ADVANCED ENGINGINEERING

GEOLOGY

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 COURSE OUTLINES

i. TYPES OF ROCKS

ii. SKILLS AND KNOWLEDGE REQUIRED AS ENGINEERING GEOLOGIST

iii. BASICS OF SOIL AND ROCK MECHANICS

iv. BASIC CONCEPTS OF MINERALOGY IN CIVIL ENGINEERING PROJECTS

v. APPLICATION OF GEOLOGY TO CIVIL ENGINEERING STRUCTURES

vi. PRACTICAL EXPERIENCE OF ENGINEERING GEOLOGICAL MAPPING

vii. INTERPRETATION OF NATURAL GROUNDWATER QUALITY DATA

viii. THEORY OF PRACTICALS AND PRACTICALS

 1.0 TYPES OF ROCKS
Rocks are not all the same!
There are three types of rocks and it’s the first thing you learn in a geology class — very briefly the
three types of rocks are:
• Igneous — they form from the cooling of magma deep inside the earth. They often have
large crystals (you can see them with the naked eye).
• Metamorphic — they are formed through the change (metamorphosis) of igneous and
sedimentary rocks. They can form both underground and at the surface.
• Sedimentary — they are formed through the solidification of sediment. They can be
formed from organic remains (such as limestone), or from the cementing of other rocks.

The three main types, or classes, of rock are sedimentary, metamorphic, and igneous and the
differences among them have to do with how they are formed. Igneous rocks are formed when magma
(molten rock deep within the earth) cools and hardens. Sometimes the magma cools inside the earth, and
other times it erupts onto the surface from volcanoes (in this case, it is called lava). When lava cools very
quickly, no crystals form and the rock look shiny and glasslike. Sometimes gas bubbles are trapped in
the rock during the cooling process, leaving tiny holes and spaces in the rock. Examples of this rock type
include basalt and obsidian.
Metamorphic rocks are formed under the surface of the earth from the metamorphosis (change)
that occurs due to intense heat and pressure (squeezing). The rocks that result from these processes
often have ribbon like layers and may have shiny crystals, formed by minerals growing slowly
over time, on their surface. Examples of this rock type include gneiss and marble.
Sedimentary rocks are formed from particles of sand, shells, pebbles, and other fragments of
material. Together, all these particles are called sediment. Gradually, the sediment accumulates in
layers and over a long period of time hardens into rock. Generally, sedimentary rock is fairly soft
and may break apart or crumble easily. You can often see sand, pebbles, or stones in the rock, and
it is usually the only type that contains fossils. Examples of this rock type include conglomerate
and limestone. [Source: https://www.learner.org/interactives/rockcycle/types.html]

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Igneous Rocks

Lava flow on Hawaii. Lava is the extrusive equivalent of magma (Image via Wiki Commons)

Magma is the heart of any igneous rock. Magma is composed of a mixture of molten or semi molten
rock, along with gases and other volatile elements. As you go deeper underground, the temperature
rises; go further and you’ll eventually reach the Earth’s mantle — a huge layer of magma surrounding
the Earth’s core.
As you probably know, when magma cools, it turns into rock; if it cools while still underground
at high temperatures (but at temperatures still lower than that of the magma), the cooling process
will be slow, giving crystals time to develop. That’s why you see rocks such as granite with big
crystals — the magma had time to cool off. The crystals are also differentiated, as you can see
below.

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Note the white, almost rectangular feldspar crystals, the grey virtually shapeless quartz crystals, and the
black crystals which can be either black mica or amphibole (Image modified from Easter Illinois
University)

However, if the magma erupts or is cooled rapidly, you instead get a volcanic rock -- not really
igneous, but also originating from lava. The classical example here is basalt, which can have many
small crystals or very few large ones. Volcanic rocks are also called extrusive igneous rocks, as
opposed to intrusive igneous rocks. Some volcanic rocks (like obsidian) don’t have any crystals at
all.

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Basalt — note the almost complete lack of visible crystals. Now compare it to the granite. Image via
Georgia State University.

Pumice

Not all magma is made equally: different magmas can have different chemical compositions,
different quantities of gases and different temperature — and different types of magma make
different types of rocks. That’s why you get incredible variety. There are over 700 hundred types

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of igneous rocks, and they are generally the hardest and heaviest of all rocks. However, volcanic rocks
can be incredibly lightweight -- pumice, for example, can even float, and was called by ancient sailors
“the foam of the sea”. Pumice is created when a volcano violently erupts, creating pockets of air in the
rock. The most common types of igneous rocks are:
• andesite
• basalt
• dacite
• dolerite (also called diabase)
• gabbro
• diorite
• peridotite
• nepheline
• obsidian
• scoria
• tuff
• volcanic bomb

Metamorphic Rocks
Here, the name says it all. These are rocks that underwent a metamorphosis; they changed. They were
either sedimentary or igneous (or even metamorphic), and they changed so much, that they are
fundamentally different from the initial rock.

Different types of metamorphism (Image via Tankon Yvtar).

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There are two types of metamorphism (change) that can cause this:
• • contact metamorphism (or thermal metamorphism) — rocks are so close to magma that
they start to partially melt and change their properties. You can have recrystallization, fusing
between crystals and a lot of other chemical reactions. Temperature is the main driver here.
• • regional metamorphism (or dynamic metamorphism) — this typically happens when
rocks are deep underground and they are subjected to massive pressure — so much so that they
often become elongated, destroying the original features. Pressure (often times with temperature)
is the main driver here.

Folded foliation in a metamorphic rock from near Geirangerfjord, Norway (Image via Wiki
Commons).

Metamorphic rocks can have crystals and minerals from the initial rocks as well as new minerals
resulting from the metamorphosis process. However, some minerals are clear indicators of a
metamorphic process. Among these, the most usual ones are garnet, chlorite, and kyanite.
Equally as significant are changes in the chemical environment that result in two metamorphic
processes: mechanical dislocation (the rock or some minerals are physically altered) and chemical

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recrystallization (when the temperature and pressure changes, some crystals aren’t stable, causing them
to change into other crystals).

Marble is a non-foliated metamorphic rock.

They can be divided into many categories, but they are typically split into:
• • Foliated metamorphic rocks — pressure squeezes or elongates the crystals, resulting in a
clear preferential alignment.
• • Non-foliated metamorphic rocks — the crystals have no preferential alignment. Some rocks,
such as limestone, are made of minerals that simply don’t elongate, no matter how much stress you
apply.

Metamorphic rocks can form in different conditions, in different temperatures (up to 200 °C) and
pressures (up to 1500 bars). By being buried deep enough for a long enough time, a rock will become
metamorphosed. They can form from tectonic processes such as continental collisions, which cause
horizontal pressure, friction and distortion; they can also form when the rock is heated up by the intrusion
of magma from the Earth’s interior.

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The most common metamorphic rocks are:
Amphibolite
schist (blueschist, greenschist, micaschist, etc) • eclogite
gneiss
hornfels
marble
migmatite
phyllite
quartzite
serpentinite
slate

A mica schist. The dark brown rounded minerals are garnet, and everything you see with a whiteish
tint is the mica. The reddish areas are rusty mica (Image modified from Willow leaf Minerals).

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Sedimentary Rocks
Sedimentary rocks are named as such because they were once sediment. Sediment is a naturally
occurring material that is broken down by the processes of weathering and erosion and is
subsequently naturally transported (or not). Sedimentary rocks form through the deposition of
material at the Earth’s surface and within bodies of water

A conglomerate — a rock made from cemented gravel (Image via Earth Physics Teaching.)

Sedimentary rocks are quite difficult to classify, as they have several different defining qualities (the
chemical make-up, the sedimentation process, organic/inorganic material), but the most common
classification is the following:
• clastic sedimentary rocks — small rock fragments (many silicates) that were transported
and deposited by fluids (water, bed flows). These rocks are further classified by the size and
composition of the clastic crystals included in the sedimentary rocks (most often quartz, feldspar,
mica and clay).

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• conglomerates (and breccias) — conglomerates are predominantly composed of rounded
gravel, while breccias are composed of angular (sharper) gravel.
• sandstones — as the name says, it’s a rock made from many-sand-sized minerals and rock grains.
The most dominant mineral in sandstone is quartz because it is the most common mineral in the Earth’s
surface crust.

An old, red sandstone (Image via Ian Hopkinson).

• mudrocks — again, the name says it all — they’re rocks made from solidified mud. They
typically contain very fine particles and are transported as suspended particles by turbulent flow in water
or air, depositing once the flow settles.
• biochemical rocks — you’ll probably be surprised to find out that most limestone on the face
of the Earth comes from biological sources. In other words, most limestone you see today comes from
the skeletons of organisms such as corals, mollusks, and foraminifera. Coal is another example of
biochemical rock.
• chemical rocks — these rocks include gypsum and salt (halite) and are formed mostly
through water evaporation

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Yes, salt is a mineral — and it can be quite beautiful. In this context, it’s called halite and can be
classified as a sedimentary rock.

There are also other types of specific sedimentary rocks — for example, the ones formed in hot
springs. Most of the solid surface of our planet (roughly 70%) is represented by sedimentary rocks,
but if you go deep enough beneath the Earth’s surface, there are plenty of igneous and
metamorphic rocks to be found.
Like biochemical rocks, fossils can become rocks in time. You can actually have entire mountains
made up from reefs like you can see below.

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This entire mountain in Romania was formed based on a coral reef. Image via MP Interactiv

Some common sedimentary rocks are:

• argillite
• breccia
• chalk
• chert
• claystone
• coal
• conglomerate
• dolomite
• limestone
• gypsum
• greywacke
• mudstone
• shale
• siltstone
• turbidite

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This is just scratching the surface — you could spend a lifetime studying rocks and still be
surprised. However, for your general knowledge as engineers, the information here will be useful
for you on the field [Source: https://www.zmescience.com/other/science-abc/types-of-rock/]

Summary of Engineering Properties of Rocks

Engineering properties of rock determines geologic, chemical, mechanical, deformation and
technological properties of rocks
1. Geological properties
a) Generation time of rocks
b) Generation environment of rocks
c) Lithological properties of rocks
d) Structural properties of rocks
e) Hydrological properties of rocks

2.Chemical properties; include behaviour of melting, weathering and against water with respect to
the composition of rocks. It directly influences various engineering works and their projects.

3.Physical Properties; Unit volume weight, density, natural water content, porosity and void ratio,
degree of saturation, permeability, weight water absorption and volumetric water absorption are
physical properties of rocks.

4.Mechanical Properties; Are characteristics that determine the behaviour of rocks under various
stresses
a) Compression strength (Uniaxial compressive strength, Schmidt Attractor Test, Point load
resistance, Disc Shear Index Test)
b) Tensile strength (Direct pull, Indirect pull (Brazilian test))
c)Shear Strength (Triaxial compression test, Direct shear test)
d)Buckling Strength
e) Bending Strength
5.Deformation Properties; Elastic modulus and Poisson ratio, Rigidity module etc.
6.Technological Properties; Pierceable, breakable, excavable, interceptable, polishable, machinable,
usable, tunnelable...

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Uses of Rock as Materials for Building Construction
There are many rocks that are used for the construction of a building such as Basalt, Marble,
Limestone, Sandstone, Quartzite, Travertine, Slate, Gneiss, Laterite, and Granite are examples of
building materials.
Granite is a common type of rock that is used in the construction of buildings. It is known for its
durability, resistance to weathering, and natural beauty. Other types of rock that are commonly used
in construction include limestone, sandstone, and marble.
In addition to being durable, rock is plentiful and, if you use what is local, inexpensive and
relatively easy to obtain. Local stone that fractures in a straight plane will often be stacked for use in
walls. Rocks that form in sheets (like sandstone, shale and slate) are easy to use for pavers and walkways.
Small rocks like gravels and sand are the most commonly used form of rock as they are critical
components of concrete and mortar.
It should be noted that not all metamorphic rocks make good construction materials. The
previously mentioned rocks contain large amount of quartz, making them hard and resistant to
chemical weathering. Orthogneisses, gneiss from an igneous rock, can often times be just as strong as
any granite or diorite. However, many metamorphic rocks, after enjoying deformation and
metamorphism, are left with many fractures and veins, which leave them weaker, this is common with
heavily shears rocks like mylonites. Schists and phyllites usually have a higher mica content (biotite,
muscovite, and chlorite). These minerals are platy and soft. Schists themselves are very platy and don't
make great dimension stone or aggregate.
Sedimentary rock is used very well used for the construction of buildings. This type of rock is formed
from the accumulation of sediment over time, and includes rocks like sandstone, limestone, and shale.
Sedimentary rock is often preferred for construction because it is relatively easy to quarry and shape,
and it can be found in large quantities in many areas. Additionally, sedimentary rock tends to be strong
and durable, making it a good choice for building materials.

There are many rocks which are used as building materials such as
1. Granite; - for heavy engineering work such as bridge, piers and abutments, break waters,
docks and light house, retaining walls.
2. Granite, fine grained sand stones; — building facing the sea.
3. Granite, compact sandstone: — building in industrial area.

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4. Fine grained sandstone: — arches.
5. Marble, sandstone: — building face work, caved works, ornamental works and statues.
6. Fine grained granite compact sandstone: — fire resisting structure.
7. Granite, basalt, quartzite; — road metal and aggregate for concrete.
8. Coarse grained sandstone, quartzite: — railway ballast.
9. Slate, marble; — electrical switch boards.

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 2.0 SKILLS AND KNOWLEDGE REQUIRED AS ENGINEERING GEOLOGIST
Engineering geologists must have a thorough understanding of the tools and practices needed to
collect, store, test and analyse site samples, such as soil, rock and water. Engineering Geologists work
as advisors to private and public bodies on the natural, environmental and geological threat in real estate
development. They will assess whether ground rock is stable enough and whether it is a safe type of
rock on which to build.

Task of an Engineering Geologist

They are effectively a bridge between geology, engineering and public health. The geology
training helps engineers understand environmental threats. The engineering element helps
geologists understand the unique challenges of civic works and private development. Finally, both
are encouraged to understand the need to consider public health and safety during civic works.
Engineering Geologists will look at safety issues such as rock stability for a site and ask such
questions as: can the underlying bedrock support heavy structures? Is the bedrock stable enough
to support mass development such as transit systems and tall buildings? Is the rock radioactive? Is
the radiation level considered safe for people to live and work here? What are the geological risks
of building here? They will also look at human developments that might affect the stability of the
ground - mine shafts, waste disposal sites (gas leaks as well as ground stability).
They do not just look at the ground rock, but also water sources, soil stability and other natural
processes that could impact a new development. This way, they are more like environmental
engineers when they study such issues as flood risk. They will assess commercial and industrial
development, public works, assessment of military activity (such as ground assessments in areas that
have been bombed, ensuring that a site is safe before redevelopment).

Site of an Engineering Geologist

Overwhelmingly, they will work in civil engineering and civic works. Hazard assessment is a large
part of their job so they can often expect to work for government bodies assessing the potential for
developments. Public health and environmental health are now legal obligations in assessing a site
for development, not just for wildlife and environmental impact, but for human health. We need
to understand whether an area is prone to flooding, earthquakes or other ground instability.
Also, for government or even in the private sector, they may assess and examine sites following a
disaster - though not just the large ones. A river flood may lead to soil and / or geology instability

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once the waters have fallen back. They could be involved in making the ground safe again. This is a role
they could carry out in the charitable sector too.
In the private sector, they will perform much the same work. However, they could also be involved
shoring up a site after a site closes down. Some private bodies that have dug through soil or
geological features may be obliged to ensure its safety - typically old mine shafts on privately-
owned land. They may consult or employ Engineering Geologists to ensure that this work is carried
out properly.

Skills and Knowledge of an Engineering Geologist

Engineering geologists specialize in the interdisciplinary study of geology as well as the
fundamentals of engineering. The field requires a deep understanding about the soil, rock,
groundwater and other natural systems. This career can include or require the following skills:

Apply geology principles to engineering and structural concerns

Draft plans to build, develop, excavate, protect and utilize the environment
Collect and classify rock, soil and groundwater samples in particular areas under study
Laboratory analysis of field samples collected
Assessment of groundwater activity and hydrogeological properties for excavations or well
installations
Develop accurate geological logs, mappings, records, and drawings of all information
collected
Possess exemplary written, oral and technical skills
Undergo geological investigations of various properties and projects
Knowledge of relevant laws and regulations regarding environmental investigations and
areas of study
Knowledge of hazardous waste disposal and identification
Extensive travel to various locations may be required; work may be in a localized or remote
area
Develop action plans, conclusions and remediation plans about the land area based on
information collected through field sampling
Excellent ability to solve problems and communicate with clients

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 A senior level position as an engineering geologist includes managing and overseeing a
team of individuals, as well as components of an entry-level engineering geologist role.

Senior level positions can include or require:

Collect information that other engineering geologists submit, and report this information
to governments, companies and clients
The development of work plans and how, when and where field sampling will be conducted
Monitor field sampling, site surveillance, excavation, core sampling, and drilling of
locations
Plan investigations, and manage aspects of a project such as team management, budgeting,
and reporting
Creating action plans and thorough reports to submit to related companies, agencies or
clients to determine land use, development or protection
Mentor and guide team through the responsibilities of on-site investigations or analyses
Lead new hire involvement, training, and facilitation of individuals for team investigations
Continue to develop a thorough understanding and knowledge of all environmental laws
and regulations pertaining to the work at hand
Evaluate and identify with research any potential hazards, such as landslides and seismic
influences in the environment
Information obtained through investigations include providing locations for developments,
roads, wells, buildings and bridges.

Job Demand for Engineering Geologist

The job demand for Engineering Geology professionals is expected to be growing as people are getting
informed more about the danger and losses of ignoring thorough investigation of the geotechnical
and geological condition of construction sites. Presently, there could be variation, depending on civic
and private development. This, of course, depends on the economy and population growth. Much
will also depend on new environmental legislation enacted as a result of state, national and international
law.

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Education Requirements to Become an Engineering Geologist
It is vital that High School students have a strong grounding in math and the sciences. These
subjects feature heavily in engineering degrees. A bachelor degree is required at the very least. For
most entry-level jobs, master's degrees are not necessary but may be desirable. Either way, some
countries will require applicants to pass a number of exams. The nature and number of exams
could vary by country for licensing purposes. Bachelor degree students should take an engineering
degree and focus their minors and electives on geology and environmental science.

Master's degrees are desirable for more advanced and senior roles and this is a specialized role so there
are Engineering Geology degrees available at many colleges and universities across the country.
Students will often specialize in mining or mineralogy and this will have a large impact on your career
choice. As this type of job is a practical role, doctorates are only suitable for research and lecturing jobs at
universities.

Societies and Professional Organizations that Engineering Geologists Have

The following organizations are amongst the most prestigious groups for professionals in this area:

AEG: The Association of Environmental and Engineering Geologists brings together

professionals, but also reaches out to other stakeholders including members of the public. They
were founded in 1957 by 13 individuals, but now they bring together Engineering Geologists in
15 different countries

NAEGE: The Nigeria Association for Engineering Geology and the Environment is the Nigeria
professional bodies of Engineering Geologists.

EEGS: Focusing on geophysics in environmental and geological engineering, they represent over 700
individuals all over the world. They produce and distribute their own peer-reviewed journal in the
Journal of Environmental and Engineering Geophysics

AIME: The American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical, and Petroleum Engineers is the largest
American organization that represents professional Engineering Geologists who work in mining.

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 3.0 BASICS OF SOIL AND ROCK MECHANICS

Basics of Soil Mechanics

Soil mechanics has been of interest for millennia, not so much as the research discipline we know
today but as practical knowledge for a range of applications. Think first of early farmers who
discovered the benefit of using a stick or later a plow to break up the soil for seed bed preparation,
potters who took advantage of the foldability of clay, or early engineers in search of stable ground
for constructing houses, roads and other structures. They were interested in either deforming and
moving soil in a desired way (“soil dynamics”) or, the opposite, making sure the soil stayed in
place (“soil statics”), the key problem for slope stability and foundation engineering. These early
forms of soil mechanics were based on trial and error, but nevertheless effective and quite
successful since the plow, pottery and principles of foundation engineering are still in use today.

It was not until the 18th century that soil mechanics was studied from a more theoretical angle,
starting with the works by Coulomb (1776), later Rankine (1857) and ultimately Terzaghi (1925)
and Terzaghi and Peck (1948), who is often considered the father of modern soil mechanics.
Terzaghi applied the concepts of stress, strain and strength to soil as a deformable, water-saturated
porous medium. Soils deform and eventually fail when exposed to increasing stress levels. The
different strands of soil mechanics were brought together in what is known as Critical State Soil
Mechanics (CSSM) (Schofield and Wroth, 1968), which provided a first framework that could
describe the different forms of strain, deformation and failure that saturated soils undergo when
exposed to external loads. Concurrently to the development of CSSM, efforts were made to
describe the mechanics of soils that were not fully water-saturated, commonly termed a
“unsaturated soil mechanics” (Fredlund and Rahardjo, 1993; Fredlund et al., 2012; Lu and Likos,
2004).

Soil scientists contributed to the development of geotechnical engineering principles, particularly on the
behavior of unsaturated soils, resulting in the two disciplines starting to converge again (see e.g., Lu and
Likos, 2004). Progress in material sciences and increasing computational capabilities allow for soil
mechanics based on the principles of multi-physics and porous media theory, which couple mechanical,
hydraulic and thermodynamic processes and properties of the soil (Andrade and Mital, 2019; de Boer,
2000; Navarro et al., 2014). Structured, unsaturated and biologically active surface soils can now be
explored.

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Soil mechanics is a sub-discipline of soil science and geotechnical engineering that deals with the
mechanical properties and processes of soils. Generally speaking, soil mechanics describes how the
soil and its pore structure changes its shape or volume (or how it “deforms”) due to stresses acting on
the soil. There are a wide range of soil mechanics applications in soil science, especially to predict and
explain soil responses to the stresses exerted by compaction and tillage. The application of soil
mechanics to soil science also extends to explore the physics of soil structure formation, shrinkage and
swelling, erosion resistance, restrictions to root growth and bioturbation, and reinforcement of soil by
plant roots.
Many soil mechanics concepts and methods used in soil science were initially developed to solve
geotechnical engineering problems. Key issues for geotechnical engineering have some similarities
to soil science. Building foundations, for instance, need to withstand the weight of buildings, whereas
agricultural soils may need to withstand the weight of machinery or livestock. Evaluating geotechnical
slope stability from its shear characteristics uses similar theories used by soil scientists to measure soil
stability and wheel slip. Traditional geotechnical engineering, however, has focused on subsurface
soils below the “dry crust.” These soils are mostly water saturated and they are often assumed to be
structure less. Describing these soils has been simplified to their component particle sizes (sand, silt,
clay) and bulk density, and they tend to have mechanical properties that change little over time.
Soil scientists, however, are more interested in surface rather than subsurface soils. Surface soils
are typically unsaturated, structured (i.e., have properties that are not sufficiently described in
terms of particle sizes and bulk density only) and have much more dynamic properties than
subsurface soils due to their greater exposure to climate and anthropogenic activities. This
complicates understanding and a “unified theory” or “standard model” for the mechanics of
unsaturated, structured surface remains elusive. Nevertheless, the basic concepts of soil mechanics
such as stress, strain and deformation apply to unsaturated, structured surface soils.

Soil Formation
Soils are formed from the physical and chemical weathering of rocks. Physical weathering
involves reduction of size without any change in the original composition of the parent rock. The
main agents responsible for this process are exfoliation, unloading, erosion, freezing, and thawing.
Chemical weathering causes both reductions in size and chemical alteration of the original parent

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rock. The main agents responsible for chemical weathering are hydration, carbonation, and
oxidation. Often, chemical and physical weathering take place in concert.
Soils that remain at the site of weathering are called residual soils. These soils retain many of the
elements that comprise the parent rock. Alluvial soils, also called fluvial soils, are soils that were
transported by rivers and streams. The composition of these soils depends on the environment
under which they were transported and is often different from the parent rock. The profile of
alluvial soils usually consists of layers of different soils. Much of our construction activity has
been and is occurring in and on alluvial soils. Glacial soils are soils that were transported and
deposited by glaciers. Marine soils are soils deposited in a marine environment.
Soil is classified primarily into two categories; namely granular materials and cohesive soils. The
former consists of gravel, sand, and cohesionless silts, while the latter is clayey soil. The
mechanical properties of granular soils are governed by the grain-to-grain contact as well as
friction. Hence, the magnitude of contact force and the geometrical nature of grain packing play
major roles. It should be recalled that the magnitude of contact pressure per unit area of soil is
called the effective stress, which is the most important concept in modern soil mechanics. In clayey
soils, in contrast, chemical and electrical interactions among clay particles are important as well.
Hence, shear strength is activated even at zero effective stress when the past stress-strain history
allows it. Liquid limit (LL) and plastic limit (PL), which are called the Atterberg limits in
combination, are two measures to evaluate the magnitudes of interparticle actions in addition to
effective stress. The plasticity index, PI or I p, is defined by PI = LL − PL. Generally speaking, PI
of most clays lies in the range of 40-80 with such an exception of 400 or more of the sodium
smectite (bentonite) group.

Basics of Rock Mechanics

Rock mechanics is the theoretical and applied science of the mechanical behaviour of rock. It is that
branch of mechanics concerned with the response of rock to the force fields of its physical
environment.
It is convenient to subdivide rock mechanics into the following branches:
a) Structural rock mechanics, which is concerned with the stability of engineering structures in which
the material is predominantly rock.
b) Comminution, which is concerned with the reduction of rock to small fragments by the
application of external forces as in drilling, blasting, cutting and grinding.

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Both these branches of rock mechanics involve the control of rock deformation and fracture
processes. In the first case, excessive rock failure (in this context, failure is taken to mean either
excessive deformation or fracture) must be avoided in order to preserve the stability of the structure
and, in the second case, rock fracture must be induced with the minimum input of external energy.
Scope of Rock Mechanics
Evaluation of Geological Hazards: Landslides, Seismic
Selection of Construction Materials
Selection and Layout of Construction Sites
Analysis of Stability
Design of Blasting Operations
Design of Support Systems
Design of Hydraulic Fracturing Programs
Design of Instrumentation Programs
Evaluation of Excavation Characteristics
Studies of rock deformation at high temperatures and pressures (Structural Geology)

Summary and Practical Conclusions

The following characteristics distinguish rock from other commonly used structural materials, apart
from concrete, which behaves in a similar manner.
a) Rock failure is generally of a brittle type, i.e., it occurs with little prior warning and is not
accompanied by a large non-elastic (plastic) deformations.
b) The tensile strength of rock is usually of the order of 1/10 of its unconfined compressive
strength.
c) The strength of rock increases rapidly with increasing confining pressure.
d) Some rocks exhibit marked anisotropic strength behaviour due to the existence of preferentially
oriented weakness planes such as the bedding planes in a sedimentary rock.
e) Most rocks exhibit some degree of time-dependent deformation or fracture behaviour.
f) Some rocks suffer from a serious strength reduction when wet.
h) Fresh rock surfaces exposed to the atmosphere are liable to deteriorate in time (weather)

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The most effective use of the structural characteristics of rock can be achieved if these physical
properties are kept in mind and if necessary, precautions are taken in designing a rock structure.
Some of these precautions are:

1) The structure should be designed to avoid or, at least, minimize zones of high tensile stress.
2) Support techniques such as the use of rock bolts can be used to improve the stability of rock
structure by increasing the confining pressure and hence to compressive strength of the material.
3) When a rock structure contains geological weaknesses in the form of bedding planes, fissures, faults,
joints or dykes, due allowance must be made for the directional strength variation associated with these
features.
4) In calculating the strength of rock structure, allowance should be made for the possible reduction in
strength with time.
5) Exposed surfaces of rocks which are particularly liable to weathering should be protected, as far
as possible, from exposure to the atmosphere.
Current activity in rock mechanics, throughout the world, is such that significant advances in
knowledge can be anticipated during the next decade. The interested reader is therefore advised to keep
in contact with rock mechanics literature, and with the proceedings of the conferences wshich take place
from time to time.

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 4.0 BASIC CONCEPTS OF MINERALOGY IN CIVIL ENGINEERING PROJECTS

Minerals and Rocks Groups that Generates Earth Crust

Earth Crust

Average depth of the earth crust thickness is 8-10km.

There are two different rocks which have different chemical and biological content. Sial;

average density:2.7gr/cm3 (granite, sandstone and limestone)

Sima;2, 8.3gr/cm3 (basalt type rocks)

The Sial layer in the ocean floor is almost absent.

Sima reaches8-10kmthickness

Eight of the 108 elements found on the Earth's surface are very common.

•The 8 most common elements in the crust form 98.59% by weight of the ground shell as shown in the
table below.

•The remaining 98 elements constitute 1.4% by weight of the earth's crust.

Elements Percentage Composition (%)

Oxygen 46.6
Silisium 27.72
Aluminum 8.13
Iron 5.0
Calcium 3.63
Sodium 2.83
Potassium 2.59
Magnesium 2.09

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Minerals

More than 2000 minerals on Earth generates rocks, rocks constitute the crust.

It is found naturally

Has chemical composition (element or compound form).

It can be expressed by a specific crystal system.

It is mostly solid, liquid (mercury and water)

Generally inorganic, at least organic compounds.

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The Importance of Minerals
Minerals and mines are part of the legacy that remains to us from the geological past. These
are the basic building blocks of the solid part of the earth and are very important for construction
geology;

The minerals and rocks are the main sources for the production of automobiles, computers
and many other things we use,

Minerals and rocks play an important role in many earth processes such as landslides,
coastal erosion and volcanic activity,

Studies on minerals and rocks provide important information on earth history,

Knowing properties of the minerals and rocks provides how we can best manage our earth
resources

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Physical Properties of Minerals

The main physical properties of minerals;

Tenacity,
Hardness,
Fracture,
Cleavage,
Streak,
Lustre,
Density

Tenacity
The property of tenacity describes the behaviour of a mineral under deformation. It describes the
physical reaction of a mineral to externally applied stresses such as crushing, cutting, bending, and
striking forces. Adjectives used to characterize various types of mineral tenacity include
'brittle,''flexible,''elastic,''malleable,''ductile,'and'sectile'
Mica (turns back to its original state when twisted), Chlorite (remains twisted). •When the hammer hit
some minerals, they can become extended or platy.

Tenacity

Brittle-Breaks or powders easily.

Malleable-can be hammered into thin sheets.
Sectile-can be cut into thin shavings with a knife.
Ductile-bends easily and does not return to its original shape.
Flexible-bends somewhat and does not return to its original shape.
Elastic-bends but does return to its original shape.

Hardness
Hardness has traditionally been defined as the level of difficulty with which a smooth surface of a
mineral specimen may be scratched.

29
The hardness of a mineral species is dependent upon the strength of the bonds which compose its
crystal structure. Hardness is a property characteristic to each mineral species and can be very
useful in identification.

Hardness minerals are resistance to scratching. It is the result of the cohesion between these
molecules. It is determined with the aid Mohs hardness scale as shown below.

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Cleavage

• A cleavage plane is a plane of structural weakness along which a mineral is likely to split
smoothly.

• Cleavage thus refers to the splitting of a crystal between two parallel atomic planes.

• Despite the fact that every mineral belongs to a specified crystal system, not every mineral
exhibits cleavage.

• Cleavage planes, if they exist, are always parallel to a potential crystal face. However, such
planes are not necessarily parallel to the faces which the crystal actually displays. Fluorite, for
example, has octahedral cleavage yet forms cubic crystals.

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• Nonetheless, the property of cleavage, if it is present, can offer important information about
the symmetry and inner structure of a crystal.

Fracture
If the mineral contains no planes of weakness, it will break along random directions called fracture.
Several different kinds of fracture patterns are observed.

•Conchoidal fracture -breaks along smooth curved surfaces.

•Fibrous and splintery -similar to the way wood breaks.

•Hackly -jagged fractures with sharp edges.

•Uneven or Irregular -rough irregular surfaces

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Colour

• Color is sometimes an extremely diagnostic property of a mineral, for example olivine and
epidote are almost always green in color.

• But, for some minerals it is not at all diagnostic because minerals can take on a variety of colors.
These minerals are said to be allochromatic. For example, quartz can be clear, white, black, pink, blue,
or purple.

Streak
Streak is the colour produced by a fine powder of the mineral when scratched on a streak plate. Often
it is different than the colour of the mineral in non-powdered form

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Hematite: red; Limonite: brown; Magnetite: dark grey; Chromite: brown; Magnetite: dark grey;
Chromite: brown

Lustre
Lustre refers to the general appearance of a mineral surface to reflected light. Two general types of lustre
are designated as follows:

• Metallic-looks shiny like a metal. Usually opaque and gives black or dark coloured streak.

• Non-Metallic-Non-metallic lustres are referred to as

Vitreous-looks glassy-examples: clear quartz, tourmaline

Resinous-looks resinous-examples: sphalerite, sulphur.

Pearly-iridescent pearl-like-example: apophyllite.

Greasy-appears to be covered with a thin layer of oil-example: nepheline.

Silky-looks fibrous. -examples-some gypsum, serpentine, malachite.

Adamantine-brilliant lustre like diamond.

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Structure
Kidney, chordal, chordal radial, concussion, lump and concentric.

•Kidney: Chalcedon, hematite

•Chordal: Asbestos, gypsum, calcite,

•Radial: Antimuan,

•Chordal radial: Pyrite, barite

•Concussion: Calcite, agate, pyrite, agate,

•Lump: Flintstone

•Concentric: Agat, Calcedon

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Specific Gravity

• Density refers to the mass per unit volume.

• Specific Gravity is the relative density, (weight of substance divided by the weigh to fan
equal volume of water).

• In cgs units’ density is grams per cm3, and since water has a density of 1g/cm3, specific
gravity would have the same numerical value has density, but no units (units would cancel).

• Specific gravity is often a very diagnostic property for those minerals that have high
specific gravities.

•In general, if a mineral has higher atomic number cations it has a higher specific gravity as shown
below.

Mineral Composition Atomic Nos of Cation Specific Gravity

Aragonite CaCO3 40.08 2.94
Strontianite SrCO3 87.82 3.78
Witherite BaCO3 137.34 4.31
Cerussite PbCO3 207.19 6.58

Specific gravity can usually be qualitatively measured by the heft of a mineral, in other words those
with high specific gravities usually feel heavier.

Most common silicate minerals have a specific gravity between about 2.5 and 3.0. These would feel
light compared to minerals with high specific gravities as presented in the table below.

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 Mineral Composition Specific Gravity
Graphite C 2.23
Quartz SiO2 2.65
Feldspars (K,Na)AlSi3O8 2.6 -2.75
Fluorite CaF2 3.18
Topaz Al2SiO4(F,OH)2 3.53
Corundum Al2O3 4.02
Barite BaSO4 4.45
Pyrite FeS2 5.02
Galena PbS 7.5
Cinnabar HgS 8.1
Copper Cu 8.9
Silver Ag 10.5

Radioactivity
The radioactivity in the minerals comes from the Uranium(U) and Thorium(Th) found in them.
Some elements such as potassium(K) and Rubidium(Rb) also have a small amount of radioactivity.

It is aimed to determine the geological age by making use of the radioactivity feature in minerals.

Chemical Properties of the Minerals

• Minerals have a special composition

• It is determined by qualitative and quantitative analyzes and indicated by related formulas.

• The same chemical composition, a different crystal system polymorphism

(multidimensionality) is used.

• Calcite with aragonite and diamond with graphite are polymorph minerals.

• If minerals have the same shape but they have different chemical composition,
isomorphism (coordination) is used.

• Calcite (CaCO3) dolomite (CaCO3.MgCO3) and siderite (FeCO3) are isomorphic minerals.

37
Optical properties of the minerals
• The light-related properties of the minerals make up the optical properties of minerals. Optical
properties of the minerals provide colours, fracture properties, single and double breaking properties,
and the shapes they show under a polarizing microscope.

• Apart from these properties of minerals, some minerals have their own unique
characteristics. Some minerals are magnetic, some minerals are radioactive, some minerals are good
conductors, and some minerals are poor conductors. Some minerals have piezoelectric properties.
Industry benefits from these properties of the minerals.

The Importance of Minerals for Civil Engineering

• Many minerals are used as building materials in the construction industry.

• The concrete is generally obtained with a mixture of gravel, sand, cement and water

• Aggregate: sand, gravel, crushed stone (blasted rock), used for construction often broken in
various sizes up to 10cm or broken granular material stack (sand + gravel + natural rock material
consisting of crushed stone).

• Gypsum(gypsum);(CaSO4.2H2O-Mohs hardness-2); colorless or white color is converted

into plaster losing some of the water at120°C.Plaster is used in indoor and outdoor applications.

• Various clay minerals have been used in mudbricks, bricks, tiles since ancient times.

• Lime is used as a binder in mortar and also in stabilization of roads.

• Limes which are found in various colour and pattern and well-polished are used as coating
materials in the buildings

• Apart from this, the mechanical behaviour of the clays directly reflects on the structures and
causes the forces to deform the structures.

• Feldspar and feldspathoids, which are found in the composition of many masses, can be very
dangerous for engineering because they are decomposed by environmental factors.

• The behaviours of fully matured clay minerals vary with increasing water uptake rate and
progressive dissociation time.

38
• Therefore, if feldspars are encountered in the basement, applications are carried out,
ranging from project changes to new measures to extend the construction time.

• In such cases, a series of precautions are taken, such as removal of the dissimilar part,
placement of the foundation in a firm-to- un-deformed section, selection of the concrete quality with
the appropriate foundation system and construction of a good drainage network

• The concrete is generally obtained with a mixture of gravel, sand, cement and water
depending on the importance and size of the engineering structure to be built, the chemistry of each
of these components forming concrete may be primary importance.

• Especially aggregate(sand-gravel) which is added to concrete and constitutes 75-85% by

weight of concrete is either naturally extracted from the earth's crust or artificially broken by rock
masses.

• If quartz sand and pebbles are to be used as aggregates in a dam body concrete, they must
be well studied.

• The high alkaline cement in the concrete is affected by the hydration caused by the
hardening of the concrete and the alkali such as sodium-potassium in the cement are released.

• Quartz, opal, chalcedony, agate, tridimites and gravel composed of siliceous minerals and silicates
interact with the alkalis released in the concrete, cause expansion, cracking and fracturing of the concrete.

• This results in concrete can be easily damaged by being non-resistant against external
influences. The volume percentages of the silica minerals constituting the aggregate component in the
concrete are as follows; Opal 0, 20%; Calcinedon5 %; Acid volcanic mass 3%.

The main minerals found in the rocks

The rocks are mineral assemblages; either by the combination of various minerals or pieces of stone,
or by the accumulation of a large number of single minerals.

Main minerals: Mass forming and called minerals play a role in their nomenclature. A number of them
are 20 to 30. E.g. Quartz, Feldspar, Nepheline, Olivine etc. They play a role in the name of this rock
minerals.

39
Accessory minerals: Tourmaline, Magnetite, Zircon, etc. There are also minerals that rarely enter into the
masses and have no effect on their naming.

Secondary minerals: New minerals that have formed as a result of various environmental factors of the
existing main minerals, mostly due to the effects of decomposition, metamorphism and melt, and their
composition. E.g. Kaolin, Serpentine, Chlorite, Zeolite etc.

The main minerals found in the rocks

Main minerals in Magmatic rocks;

• Quartz

• Feldspar: Orthoclase, Plagioclase

• Feldspathoid: leucite, nepheline; Sodalite

• Pyroxene: Bronzeite, Enstatite, Hipersten, Augite, Diyalage, Deiodopsite

• Amphibole: Hornblend

• Mica: Biotite, Muscovite

• Perido: Olivine

40
Main minerals in sedimentary rocks

• Magmatic rock fragments (especially quartz and feldspar)

• Clay minerals

• Calcite, Dolomite

• Siderite

• Limonite

Main minerals in metamorphic rocks

• Quartz

• Feldspar

• Biotite, Muscovite

• Hornblende

• Epidote

• Garnet

• Silimanite

• Andalusite

41
• Calcite

• Serpentine

• Talc

• Chlorite

Secondary minerals

• The most important ones are Tourmaline, Magnetite, Ilmenite, Rutil, Apatite, Zircon and
Topaz.

Quartz Group
• It is found in Magmatic, metamorphic and sedimentary masses.

• Crystal system Hexagonal,

• Density is 2.65 and hardness is 7.

• Usually colorless and transparent.

42
• Other elements that come into crystal structure can offer different colors. In this case, it
gets different names. Some contain liquid or gaseous inclusions.

• Quartz has no cleavage.

• It offers its own unique twinning.

• The face of the fracture is concoidal, glassy and oily.

• It is not affected from acids apart from flour.

• Quartz which is pure and clean is used in optical and chemical industry and ceramic
industry

• Bright and colorful varieties (Necefaşı, Amethist, Sitrin, Agat, etc.) are used in making
ornaments.

• There are many types of quartz. The most important ones are;

Chalcedony; chrysoprase; Heliotrop; Agate; Flintstone; Jasper; Silicified Tree; Opal;

• If quartz sand and gravel are to be used as building material, it is necessary to carry out the
analyses thoroughly.

• When the quartz and its species used as aggregates in cement start to harden with high alkali
cement, hydro treatment occurs and Na, K etc. The alkalis are released.

• All silicates, especially opal, chalcedony and agate, and siliceous minerals act with alkalis,
causing the concrete material to expand, crack, break down and eventually reduce its strength.

• Therefore, cement-aggregate reactions become important according to the size and

importance of the structure to be constructed.

Feldspars
•They form 40-50% of the earth's crust, their composition is potassium-sodium-calcium aluminium
silicate.

•The crystal system is Monoclinal or Triclinal.

•There are cleavages in two directions and by the angle between the cleavage planes;

43
1. Orthoclase 2. Plagioclase

Ortoklas Group; Cleavage angles are 90 feldspars. They are crystallized in the monoclonal system.
Orthotic mineral is important in this group.

Plajioklas Group; the angles of cleavage of feldspar is 86, 80. This

group of minerals;

Albite Feldspars

•Nomenclature is based on the percentage of Na and Ca in the compositions. The main minerals of this
group are;

1. Albite (NaOAl2O3), (90-100% Albite+ 0-10% Anorthite)

Oligoclase

3. Andesine (50% Albite+ 50% Anorthite)

4. Labrador

5. Bytownite

6. Anorthite (CaOAl2O32SiO2), (90-100 Anorthite+ 0-10% Albite) and Anorthite consist of a

mixture of different proportions.

They are crystallized in the triclinal system. Colors are variable. The fracture faces are glassy.

• Their hardness is 6-6,5 and their specific weights are 2,60-2,76. They are found in different
proportions in the composition of Magmatic stones and play an important role in naming these
rocks.

•It is also found in metamorphic and sedimentary rocks.

Decomposition of feldspar;
As a result of the decomposition events, quartz occurs with clay minerals that are soluble in
water.

Factors affecting decomposition; Climate, temperature, humidity, the effect of superficial acid
waters and fumerols or hydrothermal processes which are deeply magic.

44
 The shape and depth of the variable increase in volume is the result of decomposition of 5-30%.

The carrying capacity of the decomposition mass and pressure resistance are reduced. When

building on such masses, it is necessary to pay attention to disintegration events.

45
 5.0 APPLICATION OF GEOLOGY TO CIVIL ENGINEERING STRUCTURES
Geology is the study of the solid Earth. It includes the investigation of the rocks forming the
Earth(petrology) and of how they are distributed (their structure), and their constituents
(mineralogy and crystallography). Geochemistry is a study of the chemistry of rocks and the
distribution of major and trace elements in rocks, rock suites, and minerals. This can lead to an
understanding of how a particular rock has originated (petro-genesis), and also, in the broadest
sense, to a knowledge of the chemistry of the upper layers of the Earth. In another word, Geology
study the Earth, the materials of which it is made, the structure of those materials, and the processes
acting upon them (King,2005) and is important to civil engineering because all work performed
by civil engineers involves earth and its features. Geology provides systematic knowledge of
construction materials and their occurrence, formation, durability, strength, hardness and uses
(Abidin, 2011) which are vital in civil engineering. Before starting any civil construction at any
place, a detailed geological report which is accompanied by geological maps and sections are
prepared. The detailed geological report contains types of rocks, type of formations and physical
properties of the earth (Mooney, 2015). Geology involves petrology which is the study of rocks
which gives us an overview of the strength properties of the rocks which helps a civil engineer
decide where and how a rock has to be used in civil engineering constructions (Adams, 1997). The
distribution of rocks at the Earth’s surface is found by making a geological survey (that is, by
geological mapping) and is recorded on geological maps. This information about rocks is
superimposed on a topographic base map. Knowledge of the nature and physical conditions of the
deeper levels of the planet can be gained only by the special methods of geophysics, the twin
science of geology; the term ‘Earth sciences’ embraces both. From the theory and methods of
geophysics, a set of techniques (applied geophysics) has been evolved for exploring the
distribution of rocks of shallower levels where the interests of geologists and geophysicists are most
intertwined.

Relevance of Geology to Civil Engineering

Most civil engineering projects involve some excavation of soils and rocks, or involve loading the
Earth by building on it. In some cases, the excavated rocks may be used as constructional material,
and in others, rocks may form a major part of the finished product, such as a motorway cutting or
the site f or a reservoir. The feasibility, the planning and design, the construction and costing, and
the safety of a project may depend critically on the geological conditions where the construction

46
will take place. This is especially the case in extended ‘greenfield’ sites, where the area affected
by the project stretches for kilometers, across comparatively undeveloped ground. Site
investigation by boring and by testing samples may be an adequate preliminary to construction in
such cases.

With this knowledge a civil engineer can know the type of rock to be used in different projects and
prevent loss of live and damage to the environment. A lot of minerals are used in civil engineering which
are part of geology. Concrete which is used in most civil engineering projects is composed of a mixture
of minerals which are gravel, sand, cement and water. Gypsum is converted into plaster losing some
of the water at 120 Degrees Celsius. Plaster is used in indoor and outdoor applications. Various clay
minerals have been used in mud bricks, bricks, tiles since ancient time which are a part of civil engineering
projects. Pale limestone is used for making lime which is used as a binder in mortar and also stabilization
of roads (Ozdemir, 2011).

Civil engineers must consider natural disasters such as hurricanes, earthquakes and tsunamis as they
lead to destruction of the infrastructure. Tsunamis can be associated with earthquakes and leads to
destruction of infrastructure and loss of life of the inhabitants. As a civil engineer a thermo study of the
vulnerable areas with regards to its distance from sea must be study, so that safe structures are
constructed. In this affected area high buildings should not be built. Tsunami cannot prevent, but its
prediction is determined (Prakash et al, 2015).

Geology and Civil Engineering Relationship

Geology helps in safe and economical construction of buildings, roads, tunnels, slopes and dams. Some
of the questions answered by engineering geologist are:

Where a geologically safe and economical engineering structure can be built?

How to choose the communication and transport infrastructure route where geological
conditions are convenient?
How are the building bases constructed safely and economically in terms of geological
and geotechnical aspects?
How to create a slope both safely and economically?
How is a safe tunnel and underground facility excavation done?
How is the location for geological materials required for construction of dams and road
construction determined?

47
What are the measurements and application methods for improvements of ground
conditions and controlling instability, infiltration etc.?
What are required geological and geotechnical conditions store urban, toxic and
radioactive waste?
How to identify, prevent or reduce geological hazards identified, prevented and reduced?

Geological Hazards on Civil Engineering Structures

48
 6.0 PRACTICAL EXPERIENCE OF ENGINEERING GEOLOGICAL MAPPING,
GEOMORPHOLOGY AND TERRAIN ANALYSIS IN CIVIL
ENGINEERING PROJECTS

A field-based course which provides hands-on experience in outcrop mapping, geomorphology,

terrain analysis and simple field testing of rocks and soils for geotechnical purposes.
This advanced level course requires previous geological or geotechnical field experience and
provides you with hands-on practice in outcrop mapping, Terrain analysis and interpretation,
simple field testing and description of rocks and soils for geotechnical purposes.
A variety of rock masses, soils and topography will be mapped at a range of scales. You will
develop your powers of observation and description and advance your skills of detailed accurate
logging and mapping. For each site you will derive precise engineering geological and
geomorphological models. Supported by fully tabulated legends these maps and models will
provide the basis for the identification and further investigation of geotechnical problems and
challenges evident at the sites which you visit. In this practical exercise, you are to:

▪ Comprehend and communicate information on mapping for geotechnical purposes with a

comprehensive representation of geotechnical features for the site or area. Application of
Unmanned Aerial Vehicle or Remote Sensing Application in Engineering Geological Mapping
is also encouraged

▪ Describe a variety of rocks and soils in the field and apply Geotechnical guidelines
used in engineering geological practice.

▪ Identify and describe topography and geomorphology from a geotechnical viewpoint.

Produce engineering geological maps and cross-sections to create appropriate
engineering geological models.

▪ Comprehend the effects of weathering and the meaning of weathering grades in the
rock where applicable.
▪ Comprehend the relationship between rock, soils and geomorphology to
challenging engineering geological conditions in the site

▪ Use engineering geological and geomorphological maps and keys to communicate

a comprehensive synthesis of geotechnical conditions.

▪ Comprehend the variety and properties of defects in young weak rocks and older
strong rocks thus demonstrating a good grasp of the rock characteristics.

▪ Evaluate geotechnical conditions relating to the area and the impact of any instability
discovered on infrastructure.

50
 7.0 INTERPRETATION OF NATURAL GROUNDWATER QUALITY DATA IN
THE CONTEXT OF GROUNDWATER RESOURCE ASSESSMENT

Water Quality Standards

Water quality standards mean statements and numeric values that describe the water quality and lie
within the following three components:

1. Designated uses of the water body related to water supply, aquatic life, agriculture, or recreation.

2. Water quality criteria and general statements describe good water quality and specific numerical
concentrations for various parameters.

3. Anti-degradation policy is designated to maintain and protect the existing water uses for each water
body.

Water Quality Index

The quality of groundwater and its suitability were assessed using the WQI method. The
groundwater quality index (GWQI) is the most accurate technique to evaluate groundwater
potability. Hydro-chemical parameters such as major cations and anions and particular
characteristics (e.g., land use, geology, and soil type) should be considered in GWQI.

The water quality index can be calculated for three different uses:

a. Drinking water quality index includes drinking, recreation, irrigation, and livestock
watering use.

b. Aquatic water quality index in terms of drinking, recreation, irrigation, and livestock
watering use.

c. Overall water quality index which includes the protection of human health, aquatic
ecosystems, and wildlife.

51
 ASSIGNMENTS
1. Assignment on Geotechnical investigations carried out without considering the
geologic conditions
2. Highlight at least five minerals and their importance in civil engineering construction
3. Using the given draft, produce a Comprehensive Engineering Geological report
of a site with reference to either building, road or hydraulic structures
4. With a secondary data of Groundwater sample tests obtained from a particular area in
Nigeria, use the Nigeria GWQI standard to relate the TDS with other chemical
elements in the water such as Ca, Mg, Cl, SO4, NO3, Na and (HCO3+CO3). Plot the
trend of your results explaining the spatial spread of water quality in the area.
5. Presentation of Assignment Number 3

52
 GEOLOGICAL FIELD MAPPING
Field trip, Sample Collection, Laboratory Test, Interpretation and Reporting

53