ The first diesel railway was created in Switzerland in 1906 as a
collaborative effort between Rudolf Diesel, Adolf Klose and Gebruder Sulzer. Despite
not achieving immediate commercial success, the idea of diesel-powered railways took
off almost straight away after Hermann Lemp, an electrical engineer perfected a control
system which simplified the driving of diesel trains down to a single lever.
Although railway grew haphazardly throughout the length and breadth of Britain and
Europe in general, its impact was numerous and varied. A few of them will suffice. First,
passenger travel by rail influenced the growth of towns. The first suburbs in Britain were
products of the railway development. It was through improved communications that
populations distributed themselves away from crowded city centres. Second, railway
narrowed social and class distinctions. Noble and servants, manufacturers and peasants
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alike all shared the comfort, convenience and the dispatch of railway travelling. Third, it
improved the food supplies of large cities and urban centres in Europe. Perishable goods
such as fruit, vegetables, tomatoes and meat could now be brought in by rail from a great
distance. Landowners and farmers who had initially feared the coming of the railways
soon discovered they could get their supplies more cheaply as well as have access to the
best markets for their livestock and produce.
In addition, the railway broke the monopoly of canal transport. When a railway was built,
the insolence of the navigations ceased and competition forced a reduction in rates.
Indeed, after the coming of railways, canals attracted no new traffic and no new capital.
One of the reasons why the canals lost much traffic to the railway was because of the
obvious technical superiority of the railways in speed and cheapness of conveyance as
well as a clear advantage for long haul traffics. In the same manner, the railway also
drove the stage coaches from the highways in many European cities. Indeed by 1850,
stage coaches had all been driven off the road, accompanied by ruin for many who had
worked in the trade and ancillary services. People preferred railway to stage coaches
because they save money and time. Finally, railway development adversely affected the
Turnpike Trusts. Between 1837 and 1850, the toll revenue of the Turnpike Trusts
dropped by one-third because of railway competition. The railway thus aggravated the
evil of bad management and debt which already bedeviled the Trusts. The Trusts thereby
fell easy prey to railway competition.
Of what importance is the development of railway transport in the 18th century?
4.0 CONCLUSION
Our discussion on transport during the Industrial Revolution centred on three major
developments: The Turnpike System and its impact on road transport in Britain as well as
the invention of motor road vehicles; the popularisation of canal transport and the
introduction of railway transport. Of the three, two were entirely novel innovations that
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resulted from the economic progress and exigencies of the period. These were canal and
railway transport. These innovations themselves stemmed from the invention and
subsequent development of the steam engine, which became a major source of power.
The steam engine had more implication for transport than any other sector of the
economy. It was used to power boats, ships, motor vehicles, trains etc. In the end, the
invention of steam-powered locomotive became the most important transport technology
that did not only transform but revolutionise the way transport was conducted in the pre-
industrial era.
5.0 SUMMARY
This unit interrogates transport during the Industrial Revolution. The aim is to show how
transport was carried out in the pre-industrial period so as to establish the contributions
the period under study has made to the evolution of transport system in Europe in
particular and the world in general. The major achievement of the period as have been
presented in this lesson is the invention steam engine by Thomas Newcomen in 1712 and
its subsequently perfection by James Watt 1765. The breakthrough had transformational
effect on transport particularly the development of modern motor vehicles, boats, ships
and ultimately all kinds of locomotives powered by steam technology.
1. Discuss the motives for the development of British railway transportation system and
examine its impact in the period before the 20th century
2. What were benefits of canal transportation? Identify and discuss the problems
associated with canal transportation in Britain.
3. Write short notes on the following:
(i) Turnpike system
(ii) Road motor transport up to 1939
7.0 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READING

Albert, W. (1972). The Turnpike Road System in England, 1663 – 1840. London:
Cambridge University Press.
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O’Brien, P. (1977). The New Economic History of the Railways. London.
September, 2015.
Osborne, R. (2014). Iron, Steam and Money: The Making of the Industrial Revolution.
London: Pimlico Publishers
Pawson, E. (1977). Transport and Economy: The Turnpike Roads of Eighteenth Century
Britain. London and New York.
Stacey, J. (2018). “A brief history of the railways.” Retrieved July 14, 2020, from
www.raildiscoveries.com/the-discovery-blog/2018/september/a-brief-history-of-the-
railways.
Szostak, R. (1991). Role of Transportation in the Industrial Revolution: A Comparison of
England and France. McGill-Queen's University Press. Retrieved July 14, 2020,
from www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt8112c
Weightman, G. (2008). The Industrial Revolutionaries: The Creators of the Modern
World, 1776 -1914. Atlantic Books.
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UNIT 4: The Era of Modern Transport Systems (1920 – Present)
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Contents
3.1 The Growth of the Road Motor Transport
3.2 The Expansion of the Air Transport Services
3.3 The Transformation of the Railway Transport
3.4 Maritime Transport and Container Shipping
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
This unit, which is the fourth in this module, concludes our discussion on the evolution of
transport. It focuses on the development in the arena of transport between 1920 and the
present. The period has often been referred to as the era of modern transport systems. It is
marked by a number of developments and these include: the introduction and widespread
use of air transport; the re-engineering of the previously-invented internal combustion
engine; the adoption of the assembly line as the dominant form of industrial and
automobile production, which made the production of automobile much easier and less
cumbersome; the invention of super-fast and rapid trains; massive growth of maritime
transport and the globalisation of trade as well as advancements in information and
communication technology, which culminated in the use of personal computers and the
internet. As a result of these developments, transport now reached the era of individual
accessibility, portability and global coverage.
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2.0 OBJECTIVES
1. Discuss the major developments in the evolution of transport in the 20th century,
particularly as from 1920.
2. Identify the major modes of transport widely employed and they have transformed in
course of the century.
3. Explain the major factors responsible for the widespread use of personal or private
means of transport.
4. Describe the various vehicles employed in transport during this period.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 The Growth of the Road Motor Transport
The twentieth century witnessed a rapid growth of the road motor transport all around the
world. This growth was the result of three remarkable developments of the early
twentieth century: the improvement of the internal combustion engine (a modified
version of the fuel engine invented in the 1860s and modified by Daimler in 1876); the
invention of the pneumatic tyres by Dunlop as from 1888, which permitted the
production of portable, door-to-door transport automobiles such as cars, buses and trucks;
and the progress in road construction technology, which resulted in the construction of
modern highways all across Europe, America and indeed the entire world in the course of
the twentieth century. Without any doubt, these developments contributed to the growth
and widespread use of the motor road transport in the twentieth century.
Another development of this period that had great implication for motor road transport,
and other forms of transport is the adoption of the assembly line as the dominant form of
industrial production. The man who popularised this model in automobile production was
Henry Ford, a pioneer American automaker. Ford wanted to make a car that many people
from all walks of life could afford. The only way to do this was to improve the assembly
line methods, which he did. He broke the Model T’s assembly into eighty-four steps, and
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trained each of his workers to do just one. Ford achieved his goal with his car called
Model T in 1908 which he sold for 850 dollars.
In 1913, the American car maker Henry Ford began to use the assembly line to make his
car. An assembly line is a method of producing a large number of anything within a short
time. This is also known as mass production. It made cars much quicker and cheaper to
make and buy. By 1916, he was able to sell the same car for 400 dollars as he was to cut
the assembly line time from twelve and a half hours to one and a half hours. Ford sold
over fifteen million cars from 1908 to 1927.
To portray the exponential growth of the motor transport during the first half of the
twentieth century as a result of the mass production assembly line brought about, this
statistics will suffice. In 1904, about 17,810 vehicles were in use in Britain but this
increased to 265,182 in 1914. The outbreak of the World War I retarded this progression
and it was not until after the war in 1918 that motor transport rapidly expanded. Hence,
the number of vehicles in Britain grew from 330,518 in 1918 to 952,432 in 1922. This
process of expansion continued, sometimes less rapidly throughout the 1920s and 1930s.
By 1939, there were about 3 million vehicles in Britain alone.
Cars have developed a lot since then. Some of the first further developments were
additions such as the electric ignition and brakes for all four wheels. Today, cars are far
more advanced. Whereas the first car could travel at about 5 kilometres per hour, cars
nowadays can now drive faster than 200 kilometres per hour. The first recorded long
drive in a car in Britain was in 1895, and it was just over 90 kilometres long. Today, cars
travel for thousands of kilometres at a go. Some of the expensive cars have CD players,
computer screens, televisions, air-conditioners and even fridges. Some of the most
popular brands of motor vehicles are produced by Ford, General Motors, Toyota,
Mercedes Benz etc. manufacturing automobiles in all parts of the world, using their
subsidiaries. But no matter how luxurious or simple, motor vehicles have become one of
the most important ways to travel, especially in the cities. In most parts of the world, a lot
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of people have their own vehicles, while others commute by taxis or public buses, which
are really large vehicles.
There are many motor road vehicles that ply the roads such as personal automobiles
(jeeps, saloon cars, convertible, sport cars, land cruisers etc.) motorcycles and scooters,
bicycles, tricycles, lorries, tankers, vans, buses and trolleybuses that many people are
worried about congestion and the effect of this on the environment and on our health.
Many people think we should walk, cycle or use public transport in the future instead of
commuting by personal cars. Public transport such as buses, trains, metros and trams are
a much more efficient use of fuel because they can carry lots of passengers at once.
Transport has changed and it will change some more in the future. Perhaps we will all get
to travel into space! But walking and cycling might be the most popular ways to travel in
the future as we all try to stay fit and healthy and look after our planet.
3.2 The Expansion of the Air Transport Services

The start of the twentieth century was truly the dawn of a new era in the history of
transport as two American brothers, Orville and Wilbur Wright, pulled off the first
propelled flight in 1903. In essence, they invented the world’s first airplane. Eleven years
after this flight, the World War I broke out. Planes had by then developed quite a bit and
they became widely used in the war. Most of the planes had been made from wood and
canvass. After the war, people started to make them from aluminum. Planes became
faster and could fly farther. In 1919, passengers were able to fly internationally for the
first time. This flight was between London and Paris. Around the same time that the
Wright brothers were taken flight, French inventor Paul Cornu started developing a
rotorcraft. On November 13, 1907, his “Cornu” helicopter, made of little more than some
tubing, an engine, and rotary wings, achieved a lift height of about twenty seconds. With
that, Cornu would lay claim to having piloted the first helicopter flight.
In 1927, Charles Lindbergh became the first person to fly across the Atlantic Ocean
without stopping. He flew from New York to Paris in about thirty-three hours. His plane
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was called ‘The Spirit of Saint Louis.’ With this flight, aviation became a more
established industry, attracting millions of dollars of private investment almost overnight,
as well as the support of millions of Americans. In the 1930s, the jet engine was invented
in both Britain and Germany. Today, jet engines are still being used.
The 1920s and 1930s witnessed the expansion of regional and national air transport
services in Europe and the United States of America. During this period, flight was a
luxury only few people could afford. More so, only a small minority could afford foreign
travel. The post-World War II period was, however, the turning point for air transport as
the range, capacity and speed of aircrafts increased as well as the turning point for air
transport as the range, capacity and speed of aircrafts increased as well as the average
income of the passengers which enabled increased number of people to afford the luxury,
speed and convenience of air transport. The first commercial jet plane, the Boeing 707,
was put into service in 1958. This revolutionised the international movement of
passengers, marking the end of passenger transoceanic ships.
Meanwhile, air transport experienced remarkable improvements in the late 1960s and
early 1970s as high speed aircrafts, such as Boeing 747 and Concorde, were introduced
(although Concorde was finally retired in 2003). In 1986, a landmark was recorded when
a plane called Voyager completed the first non-stop, around-the-world flight without
refueling. Another major milestone in aviation industry took place in March 2018 when
the first direct flight between Perth, Australia and London reduced to 17 hours a trip that
once took twelve and a half days. Airbus and Boeing, the world’s major large passenger
aircraft manufacturers, have dominated the airline supply industry with their established
brands, Boeing 7-series and Airbus A-series of jets.
What’s next for air transport? This question is what mankind is grappling with at the
moment. This will probably be commercial suborbital space flight. There are also efforts
to design and manufacture supersonic jets. These are cutting-edge and technologically-
superior aircrafts that are faster than sound. Supersonic flight will make the world smaller
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and faster to access. It will increase opportunities for passengers to experience the world,
to manage their global operations, to explore investment or enjoy and learn a different
culture. At the moment, these are still in the future and at first will inevitably be very
expensive but it will eventually become cheap enough for ordinary people to afford.
3.3 The Transformation of the Railway Transport

Railway has been a popular form of transport since the nineteenth century. When the first
steam train was built in 1804, people worried that the speed would make rail passengers
unable to breathe or that they would be shaken unconscious by the vibrations. However,
by the 1850s, passengers were travelling at previously unthinkable speed of 50 miles per
hour (80km/p) or more. Rail transport became cheap, and people who had never been on
a journey before could now afford to make trips by trains. Places that had once seemed
far apart suddenly felt much closer together, because people and goods could move
between them in hours rather than days. In some places, new towns sprang up besides the
tracks.
Railway transport has undergone fundamental and far-reaching transformation in the

course of its evolution. Perhaps, the biggest and most dramatic change in railway and in
fact; modern industry itself was the multi-purpose application of steam, which saw the
birth of the first fully operational steam locomotive by Richard Trevithick in 1804.
Electric railways came next in 1837, with the first invention in Scotland by a chemist
called Robert Davidson in Aberdeen. His design ran on batteries which he later worked
into a larger locomotive called the Galvani. While it was tested on the Edinburgh and
Glasgow Railway in September of 1841, limited power of its batteries scuttled the
project. The Galvani was later destroyed by railroad workers who viewed the alternative
technology as a potential threat to their livelihoods.
With the advent of diesel-powered trains in the 1930s and the following decades, the
expansion of infrastructure for electric-powered trains slowed. Eventually, however,
diesel and electric power would be combined to create several generations of electro-
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diesels and hybrids that employed the best of both technologies and would go on to
become the standard for many railway lines.
In the 1960s and the 1970s, there was considerable interest in the possibility of building
passenger trains that could travel much faster than conventional trains. From the 1970s,
interest in an alternative high-speed technology centred on magnetic levitation, or
maglev, in which cars ride on an air cushion created by the electromagnetic reaction
between the onboard device and another embedded in its guide way. The first high-speed
electric “bullet trains” began running between Tokyo and Osaka in 1964. Named after
their bullet-shaped noses, these 12-car trains were the world’s fastest, capable of going
131mph (210km/h). Passengers enjoyed smooth, quiet travel and aircraft-style seats. It
was the first rail road specially built for fast intercity trains. Slower trains were not
allowed on the tracks.
Since then, many high-speed trains have been built around the world, including in Spain,
France, Germany, Italy, Scandinavia, Belgium, South Korea, China, the United Kingdom
and Taiwan. The United States has also discussed installing a high-speed rail between
San Francisco and Los Angeles and on the East Coast between Boston and Washington
D.C. The most prominent of these super-fast, rapid trains include the first commercial
maglev system built in Shanghai, China in 2003 and has an operational speed of 440
kilometres per hour and the TGV system installed in France in 2007 with a speed
reaching just over 574 kilometres per hour, a world record for trains.
Even more advancements in these machines are in the developmental stages, including
the Hyperloop tube train, projected to reach speed close to 700 miles per hour, which
completed its first successful prototype test run in 2017. With news of trains that will one
day run underwater, trains powered by hydrogen and trains that can drive themselves, the
future of rail travel looks bright, and we for one can’t wait to see what is going to happen
next.
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3.4 Maritime Transport and Container Shipping
The existence of reliable water transport has played a significant role in the development
of human society over the centuries. For many thousands of years, mankind has shipped
goods across the oceans, from one land to another. Think of the great seafaring peoples in
history; the Phoenicians, Egyptians, Greeks, Romans, Portuguese, Spanish, Dutch, British
and many more. Sailing the world looking for new treasures, they brought home and
traded food, jewels and materials that their countrymen had never seen. The merchant
and naval fleet of Great Britain during the Industrial Revolution was instrumental to her
emergence as an economic and imperial power of the 19th and 20th centuries, with an
empire that spanned one-third of the entire globe. Undoubtedly, maritime transport has
been crucial to the economic and political advancement of most nations throughout
history.
Three developments in the transport industry in the 20th century brought about great
decline in maritime transport be it inland, coastal or overseas. First is the popular use of
motor road transport. Second is the emergence of the newly-improved and rapid railway
transport, which made the conduct of inland waterways and coastal transport operations
less appealing. This is because the two transport modes were far more flexible,
comfortable and time saving. In the same vein, the introduction of commercial air service
revolutionise the international movement of passengers, marking the end of passenger
transoceanic ships.
However, the second half of the twentieth century witnessed massive development in
information and communication technology, the incredible industrialisation of the West
and the globalisation of trade. During this period, the world witnessed an unprecedented
boom in world exchange of goods and services, with the resultant effect of an
unparalleled boom of international sea trade. However, the basis of the world trade
system of the twentieth was consolidated in the nineteenth century: it was the flow of
industrial goods from Europe to the rest of the world and the flow of raw materials to
Europe from the rest of the world.
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One innovation that brought about a revolution in the way maritime freight transport or
shipping was carried was the use of containers, which increased flexibility, reduced
transshipment costs and delays and increased the quantity of freight moved at local,
regional and international levels. The idea of using some kind of shipping container was
not completely new. Boxes similar to modern containers had been used for combined rail
and horse-drawn transport in England as early as 1792. However, in 1955, Malcolm
McLean, a US-based conveyance businessman from North Carolina, USA, bought a
steamship company with the idea of transporting entire truck trailers with their cargo still
inside. He realised that it would be much simpler and quicker to have one container that
could be lifted from a vehicle directly on to a ship without first having to offload its
contents.
As a result, cargo containers were fashioned in a bid to simplify the long-drawn and
inefficient processes involved in shipping of cargo through sea routes. The long process
meant that freight had to be suitably separated or dismantled before it could be put on a
ship. His ideas were based on the theory that efficiency could be vastly improved through
a system of “intermodalism”, in which the same container, with the same cargo, can be
transported with minimum interruption via different transport modes during its journey.
Containers could be moved seamlessly between ships, trucks and trains. This would
simplify the whole logistical process and, eventually, implementing this idea led to a
revolution in cargo transportation and international trade over the next fifty years. As
containerised operations have increased alongside technological developments, cargo
shipping as it stands today would not be possible without containers.
4.0 CONCLUSION
Without any doubt, the future of transport is bright. Already we are in the so-called ‘jet
age’ – the era of modern transport systems. However, efforts are already being made to
come up with much faster, supersonic and environmentally-friendly transport systems.
Some of these innovations have been tested and currently being put to service in the
developed countries of the world. The history of our evolving transport and the mystery
78
of its future will be in our hands, hearts and minds. May our compelling desire to know
the universe, lead us onward and outward to those new and broader transport horizons of
tomorrow.
5.0 SUMMARY
This unit examined transport and developments in the transport industry in the
contemporary. It put into focus the developments in the motor road transport with regard
to its popular and widespread use. It x-rayed the introduction and expansion of air
transport services in the twentieth century. In this unit, we considered the transformation
of the railway transport from the sluggish, steam-powered locomotive to the electric-
diesel hybrids and the rapid and fast-paced “bullet trains”. Finally, the introduction of
containers into the maritime transport and its impact of global trade were brought into
perspective. Finally, in each section we interrogate what the future of each of the mode of
transport holds and from what is being done at the moment, the future of transport and
travel is promising and very bright.
1. Account for the growth of motor road transport from the beginning of the twentieth
century.
2. Why do you think passenger transoceanic transport declined in the twentieth
century?
3. What were the major developments in the evolution of railway transport in the course
of the twentieth century?
4. How did the introduction of container shipping revolutionise global maritime trade?
5. Account for the expansion and widespread of air transport in the twentieth century.
7.0 REFERENCES/SUGGESTED READING

Barker, T. (1985). “The International History of Motor Transport.” Journal of
Contemporary History, 20 (1), 5 – 19. Retrieved on 12th of July, 2020 from
www.jstor.org/stable/260488
Bellis, M. (2020). “The History of Railroad Technology”. ThoughtCo, Retrieved on 11th
79
of July, 2020 from www.thoughtco.com/history-of-railroad-4059935
Harlaftis, G., and Theotokas, I. (2015). “Maritime Business During the Twentieth
Century: Continuity and Change” Law Explorer. Retrieved on 12th of July, 2020
fromwww.lawexplores.com/maritime-business-during-the-twentieth-century-
continuity-and-change.
September, 2015.
Paris, C., Di Fonzo, T., and Llama, L. (2018). “A Brief History of Shipping”. The Wall
Street Journal 24th January, 2018.
Stacey, J. (2018). “A Brief History of the Railway”. Retrieved on 14th of July, 2020 from
www.raildiscoveries.com/the-discovery-blog/2018/september/a-brief-history-of-the-
railways/
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Module 3: Historical Development of Transport Infrastructure in Nigeria
Unit 1: The Development of Water Transport in Nigeria
UNIT 1: The Development of Water Transport in Nigeria
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Contents
3.1 Nature and Characteristics of Water Transport
3.2 The Development of Inland Waterways in Nigeria
3.3 The Development of Ports in Nigeria
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The focus of the module, which is the third in this course guide, is the historical
development of transport infrastructure in Nigeria. It is divided into four units meant to
portray the development of water, road, railway and air transport in Nigeria respectively.
The development of these transport infrastructures reached their apogee during the era of
colonial rule in Nigeria. As a result, they have often been referred to as the colonial
transport system. The preoccupation of this unit, the first of the four in this module, is the
development of water transport in Nigeria. In carrying out this task, attention will be paid
81
to the nature and characteristics of water transport, the development of inland water
transport in Nigeria, as well as the development of ports and overseas transport and trade.
To give some historical flavour, the period covered in our discussion will general span
pre-colonial, colonial and post-colonial eras.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
 Appreciate the level of the development of water transport during the pre-colonial
period in Nigeria.
 Identify the different inland waterways and their development during the pre-
colonial, colonial and post-colonial period
 Understand the development of modern seaports and overseas transport in Nigeria.
 Discuss how water transport has fared and the challenges that led to its decline in
Nigeria today.
3.0 MAIN CONTENTS

3.1 Nature and Characteristics of Water Transport
Water transport is one of the oldest forms of conveying people, goods and services from
place to place. It involves travelling or conveying of goods and passengers by the use of
boats, canoes, ships, steamers, yachts and ferries through lagoons, oceans, seas and inland
waterways. Inland waterways refer to the bodies of water available for transport within a
nation and these include streams, rivulets, rivers, canals, lakes and creeks. In essence,
water transport is categorised into two: inland water transport and ocean transport. Ocean
transport simply refers to the movement of passengers and goods across the high seas.
Water transport possesses a number of advantages over other modes of transport. This is
due largely to the fact that water transport offers the most economical, energy efficient
and environmental-friendly means of transporting all types of cargo from place to place.
It is the safest means of transport and also offers cheapest rates in areas where water exist
naturally. This facilitates commerce, promote wealth creation, poverty alleviation, and
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create job opportunities within such regions. The ancillary sector of canoe and boat
building industry generates employment through active engagement of the youths in
welding and fabrication process. Finally, the cost of utilising shipping ports and labour
facilities which are essential prerequisites for water transport development are quite
economical.
3.2 The Development of Inland Waterways in Nigeria

Nigeria is blessed with impressive networks of rivers and their tributaries. The seaboard
of Nigeria has the most extensive network of waterways in Africa. The two major rivers
in Nigeria, River Niger and River Benue, dissect the country into east, west and north
sections. The two rivers run into each other at Lokoja, Kogi State and flow into the
Atlantic Ocean. Although both rivers flow outside of the country, approximately 1440
kilometres of the River Niger and 960 kilometres of River Benue flow within Nigeria. In
Northern Nigeria, Sokoto and Kaduna are some of the major tributaries of the River
Niger while Gongola and Katsina Ala are some of the major tributaries of River Benue.
In north-eastern Nigeria, Hadejia River and others flow into the Lake Chad. Other major
coastal rivers in south-western Nigeria include Ogun, Osse and Oshun, while the coastal
rivers in south-eastern Nigeria include Cross River, Imo River, Ebonyi River and other
tributaries of the Niger River such as Anambra and Mamu Rivers.
For centuries before the advent of the Europeans and the establishment of colonial rule,
the peoples of Nigeria depended largely on these networks of rivers and waterways for
the transport of goods and people. However, this enterprise was fraught with a lot of
dangers. First, most of these rivers are only navigable during the rainy seasons. Indeed,
many of the rivers dried up or did not have enough water volume for navigation during
the dry seasons. Second, the rivers were often affected by the tropical rain and
thunderstorms which caused the rivers to overflow their banks, caused sand to block their
opening on the coast, and caused uprooted trees to obstruct free movement of canoes.
Finally, the network of rivers were limited in scope and confined mainly to the southern
half of the country and to a few regions in the north along the Niger and the Benue. The
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obvious limitation of the waterways meant that people in many other areas of the interior
had travel several miles on foot before they could reach the waterways.
This was pretty much the state of transport system in Nigeria when the British established
their first foothold in Nigeria in 1860. Although the British government realised the need
to improve the transport if their economic interests were to be served, they did not do
enough to improve it significantly between 1860 and 1900. The inland waterways
continued to be the only effective means of transport around the coastal areas and further
along the route of the Niger and Benue Rivers. These were used by the British
administrative officers in the course of their duties, and a few traders also found them
useful in transporting bulky export products (e.g. palm products) down to the coast, and
in supplying imported goods to the people of the interior. The missionaries found the
waterways very helpful in their task of spreading the Christian faith. From about 1880,
the Royal Niger Company operated a number of steam launches on the Niger River,
connecting the northern portion of the country with the coast. As commercial activities
increased, the number of canoes plying the waterways also grew, particularly towards the
end of the 19th century.
The year, 1900, was significant for the development of inland waterways in Nigeria. This
is so because that year the British took direct political control of Nigeria having revoked
the Charter of the Royal Niger Company a year before. The development of the inland
waterways was mainly concerned with improving the major rivers and their tributaries.
After 1900, various schemes were introduced; most concentrated on clearing snags on the
waterways and in some cases, rivers were deepened and widened. The regular dredging
of some rivers was undertaken and explosives were often used to clear obstructions. The
main rivers and their tributaries were kept open for navigation. In order to break the
monopoly of the trading companies, particularly the Royal Niger Company, governments
of Northern and Southern Nigeria started mail and cargo services to help all merchants
alike by conveying a limited quantity of merchandise up the Niger in government vessels.
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By 1945, a stiff competition had occurred between inland water transport on one hand
and motor road transport and railway on the other. The volume of foreign trade traffic for
Nigeria’s transport system increased after the Second World War, but river transport
enjoyed the least prosperity. Between 1946 and 1957, road transport and rail tonnage
increased by about 17.5 per cent and 6.4 per cent per annum respectively, while river
transport increased by only 4.1 per cent per annum. Apart from the competition from both
the railways and motor road transport, one other important constraint upon increased
river transport was the limited capacity of the rivers themselves, due to physical defects
and lack of artificial improvements. Perhaps the most important project considered in
connection with navigation on inland waterways was the construction of a multipurpose
dam on the Niger at Kainji. It was thought that by constructing a system of locks on it
navigation could be considerably improved.
3.3 The Development of Ports in Nigeria

At the initial stages of European commercial activities, there were scattered small trade
activities along the coastline such as Lagos, Gwato, Forcados, Koko, Burutu, Akassa,
Brass and Calabar among other, each with a very limited hinterland. However as the
penetration and subsequent control of the interior continued new trade routes were
established and consequently, some ports such as Gwato, Brass, Koko, Forcados and
other declined in importance and became extinct while other ports such as Lagos, Warri
and Port Harcourt became dominant. However, the increase in the volume of trade in the
aftermath of the World War II meant that the Nigerian ports had to handle more traffic,
particularly cargo. It also meant that harbour facilities had to be improved in order to
cope with this increased traffic. The ports in order of importance were Lagos, Port
Harcourt, Sapele, Burutu, Warri, Calabar and Degema.
The Lagos port had two sets of harbours – those at Apapa on the mainland and the
customs quay on Lagos Island. Apapa was served by rail and was used for up-country
cargoes, while the customs quay, which was road-served only, was used for Lagos cargo.
Both the Apapa and the customs quay areas were extended by the reclamation of land
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from the lagoon. The modern quay at Apapa, with improved harbour facilities was
opened by Queen Elizabeth II on her visit to Nigeria in 1956. The Port Harcourt port was
approached by the Bonny river and lies about forty-one miles from the sea. The
importance of this port increased after the establishment of the cement industry and the
exploration for petroleum oil in the area it served.
The Warri port was some twenty-five miles above Forcados on the Warri river. The
channels of this river were also shallow and demanded great care when used by vessels.
The Calabar port was some forty miles distant from the Fairway buoy, and five miles
above the main entrance to the Cross river. The approach as in others, was difficult and
dangerous, but ships of twenty feet draught could enter at high tide. The port of Degema
was situated on the Sombriero river but could only be reached via the Bonny river. The
most significant features of these ports were the narrow passages leading to them, the
shallow rivers on which vessels had to sail and the problem of dredging in order to keep
them open as much as possible.
The development of modern seaports in Nigeria was linked to the establishment of

Nigerian Ports Authority in 1954. The NPA became responsible for the provision,
improvement and maintenance of harbour facilities and services in all ports. Since then,
Nigerian ports have played a dominant role in the country’s international trade. However,
the port system has continually been under stress and suffered from serious port
congestion in the 1970s when other ports such Tin Can Island port and Roll-on/Roll-off
(RORO) port in Lagos were established. Some of the major seaports in Nigeria today
include: Lagos Port Complex and Tin Can Island Port in Lagos, Delta Port Complex in
Warri, Calabar Port, Rivers Port at Port Harcourt, and Onne Ports.
In spite of this, the Nigerian ports continued to suffer other unfavourable conditions such
as use of old and dilapidated haulage facilities in handling cargoes as well as fixed tariffs
and quotas by the government. The reaction of port users to these unfavourable
conditions was the use of alternative ports along the coast of West Africa such as the
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Cotonou Port in the Republic of Benin, Lome Port in Republic of Togo, Accra Port in
Ghana and Douala Port in Cameroon and others. Presently, much of the traffic that would
have used Nigerian ports are diverted to other ports along the coast of West Africa in
spite of the Port Reform in 2003 aimed at revitalising the Nigerian ports since the ports
infrastructure are long overdue for expansion and modernisation.
4.0 CONCLUSION
Without any doubt, the inland waterways still have a lot to offer particularly at the time
when there is crisis of mobility and general lack of effective means of transport in the
country. The roads are generally bad with craters and potholes all over, making accidents
and loss of lives commonplace. Thieves, kidnappers and robbers in uniforms are now the
kings of the roads. The railway system is in a state of coma. With the exception of few
places, the rails are generally rusty and decadent as a result of neglect and disuse. With
these state of affairs in the transport sector in the country, water transport, if properly
planned and executed, will no doubt ease the difficult situation. For the ports, government
should make efforts to reform and reposition them for efficient services. Administrative
bottlenecks, unnecessary interference by government, bribery and corruption, tribalism
and nepotism etc. are serious issues government must looked into and eradicate for
maximum efficiency and productivity of the seaports.
5.0 SUMMARY
The development of ports and inland waterways in Nigeria has a long and chequered
history. It began in the period preceding the advent of the European merchants and
traders on the coast of West Africa. During this period, the different indigenous peoples
of Nigeria had developed their transport and communication systems around the
impressive and widespread network of rivers. However, inland navigation was
constrained by two major factors: the seasonality of the rivers and the obstructions to
movement caused by rapids and fallen trees. These challenges were the preoccupation of
the British government at the beginning of colonial rule in 1900. Several initiatives taken
from this period was mainly geared toward the expansion, dredging and opening up of
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rivers to navigation. However, the popularity of motor road transport and railway as from
1945 sealed the fate of inland water transport in Nigeria. Water transport in Nigeria then
took the form of overseas transport as the traffic of international trade increased. Modern
seaports emerged in Nigeria to cater for this volume of trade. Today, the ports of Nigeria
particularly the Lagos Port and Tin Can Island are under stress and strain. There is need
for the government to reposition and modernise them for effective services.

1. Describe the significance of inland waterway to trade and commerce of the pre-
colonial period in Nigeria.
2. What was there no significant improvement in the transport system between 1860 and
1900 in Nigeria?
3. What were the initiatives taken by government to develop inland waterways between
1900 and 1945?
4. Account for the development of seaports in Nigeria.
7.0 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READING

September, 2015.
Olukoju, A. (1996). “Transportation in Colonial West Africa” in G.O. Ogunremi and
E.K. Faluyi (eds), An Economic History of West Africa Since 1750. Ibadan: Rex
Charles.
Ekundare, R.O. (1973). An Economic History of Nigeria, 1860 – 1960. London: Methuen
& Co Ltd.
Falola, T., and Ogunremi, S.A. (1986). “Traditional, Non-mechanical Transport System”
in T. Falola and S. A. Olanrewaju (eds), Transport Systems in Nigeria, Foreign and
Comparative Studies/African Series XLII, New York: Syracuse
88
UNIT 2: The Development of Railway Transport in Nigeria
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Contents
3.1 The Development of Railway Transport in Nigeria
3.2 The Impact of Railway on Colonial Nigeria
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
This unit focuses on the development of railway transport in Nigeria. It is noteworthy that
at the beginning of the British colonial rule in the second half of the nineteenth century,
the transport system in Nigeria was limited to the waterways, footpaths and bush tracks
that had been developed centuries before. The inadequacy of these modes of transport in
view of increased economic activities brought about by the British colonial enterprise
necessitated at first the repositioning of the existing transport system, and later the
introduction a new system which is the railway. The railway became very important in
the British agenda of economic exploitation and plundering of the Nigerian colony.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, student should be able to:
 Appreciate the importance of waterways, footpaths and bush tracks played as means
of transport during the pre-colonial era in Nigeria.
 Understand the political and economic situations that made the development of
railway in Nigeria inevitable.
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 Explain the challenges that confronted the British colonial administration in the
development of railway in Nigeria and how they surmounted.
 Discuss the impact of the railway revolution on both the colonial administration and
the indigenous people of Nigeria.
3.0 MAIN CONTENTS

3.1 The Development of Railway Transport in Nigeria
The development of railway in West Africa was inspired by the magical effect that
railway had had on the progress of the industrial revolution in Europe as well as the
economic miracles of North America, India and Australia. This effect was so great that
railway was described as “the White Hope of the 19th century.” The clamour for railway
development in West Africa was started by private interests as from the middle of the
19th century. For example, John Whitford, who travelled extensively in West Africa
between 1853 and 1875, published an account of his travels in which he suggested the
construction of a railway from Lagos to Lokoja. However, it is not known whether his
proposal was communicated to the Colonial Office in London.
Between 1870 and 1893, a number of proposals were put forward by British firms for
concessions from the British Government to undertake railway projects in Nigeria. One
such application came in 1880 from Frederick Barry, a London businessman, for
permission to build a line from Lagos to Abeokuta. These propositions did not secure
official support for a number of reasons. First, the early railway schemes were not well
defined. Second, these schemes were capital intensive and their promoters, for the most
part, were mere enthusiasts who formulated grandiose plans but lacked financial capacity
to execute them. Finally, the British government was undecided on its political
commitments and economic role towards West Africa until after the 1884/85 Berlin
Conference was held. As a result, until the last decade of the nineteenth century, railway
projects in Nigeria failed to take off.
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By the early 1890s, the British government began to realise the importance of railway to
British colonial enterprise in Nigeria. This change of attitude by the British colonial
government was influenced by a number of reasons. First, there was the heightening of
imperial rivalry among the European powers and they were required to effectively
occupy and administer their colonial acquisitions. Railway was a good proof of effective
colonial occupation. Second, railway was desirable as it could facilitate easy and quick
despatch of the military to quell resistance by Africans in the on-going colonial
conquests. Third was the desire to expand British trade through the opening up of the
interior of Nigeria as new markets for the British manufactured goods. In addition, the
development of railway was necessary to reach the produce centres of the hinterland of
Nigeria that were not readily accessible through the waterways. More so, the bulky nature
of both import and export commodities which cannot be transported by the existing
waterways as well as the absence of good roads and unavailability of haulage road
vehicles made the railway construction desirable. Finally, it was hoped that railway will
strengthen administrative control of the colony and ensure more flexible movement of
colonial administrative personnel.
The construction of the first Nigerian railway between Lagos and Ibadan commenced in
March 1896 by the British government. However, the progress of construction was
significantly handicapped until 1898. A number of factors were responsible for this. First,
it was difficult to raise enough foreign capital to supplement local revenues for the
finance of the railway project. Second, there was the problem of transporting the rail
equipment to Nigeria, as shipping to and from West Africa took time. Third, it was
difficult to recruit skilled labour in the United Kingdom for the supervision of the
construction work. However, by the close of the 19th century the railway construction, on
gauge of 3 feet 6 inches, had progressed steadily along the Lagos-Ibadan route. Whereas
Ota, a distance of 20 miles from Lagos, was reached in September 1897, Abeokuta at
sixty miles was reached in April 1899. By the end of 1900, the whole one hundred and
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twenty three (123) miles from Lagos to Ibadan had been completed and ready for opening
the following year.
As early as 1900, there were proposals that the railway be extended beyond Ibadan. Sir
Fredrick Lugard, the Governor of Northern Nigeria, was particularly eager to see the
extension of the railway to the northern part of the country, and stressed its economic and
military importance in view of the French policy on her territories around Nigeria. He
recommended that the Lagos railway be extended to Ilorin and ultimately to Kano, and
that a new eastern line be given urgent consideration. After much pressure, the
government agreed to the extension of the line to the North and two possible routes were
considered: one from Lagos via Fiditi, Oyo and Ogbomoso, and the other from Lagos via
Oshogbo. The latter was approved, and work began immediately. The railway line
reached Oshogbo in 1907, Jebba (on the River Niger) in 1909 and Kano, 711 miles
inland, in 1911. On 1 January 1912, the railway route from Lagos to Kano was officially
opened.
Meanwhile, before the Lagos railway was extended to Northern Nigeria, work had
already started on some internal lines in the area. The first of these lines was between
Zungeru and Kaduna, linking the seat of the Northern government at Zungeru with River
Kaduna, from where goods and passengers could travel via the Niger River to the coast.
This line, which was 12 miles of 2 feet 6 inches gauge, was laid in 1901. It was extended
to cover 22 miles in 1902. The Bauchi Light Railway, which was started in 1911, was
completed as far as Bukuru in 1914, thus serving the tin-mining area of Northern Nigeria.
In 1912, the railway of Northern Nigeria was amalgamated with the Southern Nigeria
railway. Before then, they had been managed by two separate administrative bodies.
The idea of an Eastern line was kept in abeyance until the discovery of coal in
commercial quantity at Enugu in 1909. The challenge here was that of finding the
cheapest and shortest route by which coal from Enugu could reach the coast. It was
proposed that a railway line be constructed from Enugu to Onitsha on the River Niger,
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from where coal could be brought to Lagos by boat. This proposal was later jettisoned in
favour of a more ambitious and expensive system stretching through Eastern Nigeria and
joining the existing Western system in the North. The Eastern railway line ran from
Enugu to Port Harcourt due to the presence of a deep sea harbour from where the mineral
could be evacuated. Work began on its construction in 1913, and by 1916 work had been
completed between Port Harcourt and Enugu. The project suffered a temporary setback
during the World War I but work resumed in 1920. The Eastern railway line was
constructed northwards through Makurdi and Jos, joining the Western line at Kaduna in
1926. The Western and Eastern lines formed the national grid of the railway system in
Nigeria.
3.2 Impact of Railway on Colonial Nigeria

The development of railway in Nigeria had both positive and negative impact on the
British colonial administration as well as the people of the colony. The colonial
administration benefited immensely from the development of railway in the following
ways:
1. Consolidation of British Colonial Political Control: The British realised early
enough that their economic interests in Nigeria might never be fully accomplished if
they did not exercise full political control on the colony. Hence, the development of
railway was equally geared towards achieving this purpose. Railways a means of
transporting soldiers for quelling rebellion and colonial administrators during the
colonial period. This in effect helped to strengthen the colonial control of the British
on the Nigerian colony.
2. Evacuation of Primary Products: The main objective of the colonial enterprise in
Nigeria was the evacuation of the cash crops and primary resources vastly available in
the country. In line with this objective, railway systems were designed to link the sea
ports with the major produce centres of the hinterland of Nigeria. In addition, the
advantage that railway has over traditional transport in terms of cheaper costs and the
93
tonnage of the products which can be transported at once to the coasts promoted
British economic hegemony.
3. Stimulation of Export Production: Railway played a major role in colonial
emphasis on export production in Nigeria. It practically ripped open the interior parts
of Nigeria beyond the reach of navigable rivers and other forms of cheap
transportation. In this manner, centres of production were opened up; and in the face
of a ready market at the coast export production was greatly stimulated. An example
of this, as Gavin and Oyemakinde noted, was Kano, where the arrival of railway set
off a sudden and massive upsurge in groundnut production for exports. This was
replicated in other areas where important cash crops and mineral were found in
Nigeria.
4. Source of Internally Generated Revenue: Though considered a project that is
capital intensive, the railway soon proved to be a veritable source of revenue for the
British colonial government. For instance, the Southern Nigeria line, according to
Crowder, was built at the enormous cost of £13,000 a mile, compared with only
£3,800 for the Northern line, and yet by 1913 was showing a net surplus of over
£250,000.
The impact of the railway development in Nigeria was not only felt by the British
colonial administration; the indigenous people also felt the impact of the railway
revolution in Nigeria in the following ways:
1. Urbanisation: The advent of railway consolidated the position of existing towns and
commercial centres, caused the decline of others especially those which did not
develop road links with the railways and led to the emergence of new towns and
markets at railway junctions and stations. It is noteworthy that most urban centres that
emerged during the colonial period were found around railways. These locations
became the focal points of trade and new frontiers of economic opportunities,
attracting local traders from immediate and distant communities. Without doubt,
railway contributed to the urbanisation process of such towns as Sango-Ota,
94
Abeokuta, Ilaro, Oshogbo and Ilorin in the West; Kaduna, Kano, Jos and Kafanchan
in the North; Port Harcourt, Umuahia, Aba, Enugu, Otukpo and Makurdi in the East.
2. Supply of Manufactured Goods: Railways served the two purposes of the
evacuation of primary resources from Nigeria to Britain and the supply of the British
manufactured goods to the hinterland of Nigeria. As a result of this, many railways
stations and proximate towns played hosts to several stores belonging to the
multinational companies like the United African Company (UAC), Patterson
Zochonis (PZ) and John Holts. These companies were outlets through which
European manufactured products could be supplied into the interior of Africa.
3. Growth of Internal Commerce: Railway helped in stimulating commercial
activities in that production of food crops for local markets was greatly enhanced.
Farmers no longer incur losses as a result of bad networks of roads which made the
movement of farm products to markets very difficult. Fast and reliable transport
means perishable goods such as tomatoes, potatoes, vegetables etc. gained access to
markets, either near or distant, on time. The same goes for cash crop, which were
consumed locally.
4. Inter-Group Relations: Another important impact of railway in Nigeria is the
emergence of towns and commercial centres that attracted a population that was made
up of other ethnic groups, thereby fostering interactions and inter-group relations.
Influx of people of different ethnic background promoted inter-ethnic marriages and
cultural exchanges. In many towns in Yorubaland, there is always a quarter reserved
for Hausa immigrants known as Sabon Gari. The same goes all groups throughout
Nigeria.
5. Spread of Western Education and Christianity: Cultural exchanges that the
development of railway afforded through the movement of goods and services by
people aided the spread of Christianity and Islam through the country. It is important
to know that part of the people who worked assiduously for the construction of rail
roads were the evangelists who wanted to spread their Christian faith in the interior
part of the country. When the railway started operations, it contributed immensely to
95
the movement of the missionaries to the interior part of Yorubaland and the Eastern
part of the country. The missionaries carried out their mission works by establishing
mission houses and schools through Nigeria. This was the beginning of the spread of
Western education in Nigeria.
6. Job Opportunities: It is on record that railway in Nigeria was the major employer of
labour in Nigeria during the colonial period. Hence, it afforded employment for
people who were not able to engage themselves in farming activities. Between 1912
and 1955, the estimate figure of employee with the Railway Corporation lingered
around forty-two thousand in Nigeria (42,000). Apart from this, indirect jobs were
created by this sector with large number of private lock-up shops built along railway
terminus servicing the workers and passengers. The wages derived from the
employment opportunities it offered improved the standard of living of the people.
In spite of the positive impact of the development of railway in Nigeria, which has been
examined above, the introduction of railway transport was not without its negative
implications. First is the environmental degradation that it caused. For the most part, the
rail tracks were laid and made to pass through thick forest areas, which meant that forests
were cleared for the track to be laid. Again, in order to prevent a situation where big trees
were felled into the tracks by heavy rains and windstorms during rainy seasons, the
perimeter of the track areas were equalled cleared. Moreover, before coal was discovered
in Enugu, timber was the only source of fuel, hence, the railways greatly contributed to
the rapid deforestation that took place in the early colonial period in Nigeria.
Second, the railway caused a lopsided development in the transport sector and the
emergence of new centres of commercial activities. The railway drastically drew away
traffic from the waterways to itself, thereby bringing the previously prominent trading
ports into serious decline. For instance, the Eastern line diverted trade from the ports of
Calabar, Opobo and Oguta to its terminal at Port Harcourt; the Western line, from Warri
and Badagry to Lagos. Third, another negative effective of the railway system was in
terms of both human and material costs. Indeed, Crowder observed that the railway were
96
built over previously uncharted country, through thick forests, over different hill ranges,
and were often marked by the gravestones of workers.
Moreover, there was a huge financial strain that railway construction brought about. As
the British government was not eager to invest heavily in their colonies as a result of the
policy of self sufficiency, funding the huge project became a herculean task. Ralph
Austen submitted that “the great financial burden of railway construction in tropical
Africa was felt first through the role it gave the state in planning transport and second,
through the pressure it put upon African revenue.” Finally, the railway policy was not
geared towards the development of the indigenous economy but towards strengthening of
the metropolitan economy. The railway in Nigeria and indeed in the whole of colonial
Africa clearly depicted the centre-fringe relationship that existed between the colonial
powers and the colonial territories.
4.0 CONCLUSION
The development of the railway in Nigeria was primarily intended to facilitate British
grand plan to maximally exploit and evacuate primary products as well as the natural
resources of the country. However, as the railway served this purpose, it also had
enormous impact on the indigenous people of Nigeria. Some of these included: inter-
group relations, the emergence of urban centres across the country, growth of internal
commerce, supply of European manufactured products, spread of Western education,
cultural values and religion, the emergence of a new class of educated elite, job
opportunities and cheaper cost of transport. The negative impact included the degradation
of the environment and the ecosystem brought about by railway construction, the material
tolls and loss of human lives and finally, the economic implication of railway on the
Nigerian economy as it was veritable means of the evacuation of the material resources of
the country.
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5.0 SUMMARY
This unit examined the development of railway transport in Nigeria. Railway
construction in Nigeria started towards the close of the nineteenth century. This is
understandable because the British government was undecided on what its political and
economic obligations were concerning its colonial territories in West Africa. However,
the 1884/85 Berlin Conference and intensified rivalry and competition among the
European colonial powers made the British government more involved in the affairs of
Nigeria. One of the consequences of this increased and direct involvement is the
development of railway, which was meant to served economic interests of Britain.

1. What were the challenges the British faced in the development of railway transport in
Nigeria?
2. Why was the railway transport desirable to the British colonial government?
3. What are the effects of the railway revolution in Nigeria?

Crowder, M. (1976). West Africa Under Colonial Rule. London: Hutchinson.
& Co Ltd.
Obiakor, N.J., and Agajelu, A.C. (2016). “British Colonial economic Policies
and Infrastructure in Nigeria: The Rail Transport Example, 1898 – 1960”.
IGWEBUIKE: An African Journal of Arts and Humanities, Vol. 2 (3), 12 – 26.
Olukoju, A. (1996). “Transportation in Colonial West Africa” in G. O. Ogunremi and E.
K. Faluyi (eds.), An Economic History of West Africa Since 1750. Ibadan: Rex
Charles.
Omosini, O. (1971). “Railway Projects and British attitudes Towards the Development of
West Africa, 1872–1903.” Journal of the Historical Society of Nigeria (J.H.S.N),
Vol. V, No 4, 491-507
98
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Contents
3.1 The Development of Road Transport in Nigeria up to 1920
3.2 Road Transport in Nigeria, 1920-1945
3.3 Road Transport in Nigeria, 1945-1960
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The preoccupation of this unit is the development of road transport in Nigeria. The
development of road and motor road transport followed the British colonial agenda,
which was the two-pronged objective of the exploitation of the human and natural
resources vastly available in the country and creation of an outlet for the sale of European
manufactured goods. Early roads constructed in Nigeria during the colonial period
developed from the footpaths and bush tracks that crisscrossed the entire Nigerian
landscape during the pre-colonial era. Thereafter, as a result of increasing commercial
and expansion of the economy as well as the arrival of al sort of road vehicles, road
development was intensified as from the 1920s. By 1960, motor road transport had
become the most important means of transport in Nigeria. To foster good understanding
of the subject, the unit has been adequately delimited into three; each looking at
developments within specified period between 1861 and 1960.
99
2.0 OBJECTIVES
 Appreciate the important role footpaths and bush tracks played as a means of
transport during the pre-colonial era in Nigeria.
 Explain how these local footpaths and bush tracks were transformed into a more
modernised transport networks.
 Understand the effect of railway on development of road transport in Nigeria.
 Discuss major initiatives and policies that were undertaken to develop road
transport in Nigeria.
3.0 MAIN CONTENTS

3.1 The Development of Road Transport in Nigeria Up to 1920
According to Olubomehin (2012), the development of road transport in Nigeria took
place within the wider context of British economic policy in Nigeria. The colonial
economic policy was based on the notion that a colonial territory existed primarily for the
benefit of the metropolitan country. In other words, the colony was expected to supply
the raw material needed by the industries in the metropolis and at the same time serve as
an outlet for the disposition of the manufactured products of the imperial country. Hence,
Nigeria as a colony was expected to provide not only the basic raw materials for the
industries in Britain but also serve as market for the sale of European manufactured
goods. In order to achieve this objective, the British realised, at the turn of the nineteenth
century, the need to develop a modern transport systems in the area to replace the
traditional means of transportation which had existed in the area since the pre-colonial
days. This was what prompted the development of modern transport infrastructure. It
began with the railway and later on, road transport was introduced.
The transformation of roads and motor transport in Nigeria began with the need to build
feeder roads for the newly constructed railways. The feeder roads were meant to provide
enough passenger and cargo traffic for the new railways. The progress of their
development, therefore, followed closely the gradual construction of railway lines. The
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fact that motor vehicles were introduced into Nigeria in the first decade of this century
also helped to quicken their development. Between 1900 and 1915, road transport
services were established by the Nigerian railway on the following feeder roads: Ibadan-
Oyo (33 miles), Oyo-Iseyin (27 miles), Oshogbo-Ogbomosho (37 miles), Bukuru-Ropp
(22 miles) and Zaria-Maska (25 miles). In addition, the government maintained the
following cart-roads in Northern Nigeria: Zungeru-Zaria (64 miles), Zaria-Kano (86
miles) and Loko-Keffi (73 miles).
In 1905, the government embarked on road development projects in many areas in the
interior bordering the coastal ports. The roads which were constructed in that year,
outside the Lagos area, included the Ibadan-Oyo road, which was of great importance
both for administrative and commercial purposes, being a feeder road to the railway
which passed through Ibadan, and the Ogbomosho-Oyo road, connecting the remoter
interior with Oyo. Between 1905 and 1910, the following were constructed: Ikirun-Illa,
Oshogbo-Ilesha, Benin-Agbor, Onitsha-Awka, Adukpani-Uwet, Uwet-ltu, Warri-Benin,
Awka-Udi, Agba-Okpanan and the Lagos-Agege road. Some road-metalling was also
undertaken in Southern Nigeria. The bridges on these roads were constructed with timber
materials and concrete. Though they were the best that could be built to meet the urgent
needs of the country, they were unreliable, and with the growth of traffic in later years
they had to be repaired or replaced frequently.
By the end of the first decade of the nineteenth century, motor vehicles had been
introduced and some indigenous businessmen provided motor transport services.
Increasing number of bicycles and motorcycles were also used on the dusty roads. The
motor transport services were available only at major towns in the South and they ran at
irregular times, depending on how soon the lorries had enough passengers and loads to
carry. The lorries generally lack good and comfortable seating, unsuitable for transport
fragile and precious items and were usually overcrowded. More so, the attitude of the
lorry drivers was generally rude and unpleasant and untarred roads were slippery and
dangerous, particularly during the rainy season. In view of these hazardous conditions,
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and the fact that not many people could afford to pay the fares, the human porterage
system increased with the development of better footpaths.
At the level of government, both the native authorities and provincial administrations
were involved in the development of roads. They constructed roads, where they never
previously existed and carried out maintenance of already existing ones. Road
construction was much easier in the savannah and semi-desert areas of the North than it
was in the forest areas of the South. The local authorities maintained most of the roads
through community efforts. In 1914 and 1920 the total mileage of roads maintained by
local authorities was about 21,000 and 22,000 respectively in Northern Nigeria, and
about 1,400 and 3,000 respectively in Southern Nigeria.
3.2 Road Transport in Nigeria, 1920 - 1945

The World War I and the economic depression that followed brought a drastic cut in road
development project. However, in 1923, government renewed its efforts to link more
areas with better roads. It was at this time that the roads between Lagos, Ibadan, Ijebu-
Ode, Ilesha and Akure to Ondo, Benin and Sapele were constructed on a permanent basis.
The Western Provinces were joined with the Eastern Provinces by a road via Asaba to
Onitsha. In the North, a road link between Keffi and Wamba was also completed in 1923.
By 1926, the government was responsible for some 2,950 miles of road, which were
maintained by the Public Works Department. The same year a fresh plan was drawn to
reorganise the road system and to build new roads, including the breaking-down of the
road system into trunk 'A' and 'B' and minor roads.
Trunk ‘A’ roads were mainly those constructed and maintained by the Public Works
Department of the government, and comprised the trunk and main produce routes. The
surfaces of these roads were of tar-sprayed macadam, tar-sprayed gravel or laterite
gravel. Trunk ‘B’ roads constituted roads of lightly-gravelled surfaces maintained by the
native or local authorities with the help of local rulers. The minor roads were mainly
earth roads, which were maintained exclusively by the local chiefs. The bridges and
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culverts on trunk 'A' roads were of permanent construction made of steel and cement,
while those of trunk 'B' roads were of a semi-permanent nature. The bridges on the minor
roads were mainly of timber and their culverts were of light construction. After this plan
was made, work began on the projects, but the depression of the late twenties and the
early thirties forced the government to cut drastically its expenditure on road-building.
Between 1930 and 1934 many roads were abandoned and those which continued to be
used were badly in need of repairs.
Throughout the 1920s and 1930s, the motor transport services continue to develop as
more people could afford to buy lorries, which were used mainly for carrying agricultural
export produce from the interior to the coast. The few passenger services that were
provided continued to be badly organised. There were very few motor-servicing stations,
but the lorry drivers, who had little or no training as mechanics, tackled unexpected
breakdowns with enormous skill and courage. In 1932, the Nigerian Motor Transport
Union was formed to organise and regulate motor transport services. The union instructed
all members to observe all traffic regulations, discourage overloading and over-speeding.
Union inspectors were kept on strategic roads to check the condition of vehicles and
enforce all these objectives. The union was successfully for a few years but as corruption
crept in gradually, the inspectors became less insistent on the observance of the union
rules.
As is well-known, the World War II began in 1939 and lasted till 1945. During this
period, road construction was undertaken by the government primarily to suit military
requirements. One such road extended from Jos to Maiduguri and the Fort Lamy; the last
90 miles were built on a low embankment across a plain of black cotton soil. The road
carried a large amount of the military traffic serving the French base at Fort Lamy.
Another important road built about the same time was the Funtua-Zungeru road. A
number of other roads were built to help in the campaign for increased export production
during the war.
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3.3 Road Transport in Nigeria, 1945 - 1960
After the World War II, a considerable programme of road construction was undertaken
under the Colonial Development and Welfare Scheme, and also under the Nigerian
government's economic development schemes. The first road financed by the Colonial
Development and Welfare Fund was that from Lagos to Ikorodu, joining the road to
Shagamu, Ijebu-Ode and Ibadan, and this began in 1945. The following roads were also
constructed: Mokwa-Kotangora, Yola-Wukari, Ijebu-Ode-Benin and the Calabar-Mamfe
road. By early 1949 a road was completed from Enugu to Mamfe in the Cameroons. The
Mokwa-Kotangora road provided a new north-south route which avoided the Kaduna
river ferry at Bida; and it was later linked with the main trunk road at Kano. The
government's post-war road construction programme was based on an estimated
requirement of 40,000 miles of good roads throughout the country.
Before 1952, trunk roads 'A' and 'B' were the responsibility of the Public Works
Department based in Lagos. But this year, regional public works departments were
established and assumed responsibility for trunk 'B' roads. The pattern of the road system
which developed was that trunk 'A' roads, which were constructed and maintained by the
federal government, were in the form of a rigid framework on which the rest of the road
system was built. The basic components of the trunk 'A' system were two roads running
from the ports of Lagos and Port Harcourt to the northern boundary, and four east-west
roads – two south of the Niger-Benue system, and two north of it. This system linked the
federal and the regional capitals with other large towns and ports, and also provided
communication between Nigeria and the neighbouring countries.
The trunk ‘B’ system connected provincial and divisional headquarters and other large
towns with the trunk ‘A’ system. Trunk ‘B’ roads were controlled by the regional
governments and maintained by local authorities with the assistance of grants from the
regional government: these varied between twenty-five to hundred per cent of the cost of
maintenance and construction. Most of the other roads, which did not come under either
system carried local traffic and acted as feeders to the trunk roads. These were also
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constructed and maintained by the local authorities, but without grants from the regional
governments. In 1946, the total road mileage was 25,433, and this increased to 28,042 in
1950. By 1960, the total road mileage was 41,065, of which 5,434 miles were tarred and
35,631 miles were of gravel or earth. In 1960, the road mileage increased to
approximately 6,000 miles of trunk ‘A’ and about the same mileage of trunk ‘B’, with
approximately 160,000 miles of local roads. Many of the local roads, particularly in the
Eastern Region, were constructed and maintained by voluntary community labour.
Between 1946 and 1954, there was motor-transport 'mania' in the southern half of the
country. As a result of the great boom in the export trade, which began after the second
world war and lasted until 1954, an increasing number of people bought lorries and
operated transport services. Available records indicate that in 1946, 1,413 commercial
vehicles were registered, and by 1950 the number had risen to 2,898. The upward trend
continued, and in 1956 and 1960, 7,184 and 7,879 were registered respectively. The
result was that the number of commercial vehicles soon surpassed the volume of the
export products to be transported. There was a general deterioration in the standard of the
service provided by most transporters, and a number of them incurred great losses and
went out of business. An increasing number of taxi-cabs were operated in a few major
cities. Neither the road transport system nor the taxi-cab services were organised on a
local or national scale; consequently, the economic waste of cut-throat competition could
not be eliminated.
In addition to the purely commercial road transport system, the Nigerian Railway
Corporation operated a motor feeder service, mainly in the groundnut and cotton-growing
areas of Sokoto. It also operated a passenger service between Gusau, Sokoto and Birnin
Kebbi, and by 1960 it employed a fleet of sixty-two lorries and twenty trailers. The road
transport system provided employment for a number of Nigerians, as it was the usual
practice for a licensed driver to engage some apprentices, who accompanied him on his
journeys and who learnt to drive by watching him, occasionally being allowed to drive
themselves. This went on for a period of between six and twelve months before the
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apprentice, on attaining some driving competence, was sponsored by the master-driver to
take an official driving test. To every commercial vehicle, there were at least four
apprentices.
The most important industry which grew out of the road transport system was that of
motor repairing. Originally, the few Nigerians who began to provide this service obtained
their training and experience while in the service of either the government (e.g. Public
Works Department) or a commercial firm (e.g. UAC Motors). They, in turn, trained a
number of apprentices to handle simple mechanical faults in vehicles. There are no
statistics to show the total number of people employed in the road transport system.
However, if one assumes that to every commercial vehicle there were four people
employed, including the driver, and that there were at least two mechanics, then it can be
estimated that in 1960 about forty-seven thousand (47,000) people were employed.
4.0 CONCLUSION
From the foregoing discussions, it can be seen that the development of motor road
transport grew in leaps and bounds during the period of colonial rule in Nigeria. It
transformed from the hitherto traditional system of footpaths and tracks into something of
a modern system. Although, it helped to facilitate the evacuation of the natural resources
and the exploitation of the wealth of the region; it equally created opportunities for
indigenous participation in the colonial economy. In fact, the establishment of the
Nigerian Motor Transport Union (NMTU), an umbrella body for owners and operators of
commercial vehicles in 1932, showed the extent of indigenous participation and initiative
in the colonial transport sector. This, as well as the expansion of the economy,
particularly the increasing volume of exports and imports and the construction of better
roads, made motor transport business viable and it continued to compete effectively with
the railways as from the end of the second world war in 1945 to the attainment of
independence in 1960.
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5.0 SUMMARY
This unit examined the development of roads and motor road transport in Nigeria. As a
kind of prologue, the unit presented the state and condition of the sector at the threshold
of the colonial rule in Nigeria. It then proceeded to analyse the development of roads,
which at first was meant to serve as feeder-roads to railway stations. But as from the
1930s and particularly from 1945, motor road transport began to compete effectively with
railways to the extent that the government in its bid to rescue the fortunes of the railway
introduced certain measures to reduce the competition. These included restrictions of
commercial vehicles on the routes considered to be parallel to railroads and the doubling
of the licences for commercial transporters. These measures failed to reverse the
downward fortunes of the railways, and due to the resilience of the Nigerian transporters
motor road transport became a burgeoning industry, with close to fifty thousand
employees as at independence in 1960.

1. Examine the factors responsible for the late development of motor road transport in
Nigeria.
2. To what extent did the two world wars contribute to the growth of motor road
transport in Nigeria?
3. Discuss the rail-road competition and measures taken by the colonial government to
rescue the declining fortunes of the railway.
4. It has been said that road transport in Nigeria developed on the heels of the problems
that bedeviled the railway. Do you agree?
7.0 REFERENCES/SUGGESTED READINGS

& Co Ltd.
Hawkins, E.K. (1958). Road Transport in Nigeria: A Study of African Enterprise.
London: Oxford University Press.

107
Hay, A.M. (1971). “The Development of Road Transport in Nigeria, 1900 – 1940.” The
Journal of Transport History, 95-107.
Olubomehin, O.O. (2011). Road Transportation in Western Nigeria, 1900-1960: Its Role,
Nature and Impact. Saarbrucken: Lambert Academic Publishing.
Olukoju, A. (1996). “Transportation in Colonial West Africa” in G. O. Ogunremi and E.

K. Faluyi (eds.), An Economic History of West Africa Since 1750. Ibadan: Rex
Charles.
108
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Contents
3.1 Air Transport in Nigeria: The Pre-1960 Era
3.2 Air Transport in Nigeria: The Post-1960 Period
3.2.1 The Birth of Nigerian Airways and the Era of Regulation
3.2.2 The Era of Deregulation of Civil Aviation in Nigeria
3.3 Challenges Facing Air Transport in Nigeria
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
This unit is the last of the four units in the module. Its focus is the development of air
transport and the aviation industry in Nigeria. Air travel is a relatively recent
phenomenon in Nigeria as the first aircraft, a British Royal Air Force aircraft, landed in
Nigeria in 1925. This was less than twenty years after the Wright brothers’ first powered
flight in 1903. Though the first flights into Nigeria were purely for military and strategic
operations, they gradually assumed the character of a civilian operation in the decades
that followed. In this unit, discussion shall centre on the historical development of the
aviation industry in Nigeria.
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2.0 OBJECTIVES
 Appreciate the development of the aviation industry and air transport in Nigeria since
1925, when the first aircraft landed in Nigeria..
 Understand the circumstances that led to the arrival of the first sets of flights into
Nigeria.
 Discuss major initiatives and policies that were undertaken to develop air transport
during the colonial and post-colonial periods in Nigeria.
 Explain the impact of the development of air transport and the aviation industry in
Nigeria.
3.0 MAIN CONTENTS

3.1 Air Transport in Nigeria: The Pre-1960 Period
The first recorded flight of an aeroplane into Nigeria was in 1925, when a British Royal
Air Force (RAF) fighter aircraft landed on a polo ground in Kano. This was as a result of
a crisis between the British colonial government and the residents of Kano. The mission
of the crew was to carry out surveillance of the riotous situation. After this flight, the
RAF made regular flights to Kano and Maiduguri from Sudan, where they had stationed a
squadron. This was later extended to cover all the West African colonies. As from 1930,
many English companies made attempts to establish commercial flying in Nigeria and
West Africa in general. As a result, many exhibition flights were made to Lagos, Port
Harcourt, Calabar and other parts of Nigeria. However, there were no meteorological
equipment, radio aids or even landing grounds. Many of the pioneering aircraft had to
land on open fields, roads, and dry river beds for refuelling.
Realising the need for aerodromes, the British colonial government invited British civil
engineers to fashion a chain of landing grounds between Lagos and Kano. Consequently,
landing facilities were established in Lagos, Ilorin, Minna, Jos, Kaduna, Kano, Bauchi,
Yola and Maiduguri. However, ample notice had to be given before these could be used
110
so that necessary preparations and safety measures could be undertaken. At the same
time, sites for seaplane bases were provisionally selected at Lagos, Forcados, Calabar,
Port Harcourt, Onitsha, Lokoja, Makurdi and Jebba. At the end of 1935, an Air Services
Development Committee was set up by the Nigerian government to look into the
possibility of establishing regular air services in the country. Following the
recommendations of the committee, six 'all-seasons' aerodromes were constructed and
fully equipped at Lagos (Apapa), Oshogbo, Minna, Kano and Maiduguri.
In 1935, plans were made for the Imperial Airways (UK) to start airmail services between
the United Kingdom and West Africa as part of a regular service between the United
Kingdom and South Africa. The following year, a weekly air service was established
between Khartoum and Lagos under the scheme. Efforts were also made for a regular
weekly service from Lagos to Accra, Takoradi and ultimately Freetown, connecting with
the service between Khartoum and Lagos, which would be operated by Imperial Airways
and would form part of the Empire Air Mail Scheme.
The outbreak of the World War II in 1939 forced the British Imperial government to
encourage Nigeria and other West African territories to speed up development for air
transport services, mainly for strategic reasons. The construction of aerodromes was
actively pursued during the war and plan made to build additional landing grounds. Many
of the runways of the existing landing grounds were widened and lengthened as military
aircraft required greater space for landing and take-off.
The establishment of the West African Airways Corporation (WAAC), by an Order in

Council, in 1946 was a watershed in the development of commercial air transport in West
Africa and Nigeria in particular. The WAAC, a public corporation, was to operate air
services between and within the British West African colonies (Ghana, Nigeria, Sierra
Leone and Gambia). Its operations were supervised by the West Africa Air Transport
Authority (WAATA), which had powers to legislate and execute policies. WAATA’s
supreme body consisted of the Governors of colonies, with the Governor of Nigeria as
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the presiding officer. The corporation started operation in 1947 and by the end of that
year had extended services to the main population centres in Nigeria. There were services
between Lagos, Benin, Port Harcourt, Calabar and Enugu.
On attainment of independence, Ghana pulled out of WAAC in 1958 and formed the
Ghana Airways Limited. The Nigerian government acquired the shares of the corporation
from Ghana. As a result, WAAC was renamed WAAC (Nigeria) Limited, with Nigeria
government owning fifty-one (51%) per cent; the British Overseas Airways Corporation
(BOAS) owned thirty-three (33%) per cent and Elder Dempster sixteen per cent (16%) of
the total shares.
3.2 Air Transport in Nigeria: The Post-1960 Period

3.2.1 The Birth of Nigerian Airways and the Era of Regulation
On May 1, 1961, the Nigerian government bought over the shares of WAAC (Nigeria)
Limited from the BOAC and Elder Dempster and renamed it Nigerian Airways. The
Nigeria Airways grew steadily during its first eight years, operating domestic flights to
then existing five international airports from Lagos to Kano, Sokoto, Maiduguri and Port
Harcourt. It also operated sub-regional flights to such West African countries’ capitals
including Abidjan, Accra, and Robertsfield in Liberia, Freetown and Banjul. In addition,
the Nigeria Airways operated on the international routes on joint arrangements with other
airlines, specifically, the British Airways to the United Kingdom, Amsterdam and the
United States of America. The Nigeria Airways scheduled flights were actualised with a
fleet consisting two Boeing 707, two Boeing 737, three F28, five F27, one Astec plane
and subsequent acquisition of jets to cope with the rising level of business and economic
developments.
It is necessary, at this juncture, to examine the policy directions that determined the
practice of civil aviation in Nigeria from 1960 onwards and their effects on Nigerian
Airways. The first major policy decision by the Nigerian government at independence
was the establishment of an indigenous airline to serve the needs of the few air
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passengers in Nigeria. Throughout the 1960s and up to the mid-1980s, government
efforts were directed towards the need to regulate the new and fast-growing industry.
This ushered in an era of close monitoring, control and regulation of the aviation industry
by government. Moreover, government had a negative attitude towards private
participation in the airline industry because of what it described as the financial
incapacity of private investors. This is encapsulated in the Civil Aviation Act of 1964,
which was a replica of the U.K Civil Aviation Act. Thus, government control of the
aviation industry was strict and total from the 1960s to the 1980s.
In 1979, the military government of General Olusegun Obasanjo contracted the Nigeria
Airways to KLM, the official Dutch Airline, which managed the affairs of the national
carrier for two years. Before then, the Dutch had become major stakeholders and played
prominent roles in the development of the aviation industry in Nigeria. This decision was
greeted with a lot of criticisms and heated controversies and their tenure aggravated the
financial problems of the airline. Before their arrival, the airline owed a debt of £5
million, but at their departure in 1981, the airline’s profile stood at £22 million. Although
heavily indebted, the airline was at its peak and it was only a question of time before it
started experiencing further downturns.
3.2.1 The Era of Deregulation of Civil Aviation in Nigeria

The dismal performance of the Nigerian Airways coupled with its high debt profile as
well as the general economic downturn brought about by the implementation of the
structural adjustment programme further compounded the fortunes of the national carrier
as from the mid-1980s. By this time, it was clear that government policy of strict and
total regulation of the airline industry could not be continued. Hence, the period of
deregulation and opening up of the Nigeria’s aviation industry had commenced. The new
policy led to unrestricted competition among intending operators leading to the
proliferation of small airlines. Consequently, twenty-five (25) private airline operators
were licensed in the industry. They were authorised to operate non-scheduled passenger
and cargo air services within and outside Nigeria. Soon, three domestic operators, Okada
113
Airlines, Kabo Air Travels and Gas Air were upgraded from the status of non-scheduled
operators to scheduled operators. Kabo and Okada were later granted permission to
operate international routes.
By 1994, the number of licensed private airlines rose to twenty-eight out of which
fourteen catered for passengers while seven operated cargo services and the remaining
seven operated chartered flights. In 1995, the Aviation Development Company (ADC)
and Bellview Airlines were granted permission to operate international routes. Also, by
1995, the number of licensed air operators had increased to one hundred and forty-four.
The emergence of private airline operators successfully broke the state monopoly by
running commercial air operation on most domestic routes. However the deregulation of
air transport, especially its implementation has never been an easy process, as the
industry still experiences state interventions with respect to air fare. The entrance of new
airline operators brought in new challenges and new responsibilities. Thus, deregulation
brought with it the need to ensure high safety standards.
Between 1978 and 1984, a number of new airports with modern facilities were built in
Enugu, Yola, Port Harcourt, Sokoto, Kaduna, Jos, Calabar and Ibadan, bringing the
number of airports in the country to fifteen. By 1988, about seventy-eight landing fields
existed in the country, out of which thirty-eight were privately owned and operated
mainly by oil companies, and by the year 2000, there were nineteen airports staffed and
operated by the Federal Airport Authority of Nigeria (FAAN). Some of the prominent
airlines currently operating in Nigeria include Arik Air, Air Peace, Aero Contractors,
Dana Air, Ibom Air and Med-View Airline
Many institutions and bodies have been set up to oversee and regulate the affairs of the
aviation industry in Nigeria. The Nigerian Airspace Management Agency (NAMA),
established by Decree No. 48 of 1999, is responsible for formulating and implementing
policies for the effective management of Nigeria’s airspace. The Nigerian Civil Aviation
Authority (NCAA) established by Decree 49 of 1999 is responsible for providing aviation
114
safety and economic regulatory services that are consistent with international standards.
The Federal Airport Authority of Nigeria (FAAN) is responsible for taking care of the
physical structures within all airports in Nigeria.
3.3 Challenges Facing Air Transport in Nigeria

The following factors have over the years militated against the growth and provision of
efficient air transport in Nigeria.
1. Absence of coherent air transport policy:- The National Transport Policy has
indicated the need to take measures to bring co-ordination, coherence and rationality
into the transport network. The early history of transport development in Nigeria was
marked by attempts at coordination. However, such attempts were virtually
abandoned in later years. The result of this with regards to aviation is the demise of
the Nigerian Airways. If there was an operational, coherent policy, major airports in
the country should have been modernised long time as many of the airports were built
in the 1970s with old architectural design.
2. Overstretched and decaying facilities: Most of the facilities provided at the
nation’s international airports in Lagos and Kano are undeniably overstretched and
not fashionable. Facilities such as toilets, seating, lifts, power supply, air-conditioning
system, conveyor belts etc are often in bad shape. This gives the country bad image as
airports are the first port of call for foreigners.
3. Corruption and Bad Management: No other sector has suffered more neglect,
corruption and bad management like the transport sector and more particularly
aviation industry in Nigeria. Corruption and bad management led to the decline and
eventual collapse of the Nigerian Airways in 2004. For instance, in 1979, the Nigerian
Airways had twenty-nine functional and well-maintained aircraft in its fleet, but in
1999, only two were left functional.
4. Poor Security: Security is generally poor in and airports in Nigeria. There is no solid
perimeter around most of the airports in Nigeria. The lack of perimeter fencing allow
grazing by the runway of some airports in the country. For example, in 2005, an Air
115
France flight crashed on cows on the runway of Port Harcourt International Airport,
killing seven of them and damaging the landing gear of the aeroplane. There are
frequent cases of pick pocketing, load snatching and bare-faced robbery in and around
airports in the country.
5. Closures of Airports: Nigeria is notorious for perennially closing airports. These
closures are often attributed to repairs and maintenance that are expected to last few
months but stretches beyond stipulated period. For example, the Port Harcourt
International Airport was closed down for repairs between August 18, 2006 and
December 18, 2007. This is for a routine the airport authorities said would last for
four months. This however lasted for sixteen months.
6. Intermittent Air Accidents: There are intermittent air crashes which damages the
safety record of airlines in the country. This also discourages passengers to be afraid
of travelling by air as air crashes are fatal. For example, in October 2005, one hundred
and seventeen people were killed when Bellview Airlines Boeing 737 bound for
Abuja came down shortly after take-off from Lagos. In December of same year, a
Sosoliso Airlines DC-9 crashed in Port Harcourt International Airport, killing all one
hundred and three people on board.
4.0 CONCLUSION
The aviation industry in Nigeria is no doubt growing in leaps and bounds. From the era of
government regulation and strict control in the 1960s to the period of deregulation as
from the late 1980s, the industry has become one of the largest and most competitive in
Africa. However, it is observed that excessive regulation by government is one of the
major challenges of the aviation in the country. The overbearing attitude of government
official, draconian directives and policies of the regulatory institutions, corruption,
administrative bottlenecks are prominent features of Nigeria’s aviation industry. To curb
these challenges and foster development of air travels in Nigeria, government should
desist from over regulating the aviation industry through its numerous institutions.
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Private airline operators should be given opportunities to contribute their own quota to
the development of the industry.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, we have focused our discussion on the development of air transport in
Nigeria. It has been established that air travel is a nineteen-century phenomenon which
has gone through several stages to get to where it is today. Discussions have dwelled on
the construction of landing facilities in the pre-1960 period and subsequently
proliferation of airports around the country today. Discussions also touched the
establishment of the Nigerian Airways, which enjoyed monopoly in Nigeria from 1960
till around late 1980s. We have seen the various policies implemented by successive
administrations in the country and how that has helped the aviation industry in Nigeria.
Attention has also been paid to the regulatory institutions that oversee the conduct of air
travel in the country. Finally, challenge confronting was examined.

1. Why was the establishment of the West African Airways Authority (WAAC)
considered a watershed in Nigeria’s aviation industry?
2. “The history of the Nigerian Airways is the history of the aviation industry in Nigeria
between 1961 and 1980.” Discuss.
3. What would you say are the challenges facing the aviation industry in Nigeria today?

Akpoghomeh, O.S. (1999). “The Development of Air Transportation in Nigeria, 1936–
1987.” The Nigerian Geographical Journal Vol. 7 (2), 50 – 63.
& Co Ltd.
Ogbeidi, M. (2006). “The Aviation Industry in Nigeria: A Historical Overview.” Lagos
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Historical Review. Vol. 6, 133–147.
September, 2015.
118
MODULE 4: AN OUTLINE OF TELECOMMUNICATIONS IN NIGERIA
Unit 1: Telecommunications in Pre-Colonial Nigeria
Unit 2: Telecommunications in Colonial Nigeria
Unit 3: Telecommunications in Post-Colonial Nigeria
UNIT 1: Telecommunication in Pre-Colonial Nigeria
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Contents
3.1 Telecommunications in Pre-Colonial Nigeria
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Communication and transportation are related and intertwined for a number of reasons:
first, they are important indices of socio-economic progress and development; second,
they are means or processes of overcoming distance and spatial barriers; they constitute
the major means of determining the nature and scope of interaction within and between
distinct societal groupings, national or sub-national and finally; they are both substitutes
and complements, that is, it might be possible that sufficient advancement in
communication could be substitute for transport. For instance, one could telegraph,
phone, fax or mail a customer or a friend rather than paying a personal visit. Transport
involves carrying or moving of goods and people from place to place, while
communication involves the passing of news and information from one person to another.
Transport involves such modes as roads, water, air and railway, while communication
119
involves the use of telephone, telegraphs, email, fax, newspaper, radio, television etc. It is
against this background that this module, the last for this course, interrogates the
development of telecommunications in Nigeria. However, this unit focuses on the modes
of communications in Nigeria during the pre-colonial period.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
 Identify the various methods of communication in the traditional societies in Nigeria.
 Highlight the defects and shortcomings of these traditional means of communication.
 Determine whether these traditional communication methods were effective or
served their purpose within the context of the society in which they develop.
3.0 MAIN CONTENTS

3.1 Telecommunications in Pre-Colonial Nigeria
The different peoples that inhabited the areas that later became Nigeria had long
developed various communication media to spread information before the intervention of
science and technology and its latest strand, the information and communication
technology (ICT). The methods used at that times were limited and could not be used to
spread information across a wide geographical area. These communication media
included the use of talking drums, town criers, symbols, fire and smoke, gunshots (often
fired with gunpowder).
Generally, the talking drum made of animal skin was used to send messages comprising
series of sentences, cognomen (oriki) and/or proverbs at a time. It was used as a medium
of broadcasting information or news over long distances. Such message ranged from the
announcement of festivals, warnings about invasion by enemies, information on weather
conditions to impending public meetings and important court verdicts. Flute was another
important means of communication. Made from wood or bamboo pipe or, specially-made
small round calabashes, the notes sounded on such flutes carried messages for distances
of up to a mile. The fact that villages and farms were isolated and that life was generally
120
quiet in them made flute an effective means of communication. However, these methods
of communication had their inherent shortcomings. In heavily vegetated areas the
messages often suffered disturbances, usually leading to difficulties in the accurate
interpretation of drum and flute messages to villages, hamlets or towns that are too far
apart.
The use of town criers for the purpose of spreading important announcements in villages,
hamlets and towns was very popular in the pre-colonial period. Town criers were usually
palace attendants and workers who took information and messages from the local kings,
chiefs or elders and spread them around with the use of gongs in the early hours of the
morning or in the evenings when residents are at home. This is because the people would
have gone to their farms or markets and might not get the information passed during the
day. The use of symbolic objects or materials was another form of traditional
communication. Generally, the objects or materials used were easy to interpret, but there
were instances when the ordinary use of the object could not give sufficient indication of
the intended message. In such situations, metaphoric meanings were employed to read the
messages.
It was customary in Yoruba areas to send pepper to a person to signify that he had been
bereaved. When a child was born, the usual message was a new bathing-sponge sent to
the father or to the relatives. If there was famine in any area, the distress message was the
chaff. It must be said that ‘object messages’ were most effectively used for common and
anticipated news or events. It was sometimes difficult to understand some messages. For
example, it would be difficult to understand the exact message when pepper and bathing-
sponge were sent together to the same person. It could mean that while a child had been
born; another person had died in the family. It could also mean that the mother of the
newly-born had died during childbirth or shortly after birth.
Another important method of passing information and spreading news in the traditional
societies was the use of fire and smoke. Fire and smoke were used to send messages to
121
people in other hamlets, settlements or villages. These were set on elevated landforms
such as hills, rocks, and nearby mountains. As the fire smouldered and smoke ascended,
they sent certain messages out and the people to whom they were intended or to whom it
might concerned understand them. Gunshots, particular those fired with gunpowder, were
also another veritable means of indigenous communication. In some traditional
communities, gunshots powered by concentrated powder were used to announce the
passing of important and notable personages. For instance, such gunshots announced the
demise of kings, chiefs, chief hunters and powerful priests. At the sound of such
gunshots, the villagers were, in some communities, required not to go to their farms that,
just to mourn with the bereaved and comfort them with condolence visits.
Finally, social functions such as ceremonies, town/village meetings, age-grade

gatherings, market-day and union convergence served the important purpose of
information diffusion and news dissemination. These gatherings were used to diffuse
information from one person to another. At individual level, they provided the
opportunity for side talks and gossips: “have you heard this?”; “have you heard that?” All
these were communication media in time past and they were effective. The only
challenge was that they could not be used for too many people.
4.0 CONCLUSION
It would be seen from the foregoing that the different ethnic nationalities that lived on the
African continent had developed traditional methods of communication and information
dissemination before the advent of the Europeans and establishment of colonial rule in
the continent. This is particularly so with the peoples of Nigeria whose communication
technology and methods are steeped in their cultural practices such as the use of
drumbeats, smoke, symbolic messages etc. The colonialists or their apologists may be
quick to point out that these methods were primitive and backward. It must however be
noted that the indigenous communication technology served their purpose considering the
kind of society that developed at that time and the fact that messages sent were well
encoded and decoded by the people involved.
122
5.0 SUMMARY
This unit examined communication during the pre-colonial period. It presented the
various means of sharing and sending messages, information and news among people,
kingdoms and empires. It also pointed out the weaknesses of the different methods. One
shortcoming that stands out is the fact that these communication media were not suitable
for mass communication that is, sharing information to so many people at the same time.
However, in view of the kind of societies and social milieu of the period, it could be
submitted that these media of information sharing served their purpose. They however
became inadequate and effective during the colonial period.

1. Identify the different communication media employed in the traditional societies of
Nigeria.
2. Discuss the weaknesses or shortcomings of these communication methods
3. How would you react to the view that the indigenous communication methods were
primitive and undeveloped?

Andah, B.A. (1992). Nigeria’s Indigenous Technology. Ibadan: Ibadan University Press.
Aziken, L.C., and Emeni, C.A. (2020). “Traditional Systems of Communication in
Nigeria: A Review for Improvement.” Available online at

https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/fc9b/deabc6c9d46bfa8116f3fcd6f3610a88b739.pdf
Accessed on Monday, 5th August, 2020.
& Co Ltd.
Enang, W. (2019). “History of Communication in Nigeria” Proguide.ng.
https://proguide.ng/history-of-communication-in-nigeria/
123
UNIT 2: Telecommunications in Colonial Nigeria
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Contents
3.1 Telecommunications in Colonial Nigeria
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The preoccupation of this unit is the development of telecommunications in colonial
Nigeria. It seeks to investigate the efforts of the British in developing an effective means
of communication Nigeria in spite of the towering challenges that confronted them in
terms of the geographical massiveness of the country and the overarching need to
establish constant communications with the colonial outposts in the interiors of Nigeria,
most especially the northern part of the country. It must be emphasised that the first
attempt at establishing modern methods of communication was made from this period.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
 Highlight the modern system of communication established by the colonial
government.
 Understand the challenges that confronted in its efforts the colonial government
and how the challenges were confronted.
 Discuss how these communication media were more superior to the traditional
methods of communication
124
3.0 MAIN CONTENTS
3.1 Telecommunications in Colonial Nigeria
The modern system of communication – the postal system, telegraph and telephone – was
introduced into Nigeria by the British administration. After the initial challenges of lack
of funds, topography and rough terrain coupled with widespread illiteracy among the
local, a general post office was established in Lagos. The extensive use of canoes in the
coastal areas and the inland water ways, the development of government built roads,
which began in 1883 and the construction of the railways which started in 1896 - all
contributed to the gradual development of the postal system. As the railways extended
slowly into the interior, post offices were established along the route, but only in
important places. By 1900, the postal services in southern Nigeria were handled by
sixteen post offices, namely, the general post office in Lagos and Old Calabar, eight
district post offices, four sub-post offices (performing only postal work) and two postal
agencies.
The spread of Western education, through the activities of the missionaries, helped
considerably to introduce letter-writing and the habit of sending letters. The number of
post offices increased steadily and by 1934, Nigeria had about one hundred and ten
offices and forty-two agencies. These services provided by the early post offices varied:
some were established for selling stamps, with letter-collection boxes provided for
posting letters; very could deal in postal and money orders. After 1934, however, very
few post offices were established. Indeed, between 1934 and 1940 only one was
established. By 1945, there were one hundred and thirteen post offices in Nigeria. The
number of postal agencies, on the other hand, increased considerably: from forty-two in
1934 to 161 in 1940, and 298 in 1945.
The post second world war period witnessed dramatic advancement in postal services as
a result of increasing government expenditure. In 1946, there were one hundred and
twenty-five post offices and three hundred and thirty-one postal agencies in the country.
The number of post offices rose to one hundred and thirty-four in 1950; while the number
125
of postal agencies increased to four hundred and twenty in 1950 and to one thousand in
1960. Between 1953 and 1960, the postal services underwent reorganisation and
repositioning. A number of modern post offices were built to replace the old buildings,
introduction of new and quicker methods of handling mails, and the intensification of
staff training schemes. New facilities were introduced, for example, stamped envelopes
and books of stamps. The result of the reorganisation was noticeable in the internal mail
services, where they resulted in an acceleration of mails by as much as forty-eight hours
in some part of the country.
It must be added that the government also developed the telephone systems in the
country. By 1929, the Lagos-Ibadan telephone trunk was completed and a new telephone
exchange was installed at Abeokuta. Telephone exchanges were also installed at Aba,
Port Harcourt and Bukuru. By 1934, there were twenty-one telephone exchanges in
Nigeria. The figure rose to forty in 1940, and to fifty-nine in 1945. Trunk telephone
services were available in a number of principal centres including, Lagos-Abeokuta-
Ibadan, Port Harcourt and Aba, Jos and Bukuru, Victoria, Buea and Tiko in the
Cameroons. Early in 1950, the first carrier telephone trunk circuit was put into service
between Lagos and Oshogbo, and this was followed almost by extensions to Kaduna and
Enugu thus making it possible for people in Lagos and the regional capitals to talk to
each other by telephone. In November 1950, the first automatic exchange was opened at
Port Harcourt and in October 1953 the second automatic exchange was opened in the
Lagos area.
In 1951, the government decided to provide transmission paths for major trunks by a
network of very high frequency radio stations connecting the important centres of the
country. These were to replace the overhead lines, which usually followed the railway
and were subject to a high rate of fault incidence. The first very high frequency (VHF)
multichannel link was opened in 1953 between Lagos and Ibadan, with twelve telephone
channels. So rapid was the development of trunk services in modern telecommunication
systems that the demand between Lagos and Ibadan necessitated the installation of ultra
126
high frequency (microwave) equipment, which could provide up to two hundred and
forty channels on one path. Three such paths were brought into service on I January
1960, providing facilities for telephone subscribers in Lagos and Ibadan to dial each other
direct. The introduction of VHF (and later, UHF) circuits did not render superfluous the
overhead lines, the capacity of which, on the contrary, increased by the installation of
more carrier channels, which gave communication between intermediate centres and
which also supplemented the VHF network. Additional overhead lines were constructed
using, in many cases, poles made from local timber.
The modern telegraphic system was introduced along with fixed phone lines and
developed rapidly soon after 1946. In that year, there were sixteen transmitting offices,
the main ones being one being in Lagos, Kaduna and Enugu. They were interconnected,
so that a breakdown on one line could interrupt traffic, and landlines were also
supplemented by wireless channels. There were fifty-nine telephone exchanges.
However, more were introduced between 1946 and 1950, and telegraph services were
also mended to cover more areas, It was generally more convenient to telephone than to
telegraph, but an important development between 1950 and 1960 was the introduction of
two types of special service, the ‘private wire’ and the ‘telex’, in different parts of the
country. By means of the private wire, a business subscriber was directly and
permanently connected by teleprinter with, for example, his branch office in another
town. An international telex service was introduced and controlled by a UK private firm
called Cable and Wireless Ltd whereby any telex subscriber could obtain connection to
any other telex subscriber in most parts of the world through the Lagos telex switchboard.
In 1950, virtually all transmissions were by morse key, and telegrams were handwritten.
However, by 1960 nearly all the major circuits used teleprinters, which automatically
printed the telegram at the distant point, and the passage of traffic was further accelerated
by the introduction of torn tape relay equipment at Lagos and at regional capitals.
127
4.0 CONCLUSION
As discussed in this unit, the colonial government was interested in establishing contacts
and communications with its outposts in the interiors of Nigeria. This was in order to
further administrative ease and convenience. As a result, three methods of
communication were development during the colonial. These were postal services,
telegraph and telephone. These communication media were further developed and their
use gained widespread acceptance as the colonial period progressed. At independence in
1960, these telecommunication modes had become entrenched in the everyday life of
many people in the country.
5.0 SUMMARY
This unit examined the development and growth of telecommunications during the
colonial period in Nigeria. It presented major advances and milestones in the
development of postal services, telegraph and telephone communications in colonial
Nigeria. The success of this endeavour helped to facilitate colonial administration and
further the interests of the imperial British government in Nigeria. It is worthy of note
that the establishment of telephone lines aided other forms of communication in Nigeria
such as the radio, television and internet. However, since the modern communication
methods were also made use of by the local people, it helped to foster unity, intergroup
relations and cohesion among the different ethnic nationalities that made up the Nigerian
state. In fact, the colonial innovations were greatly put to use by the nationalist and
helped in no small way to liquidate colonial rule in Nigeria.

1. What were the systems of communication established by the colonial government?
2. In what ways were these communication systems more effective than the traditional
methods?
3. Highlight the growth and widespread use of postal services in Nigeria.
128
Arikpo, O. (1967). The Development of Modern Nigeria. Harmondsworth: Penguin
Books.
Crowder, M. (1968). West Africa under Colonial Rule. London: Hutchinson.
& Co Ltd.
Tersoo, A. (2018). “History of Telecommunications in Nigeria.” Available online at URL
https://www.legit.ng/1146671-history-telecommunication-nigeria.html
129
UNIT 3: Telecommunications in Post-Colonial Nigeria
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Contents
3.1 The Era of Government Control and Regulation
3.2 Deregulation and the era of GSM
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The concern of this unit is the development of telecommunications in post-colonial
Nigeria. It is interesting to note after independence in 1960, the colonial ideas and
vestiges still continued to loom large in the telecommunication sector. For instance, the
British colonial administration had set up a department of post and telegraph (P&T) in
1908. This department was never scrapped or proscribed after independence. In fact, the
department was put under the Ministry and was still responsible for overseeing
communication sector of the country. This however changed when the National External
Communications (NET) was set up to oversee external telecoms services. The
establishment of the Nigerian Telecommunications Limited (NITEL) still sustained the
government domination and tight-fisted control of the sector up until 2001, when
deregulation was implemented. This led to the influx of mobile operators and opening-up
of the sector.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
130
 Explain the major strides recorded in Nigeria’s telecommunications industry after
independence.
 Describe the significance of NITEL in government’s agenda to development the
telecoms industry in Nigeria
 Understand the challenges that confront NITEL that made the liberalisation of that
sector of the economy desirable.
 Demonstrate the advent of the Global System of Mobile Communication (GSM)
and its phenomenal growth.
3.0 MAIN CONTENTS

3.1 The Era of Government Control and Regulation
Shortly after the attainment of independence in 1960, there was a need for the expansion
of telecommunication network to meet the need of the fledging commercial and industrial
growth of the young nation. With a population of roughly forty-five million people,
Nigeria only had about 18,724 phone lines for use. This translated to a tele-density of
about one telephone line per two thousand people. The telephone network consisted of
one hundred and twenty-one exchanges of which one hundred and sixteen were of the
manual (magneto) type and only five are automatic. Between 1960 and 1985,
telecommunication services in Nigeria became commercialised and was controlled of the
Department of Post and Telecommunications (P&T), under the Ministry of
Communications. In the early 1980s, the Nigerian External Telecommunications (NET)
was established to take care of external telecommunication services while the P&T was
in charge of internal network.
By January 1985, the erstwhile Post and Telecommunications division merged with the
NET to form Nigerian Telecommunications Limited (NITEL), a government-owned
limited liability company. The objective of establishing NITEL was to harmonise the
planning and coordination of the internal and external communications services,
rationalise investments in telecoms development and provide accessible efficient and
131
affordable services. Regrettably, it was unable to meet the growing demands for
telecommunications services by Nigerians. As earlier mentioned, at independence in
1960 the country had 18,724 telephone lines. Up until 2001 when the sector was
deregulated, NITEL could not expand the installed capacity beyond 700,000 lines, thus
limiting access to information and communication technology in Nigeria.
In addition to this, NITEL, the only national monopoly operator in the sector, was
synonymous with epileptic services and bad management, which made telephone, back
then, to be unreliable, congested and expensive and customer-friendly. As a result of the
deficiencies and mounting complaints from Nigerians, the Nigerian Communication
Commission (NCC) was established by Decree 75 of 1992. This was a step towards
reforming and liberalising the telecommunication sector. The reforms include separation
of the policy-making body from industry regulator and networks operators or service
providers which started in 1996. Despite the huge potentials offered by the Nigerian
telecoms market, progress was slow due to political uncertainties and perceived policy
inconsistencies as NITEL still continued to retain monopoly over voice telephony in both
national and long distance international calls.
3.2 Deregulation and the Era of GSM

The establishment of the Nigerian Communications Commission (NCC) heralded the
deregulation of the telecommunication sector in Nigeria as prescribed by Decree 75 of
1992. The Decree helped to liberalise terminal ends equipment and gave room for
competition and private sector participation. The deregulation meant that the NITEL
regime, which was characterised by epileptic and poor communication service, was over.
The liberalisation of the sector ushered in the first Global System of Mobile
Communication (GSM) operator and the award of the first Digital Mobile License
(DML) in 2001. Since then, the sector has witnessed an unprecedented surge in
investments (with over $18 billion in investments from 2001 to 2015). The entry of new
operators has also deepened the competition in the sector with the teeming subscriber
base being better for it. Initiatives such as ‘number portability’ have also enriched
132
consumer experience by limiting hassles to accessing better services on a better preferred
network.
It must be noted that the target of the NCC for the telecommunication industry was,
among others, attainment of tele-density (number of telephone lines in relation to
population) of 1.25% by the year 2008. Prior to this, Nigeria had the unenviable record as
the world’s third lowest, after Mongolia and Afghanistan, with a tele-density of 0.73%
before 1999. However, the advent has brought about dramatic increase in the total
number of lines from 866,782 in 1999, to over sixty million lines in 2008. Today, there
are more than one hundred and fifty million mobile subscribers in Nigeria and many
telecommunication companies. The most famous mobile networks in 2020 are MTN
Nigeria (this company acquired Visafone in 2016), Airtel Nigeria, Glo Mobile and
9Mobile (formerly Etisalat).
The Communications Commission in Nigeria allowed selling internet service to citizens

in 1996. It provided thirty-eight companies with a license to offer such services. The first
firm to start the internet era was Linkserve Limited. This company turned out to become
the first ISP (abbreviation stands for internet service provider) and is still one of the
leading firms in the market. The Internet is still developing. It is mainly available in big
cities with good infrastructure. But there is a non-governmental company, Nigeria
Internet Group (NIG exists since 1995) that wants to provide all Nigerians with full
internet access in all the corners of the country. The 1999 study showed that there were
approximately one hundred thousand users of Internet in Nigeria. Just think of this. This
number was over ninety-one million in 2017, according to Nigerian Communications
Commission. The growth is so rapid and it will definitely continue in 2018. Some of the
most popular internet providers in Nigeria today are IPNX Nigeria Limited, Smile
Nigeria, CobraNet Limited, Swift Network Limited and Spectranet Nigeria.
133
4.0 CONCLUSION
A cursory look at the history of the telecommunication industry in Nigeria will reveal that
the industry is very viable and has great potentials to contribute meaningfully to the
growth and development. How it has grown and transformed from 1886 when telegraphic
cables were run to link London to Lagos up until now is very phenomenal. It is hoped
rather than stiffle the growth of the industry through unnecessary and overbearing
government regulations, the progress recorded thus far will be harnessed effectively for
the further growth of the sector and economic development of the country
5.0 SUMMARY
This unit focused on the development and growth of the telecommunication sector of the
Nigerian economy. It examined the period of government control and regulation of the
industry between 1960 up till the 1980s when NITEL was founded. It submitted that the
period was generally marked by inefficiency and poor services. As a result, the
revocation of NITEL’s monopoly and liberalisation of the telecommunications industry
became inevitable. The coming of the Global System of Mobile Communication (GSM)
as a result of the deregulation exercise in 1999 brought about a revolution of unparalleled
impact of both the industry and the Nigerian economy in general. Nigeria is today a big
market and a hub for telecommunications in West Africa.

1. Account for the growth of the telecommunications industry in the post independence
period in Nigeria.
2. To what extent is NITEL central to government’s agenda in the development of the
telecommunications industry from 1985?
3. Examine the advent of the GSM era and its contributions to Nigeria’s economy.
4. Would you say that the emergence of the Nigerian Communications Commission
(NCC) and its regulatory role is responsible for the drastic growth of
telecommunications in Nigeria?
134
Arikpo, O. (1967). The Development of Modern Nigeria. Harmondsworth: Penguin
Books.
Tersoo, A. (2018). “History of Telecommunications in Nigeria.” Available online at URL
https://www.legit.ng/1146671-history-telecommunication-nigeria.html
Essays, UK. (2018). “Review of the Nigerian Telecommunications Industry.” Retrieved
fromhttps://www.ukessays.com/essays/business/review-of-the-nigerian-
telecommunications-industry-business-essay.php?vref=1
Ige, O. (2002). “Evolution of the Telecommunications Industry”. Retrieved from
https://www.ncc.gov.ng/archived/speeches/telecomevolution-olawale_ige170402.pdf
135

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NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

SCHOOL OF MANAGEMENT SCIENCES

COURSE CODE: TPM 201

COURSE TITLE: BASIC HISTORY OF TRANSPORT

Course Team Wale Salami, PhD and Mr. Seun Soile

National Open University of Nigeria

At the end of the course, you will write a final examination.

THE COURSE MATERIAL

Module 1: Concept, Definition and Scope of transport

Module 3: Historical Development of Transport Infrastructure in Nigeria

Module 4: The Development of Telecommunications in Nigeria

TEXTBOOKS AND REFERENCES

FINAL EXAMINATION AND GRADING

COURSE MARKING SCHEME

Unit Title of Work Week of Assessment

Module 3: The Development of Colonial Transport in Nigeria

1. Read this Course Guide thoroughly, it is your first assignment.

FACILITATORS/TUTORS AND TUTORIALS

Module 2: Historical Evolution of Transport

Module 3: The Development of Colonial Transport in Nigeria

Module 4: The Development of Telecommunications in Nigeria

Unit 1: What is Transport?

UNIT 1: WHAT IS TRANSPORT?

3.0 MAIN CONTENTS

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

3.2 MODES OF TRANSPORT

(A) LAND TRANSPORT

(B) WATER TRANSPORT

I. Inland Water Transport

II. Ocean Transport

(C) AIR TRANSPORT

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

1987.” The Nigerian Geographical Journal Vol. 2, 50 – 63.

Cooley, H.C. (1894). “The Theory of Transportation” Publication of the American

Economic Association Vol. 9 (3), 13 – 148.

Hilling, D. (1996). Transport and Developing Countries. London: Routledge

Munby, D. (1968). Transport. Harmonsworth: Penguin Books.

Waugh, D. (1995). Geography: An Integrated Approach (Second Edition). China: Nelson

3.2 SCOPE OF TRANSPORT STUDIES

 Urban Transport: This investigates the complexities of various forms of

 Rural Transport: This examines the transport demand of rural communities,

 Transport and the Environment: These studies the impact of transport

 Transport History: This refers to the development or evolution of the various

 Miscellaneous: This encompasses other activities related to transport and its

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Common European Economic Policy: A British View”. Transportation Journal 18

Hilling, D. (1996). Transport and Developing Countries. London: Routledge.

the Way Forward. Inaugural Lecture delivered at the University of Nigeria in

 Explain the importance of transport to the advancement of economic, social and

2. Industrial Development: Transport facilitates the industrial development of a country.

3. Development of Agriculture: Transport has helped in the development of agriculture

4. Employment Opportunities and Increase in the National Income: Transport is one

Transportation enables society to enjoy advantages of specialization of

6. Mobility of Labour and Capital: Transport reduces the rigours of immobility of

2. Diffusion of Population: Transport has helped in the diffusion of population and

3. High Standard of Living: Transport helps in the increase of production thereby

3. Political Awareness and Hegemony: Efficient means of transport helps in creating