UNIT-V D to A and A to D Converters

Introduction:

Digital systems such as microcomputers use a binary system of ones and zeroes, the data
to be used put into the microcomputer have to be converted from analog form to digital form.
The circuit that performs conversion is called as analog to digital converter. On the other hand a
digital to analog converter is used when a binary output form of a digital system must be
converted to some equivalent analog voltage or current.

Specifications of DAC:

1. Resolution: Resolution is defined in two ways.

i. Restoration is the number of different analog output values that can be provided by a DAC.

For an n bit DAC, resolution is equal to 2n.

ii. Resolution is also defined as the ratio of change in output voltage resulting from a change of 1
LSB at the digital outputs. For an n bit DAC, it can be given as

V OFS
Resolution = n VOFS – full scale output voltage
2 −1

2. Accuracy: Accuracy is a comparison of actual output voltage with expected output. It is

expressed in percentage.

V OFS 10.2
Accuracy = = = 20 mv
n
2 −1 255× 2

3. Monotonicity: A converter is said to have good monotonicity if it does not miss any step
backward when stopped through its entire range by a converter.

4. Conversion time: It is a time required for conversion of analog signal into its digital
equivalent. It is also called setting time. It depends on the response time of the switches and the
output of the amplifier.

1
5. Settling time: This is the time required for the output of DAC to settle to within ± LSB of
2
the final value for a given digital input i.e. zero to full scale.
6. Stability: The performance of converter changes with temperature, age and power supply
variations. So all the relevant parameter such as offset, gain, linearity error and monotonicity
must be specified over the full temperature and power supply ranges. These parameters represent
the stability of the converter.

Basic DAC Techniques:

1. Binary weighted resistor D/A converter

2. R/2R Ladder D/A converter

1. Binary weighted resistor D/A converter:

The binary weighted resistor DAC uses an OP-Amp to sum n binary weighted currents derived
from a reference voltage VR Via current scaling resistors 2R, 4R, 8R, - - - - - - 2 nR as shown in
fig.

As shown in figure above, switch positions are controlled by the digital inputs. When
digital input is logic 1, it connects the corresponding resistance to the reference voltage V R,
otherwise it leaves resistor open.

VR
For ON switch I= and
R

For OFF switch I = 0

Here OP-Amp is used as a summing amplifier. Due to high input impedance of OP-Amp,
summing circuit will flow through Rf. Hence the total current through Rf can be given as
IT = I1 + I2 + I3 + - - - - - - IN

The output voltage is the voltage across Rf and is given by

Vo = - IT Rf = - (I1 + I2 + I3 + - - - - - IN) Rf

VR V V VR
= - (b1 + b2 R + b3 R + - - - - - + bn n ) Rf
2R 4R 8R 2 R

VR
=- Rf (b1 2-1 + b2 2-2 + b3 2-3 + - - - - - _ + bn2-n)
R

When Rf = R, Vo is given by

V0 = - V R (b1 2-1 + b2 2-2 + b3 2-3 + - - - - - + bn2-n)

The above equation indicates that the analog output voltage is proportional to the input digital
word.

Inverted R- 2R ladder / Current mode R-2R ladder converter:

R/2R ladder D/A converter uses only two resistor values. This avoids resistance spread
drawback of binary Weighted D/A converter. Figure shown below is the R/2R ladder DAC.
Like binary weighted resistor DAC, it also uses shunt resistors to generate n binary weighted
currents. However it uses voltage scaling and identical resistors instead of resistor scaling and
common voltage reference used in binary weighted resistor DAC. Voltage scaling requires an
additional set of voltage dropping series resistances between adjacent nodes as shown.
 Each bit of binary word connects the corresponding switch either to ground or to the
inverting input terminal of the OP-Amp which is at virtual ground. Since both the positions of
the switches are at ground potential, the current flowing through resistance is constant and is
independent of switch position. These currents can be given by

VR
I1 =
2R

V R /2 V I
I2 = = R = 1
2R 4R 2

V R /4 V I
I3 = = R = 1
2R 8R 4
n
V R (2 −1) In
In = = n
2R 2 −1

= IT Rf

= - Rf (I1 + I2 + I3 + - - - - - IN)

VR V V VR
= - Rf (b1 + b2 R + b3 R + - - - - + bn n )
2R 4R 8R 2 R

VR
=- Rf (b1 2-1 + b2 2-2 + b3 2-3 + - - - - - + bn2-n)
R

When Rf = R, VO is given as

VO = - V R (b1 2-1 + b2 2-2 + b3 2-3 + - - - - - + bn2-n)

Consider 4 bit binary DAC with input 1001 and Rf = R as shown.

Here output voltage is given as

VO = - V R (1 × 2-1 + 0 × 2-2 + 0 × 2-3 + 1 ×2-4)

1 1
= - V R ( + 0 + 0 + ) = - 0.5625 V R
2 16

= 2.8125 V

A/D Converters:

Dual slope DAC: Dual slope conversion is an indirect method for A /D conversion where an
analog voltage and a reference voltage are converted into time periods by an integrator, and then
measured by a counter. The speed of this conversion is slow but the accuracy is high.

In the above figure the ramp generator input is switched between the analog input voltage
Vi and negative reference voltage -V ref. The analog switch is controlled by the MSB of the
counter. When the MSB is logic 1, the negative reference voltage is connected to the ramp
generator.

At time t = 0, analog switch s is connected to the analog input voltage V i, so that the
analog input voltage integration begins.
The output voltage of the integrator can be given as

t
−1
Voi = -
R1C1 ∫ V i dt
o

At the end of 2M clock periods MSB of the counter goes high. As a result the output of
the flip-flop goes high, which causes analog switch S to be switched from V i to – VR. At this very
same time the binary counter which has gone through its entire count sequence is reset.

The negative input voltage (– VR) connected to the input of integrator causes the
integrator output to ramp positive. When the integrator output reaches to zero, the comparator
output goes low, which disables the clock AND gate. This stops the clock pulses reaching the
counter so that the counter will be stopped at a count corresponding to the number of clock
pulses in time t2.

The integrator output ramp down to a voltage V and get back up to O. Therefore the
charge voltage is equal to discharge voltage and we can write

V i t1 V R t2
=
R1C1 R1C1

V i t 1=V R t 2

V it1
∴ t2 =
VR

The above equation shows that t2 is directly proportional only to the Vi, since V R and t 1
are constants. The binary digital output of the counter gives corresponding digital value for time
period t 2 and hence it is also directly proportional to the input signal Vi.
 The actual conversion analog voltage Vin into a digital count occurs duringt 2. The control
circuit connects the clock to the counter at the beginning of t 2. The clock is disconnected at the
end of t 2. Thus the counter content is digital output. Hence we can write

Digital output = [ counts

]t
second 2

= [ counts
second ]( )
t1
Vi
vR

The counter output can then be connected to an appropriate digital display.

Successive Approximation ADC:

The basic idea of successive approximation is to adjust the DAC’s input code such that its output
1
is within ± LSB of the analog input Vi to be A/D converted.
2

The analog voltage Vin applied at one input of comparator. On receiving start of
conversion signal (SOC), SAR sets 3 bit binary code 100 2(b2 = 1) as an input of DAC. This is
similar process of placing the unknown weight on one platform of the balance and 4 kg weight
on the other. The DAC converts the digital word 100 and applies its equivalent analog output at
the second input of the comparator. The comparator then compares two voltages just like
comparing unknown weight with 4 kg. Weight with the help of balance scale. If the input voltage
is greater than the analog output of DAC, SAR keeps b 2 = 1 and makes b1 = 1 (addition of 2 kg
weight to have total 6 kg weight) otherwise it resets b2 = 0 and makes b 1 = 1 (replacing 2 kg
weight). The same process is repeated for b 1 and b0. The status b0, b1 b1 and b2bits give the digital
equivalent of the analog input.