11th JEE

Mind Maps
- sachin sir

Chapters :

(1) Sets
(2) Quadratic equations
(3) Trigonometric ratios and equations
(4) Sequence and series
(5) Permutation and combination (PNC)
(6) Binomial distribution
(7) Solution of triangle (SOT)
(8) Straight line
(9) Statistics
(10) Circle
(11) Mathematical reasoning (logic)
(12) Conic section (parabola, ellipse, hyperbola)
(13) Complex number
 SETS
01 Introduction

03
A set is collection of well-defi-
ned distinguished objects. 02
By well defined we mean that Cardinal Number Subset
there should be no ambiguity The number of elements in a finite set Let A and B be two sets. If every element of A is an
regarding the inclusion and is represented by n(A), known as element of B, then A is called a subset of B and
exclusion of the objects. cardinal number. written as A B or B A (read as 'A' is contained in 'B'

U
For example a collection of Eg .: A = {a, b, c, d, e} Then, n(A) = 5 or 'B' contains 'A'). B is called superset of A.
scariest movies can’t be consi- Note:
• Every set is a subset and superset of itself.
dered as a set, because it will • If A is not a subset of B, we write A B.

U
differ from person to person • The empty set is the subset of every set.
• If A is a set with n(A) = m, then no. of subset of
A are 2n and the number of proper subsets of A are
2n-1
Eg. Let A={3, 4}, then subsets of A are o ,{3},{4}, {3,4}.
04 Types of Sets 05 Operations on Sets Here, n(A) = 2 and number of subsets of A=22 = 4

Empty set or Null set Difference of two sets

If A and B are two sets, then their Intersection
A set which has no element is difference A-B is defined as: The intersection of two sets A and B,
called null set. It is denoted by A-B={x : x ∈A and x∉B} Similarly, written as A∩B (read as 'A' intersection
symbol φ or {}. B-A={x:x∈B and x ∉A} 'B') is the set consisting of all the
common elements of A and B.
A∩B

Equivalent set A B

Two finite sets A and B are said to Union

be equivalent, if n(A) = n(B). The union of two sets A and B, written
Clearly, equal set are equivalent as A∪B (read as A union B) is the set of
all elements which are either in A or in B Thus, A∩B={x : x ∈A and x ∈B}
but equivalent set need not to be or in both. Thus, A∪B={x : x ∈A or x ∈B} Clearly, x∈A∩B ⇒ {x ∈A and x ∈B} and x
equal. ∉A∩B ⇒ {x ∉A or x∉B}.
A B

Singleton set
A set having one element is called
singleton set. clearly, x ∈ A∪B ⇒ x ∈A or x ∈B and x ∉A
∪B ⇒ x ∉A and x ∉B Compliment of set
If U is a universal set and A is a
Finite and Infinite set subset of U, then complement of A
A set which has finite number of Symmetric Difference is the set which contains those
elements is called a finite set. elements of U, which are not
The symmetric difference of two present in A and is denoted by A'
Otherwise, it is called an infinite sets A and B, denoted by A∆B, in
set. or Ac. Thus, Ac ={x : x ∈U and x ∉A}
defined as (A∆B)=(A-B)∪(B-A)
Properties of complement
Complement law:
Power set Disjoint sets
The set of all subset of a given set (i) A ∪ A' = U (ii) A∩A' = ϕ
A is called power set of A and U De morgan's Law:
denoted by P(A). A B (i) (A∪B)' = A'∩B' (ii) (A∩B)' = A'∪B'
Double Complement law:
Two sets A and B are said to be (A')' = A
Equal set
Two sets A and B are said to be
disjoint, if A∩B = ϕ i. e, A and B Law of empty set and universal
have no common element. set ϕ' = U and U' = ϕ
equal, written as A=B, if every
element of A is in B and every
element of B is in A.

07
06
Results on Operation of Sets: Cartesian Product
A × B = {(a, b) : a ∈ A, b ∈ B}.
1. A ⊆ A ∪ B, B ⊆ A ∪ B, A ∩ B ⊆ A, A ∩ B ⊆ B.
A × B ≠ B × A.
2. A - B = A ∩ Bc
If A has p elements & B has q elements then A × B has
3. (A∪B) ∩ (A∪B') = A
pq elements.
4. (A - B) ∪ B = A ∪ B'
5. (A - B) ∩ B = ϕ

08
6. A ⊆ B ⇔ B' ⊆ A'
7. A - B = B' - A' Important results on Cartesian product:
8. A ∪ B = (A - B) ∪ (B - A) ∪ (A ∩ B) If A,B,C are three sets.
9. A - B = B - A ⇔ A = B 1. A × (B ∪ C) = (A × B) ∪ (A × C)
10. A ∪ B = A ∩ B ⇔ A = B. 2. A × (B ∩ C) = (A × B) ∩ (A × C)
3. A × (B - C) = (A × B) -(A × C)
Cardinal Number of Some Sets:
4. (A × B) ∩ (S × T) = (A ∩ S) × (B ∩ T)
1. n(A') = n(U) - n(A).
5. If A ⊆ B, (A × C) ⊆ (B × C).
2. n(A ∪ B) = n(A) + n(B) -n(A ∩ B)
6. If A ⊆ B, (A × B) ∩ (B × A) = A × A.
3. n(A ∩ B) = n(A) - n(A ∩ B)
7. If A ⊆ B & C ⊆ D, then A × C ⊆ B × D.
4. n(A ∪ B) = n(A) + n(B). [If A and B disjoint]
5. n(A' ∩ B') = n(A ∪ B)' = n(U) - n(A ∪ B)

09
6. n(A' ∪ B') = n(A ∩ B)' = n(U) - n(A ∩ B)
7. n(A - B) = n(A) - n(A ∩ B)
8. n(A ∩ B) = n(A ∪ B) -n(A ∩ B') -n(A' ∩ B) Congruence
9. n(A ∪ B ∪ C) = n(A) + n(B) + n(C) - n(A ∩ B) - n(B ∩ C) Let m be a positive integer, then the two integers a & b
- n(C ∩ A) + n(A ∩ B ∩ C) are said to be congruent modulo m if a - b is divisible
10. n(A1 ∪ A2 ∪ A3 …∪ An ) = n(A1) + n(A2) +... + n(An ). by m. i.e. a - b = mλ.
[If A1, A2, …, An are disjoint sets] a ≡ b(mod m).
 “Mathematics is not just about numbers, equations, computations, or algorithms:
it is about understanding and implementing”
— William Paul Thurston

QUADRATIC EQUATION
1. Basic Results 2. Quick Look

The quantity (D = b2-4ac) is known as the discriminant b 2 − 2ac

1. a + β = (α + β ) − 2αβ =
2 2 2
of the quadratic equation a2
• The quadratic equation has real and equal roots if b b 2 − 4ac
2. a 2 − β 2 = (α + β ) (α + β ) − 4αβ = −
2
and only if D = 0, i.e, b 2 − 4ac = 0. a2
• The quadratic equation has real and distinct roots if b ( b 2 − 3ac )
3. a + β = (α + β ) − 3αβ (α + β ) = −
3 3 3
and only if D > 0, i.e., b 2 − 4ac > 0.
a3
• The quadratic equation has complex roots with
4. a − β = (α − β ) + 3αβ (α − β )
3 3 3
non-zero imaginary parts if and only if D < 0, i.e., b 2 − 4ac < 0.
• If p + iq ( p and q being real ) is a root of the quadratic equation where 2

{ } − 2a β  b 2 − 2ac  c2
2
5. a + β = (α + β ) − 2αβ
4 4 2 2 2
i = −1, then p − iq is also a root of the quadratic equation.
= 2  −2 2
 a  a
• If p + q is an irrational root of the quadratic equation, then
(
±b b 2 − ac ) b 2 − 4ac
p − q is also a root of the quadratic equation provided that all 6. a − β = a − β
4 4
( 2 2
)( a 2
+β 2
)= a4
the coefficients are rational 2
b − ac
7. α + αβ + β = (α + β ) − αβ =
2
• The quadratic equation has rational roots if D is a perfect 2 2

square and a,b,c are rational a2

α β α 2 + β 2 (α + β ) − 2αβ b 2 − ac
2
• If a = 1 and b, c are integers and the roots of the quadratic 8. + = = =
equation are rational, then the roots must be integers. β α αβ αβ a2
bc
• If the quadratic equation is satisfied by more than two 9. α 2 β + β 2α = αβ (α + β ) = − 2
a
numbers (real or complex), then it becomes an identity,
( )
2 2
2
α   β  α4 + β4 α 2 + β 2 − 2a 2 + β 2
i.e, a = b = c = 0. 10.   +   = 2 2 =
 β  α  α β a2 + β 2

3.
Formation of an equation
with given roots

A quadratic equation whose roots are 4. Equation in terms of the roots of

another equations

α and β is given by a If α , β are roots of the equation ax 2 + bx + c = 0,

( x − α )( x − β ) = 0 then the equation whose roots are
∴ x 2 − Sx + P = 0
• −α , − β ⇒ ax 2 − bx + c = 0 (Replace x by − x)

i.e., x 2 − ( sum of roots ) x + ( product of roots ) = 0 •

1 1
, ⇒ cx 2 + bx + a = 0 (Replace x by 1x)
∴ x 2 − (α + β ) x + αβ = 0 α β
2 1
 1  1 
• α β , n ∈ N ⇒α  x n  + b  x n
n n
 + c = 0 (Replace x by xn )
   
Relation between the Roots of a Polynomial x
• kα , k β ⇒ ax 2 + kbx + k 2 c = 0(Replace x by k )
Equation of Degree n
α β
• , ⇒ k 2 ax 2 + kbx + c = 0 (Replace x by kx)
Consider the equation k k

an x n + an −1 x n −1 + an − 2 x n − 2 +…+ a1 x + a0 = 0 • k + α , k + β ⇒ a ( x − k ) + b ( x − k ) + c = 0 (Replace x by (x-k))

2

1 1

( a0 , a1 …, an are real coefficients and an ≠ 0 ) . α , β ; n ∈ N ⇒ α ( x n ) + b ( x n ) + c = 0 (Replace x by xn)

nx 2 2
n
•

Let α1 ,α 2 , …, α n be the roots of equation (i). Then

an x n + an −1 x n −1 + an − 2 x n − 2 +…+ a1 x + a0 = an ( x − α1 )( x − α 2 )…( x − α n )
Comparing the coefficients of like powers of x, we get

α1 + α 2 + α 3 +…α n = −
an-1 5.
an
an-2 1. Condition for Two Quadratic Equations to have one
α1α 2 + α1α 3 + α1α 4 +…+ α 2α 3 +…+ α n −1α n = Common Root
an If ax
2
+ bx + c = 0 and dx 2 + ex + f = 0 have a common root α ( say ) .
α n−r ⇒ ( dc − af ) = ( bf − ce )( ae − bd ) ,
Then
2

α1α 2 …α r +…+ α n − r +1α n − r + 2 …α n = ( −1)

r

an 2. Both roots are common

a1 b1 c1
a Then required condition is = = .
α1α 2 …α n = ( −1) 0 .
n
a2 b2 c2
an
 6. Quadratic Expression 7. Sign of f(x)
2
Depending on the sign of a and
The expression ax + bx + c is said to be a real quadratic expression b 2 − 4ac, f ( x ) may
in x where a,b,c are real and a ≠ 0. Let f ( x ) = ax + bx + c where a, b, c,∈ R (α ≠ 0 ) .
2 be positive, negative or zero,
This given rise to
f ( x ) can be rewritten as the following cases:
 b  4ac − b 2 
2
 b 
2
D  A a > 0 and b 2 − 4ac < 0 ⇔ f ( x ) > 0 ∀ x ∈ R.
f ( x ) = a  x +  + 2  = a   x +  − 2  where D = b − 4 ac is discriminate
, 2

 2a  4a   2a  4a 

of the quadratic expression. Then y = f ( x ) represents a parabola whose

axis is parallel to the
b D
y − axis, with vertex at A  − , −  .
In this case the parabola always
remains above the x-axis.
 2a 4a 

a > 0 and b 2 − 4ac > 0. Letf ( x ) = 0

8. Maximum and minimum values of quadratic expression
B
have two real roots a and b (a<b).

Maximum and minimum value of quadratic expression can be found

out by two methods: Then f ( x ) > 0 ∀ x ∈ ( −∞, α ) ∪ ( β , ∞ ) , and
f ( x ) < 0 ∀ x ∈ (α , β ) .
2
In a quadratic expression ax + bx + c.
Vertex of the parabola Y = aX 2 is X = 0,Y = 0.
Ca < 0 and b 2 − 4ac < 0 ⇔ f ( x ) < 0 ∀ x ∈ R.
b D b
i.e., x + = 0, y + = 0 ⇒ x = − , y = − D / 4a
2a 4a 2a

Hence, vertex of y = ax 2 + bx + c is  − b , − D  .
 2a 4a 
In this case the parabola always
remains below the x-axis.
b
• For a > 0, f ( x ) has least value at x = − .
2a
 b  D
This least value is given by f  − =− .
 2a  4a D
a < 0 and b 2 − 4ac = 0 ⇔ f ( x ) ≤ 0 ∀ x∈ R.
b
• For a < 0, f ( x ) has greatest value at x = − .
2a
 b  D
This greatest value is given by f  − =− .
 2a  4a
In this case the parabola touches
the x-axis and lies below the x-axis.

9. Interval in Which the Roots Lie

E
a < 0 and b 2 − 4ac > 0
2
In some problems we want the roots of the equation ax + bx + c = 0
to lie in a given interval.
For this we impose conditions on a,b and c. Let f ( x ) = ax + bx + c.
2

Let f ( x ) = 0 have two real roots a and b

1. If both the roots are positive, i.e.,they lie in ( 0, ∞ ) , then the sum of (a<b). Then f ( x ) < 0 ∀ x ∈ ( −∞, α ) ∪ ( β , ∞ )
and f ( x ) > 0 ∀ x ∈ (α , β ) .
the roots as well as the product of the roots must be positive.
b c
⇒ α + β = − > 0 and αβ = > 0 with b 2 − 4ac ≥ 0.
α a
2. Similarly, if both the roots are negative, i.e., they lie in ( −∞, 0 ) then the sum of the roots will be negative
c
and the product of the roots must be positive, i.e., α + β = − b < 0 and αβ = > 0 with b 2 − 4ac ≥ 0.
a a
a. Both the roots are greater than a given number k if the following three conditions are satisfied:
b
D ≥ 0, −
2a
< k and a. f k > 0. ( )
b. Both the roots will lie in the given interval (k1,k2) if the following conditions are satisfied.
b
D ≥ 0, k1 < − < k2 and a. f ( k1 ) > 0, a. f ( k2 ) > 0.
2a
c. Exactly one of the roots lies in the given interval (k1,k2) if f ( k1 ) . f ( k2 ) < 0.

d. A given number k will lie between the roots if a. f ( k ) < 0.

In particular, the roots of the equation will be of
opposite signs if 0 lies between the roots ⇒ a. f ( 0 ) < 0.
It also implies that the product of the roots is negative.
 Can you imagine young people
nowadays making a study of trigonometry
for the fun of it? Well, I did
– Clyde Tombaugh

TRIGONOMETRIC RATIOS AND EQUATIONS

01 IMPORTANT TRIGONOMETRIC RATIOS 02 Trigonometrical Equations

π 3 −1 5π • cos nπ = (−1)n ,sin nπ = 0, n ∈ I

• sin15° or sin = = cos 75° or cos
12 2 2 12 nπ nπ n −1

π 3 +1 5π
• cos
2
= 0,sin
2
= (−1) 2 , n is odd integer.

• cos15 = cos = = sin 75 = sin



12 2 2 12
• cos(nπ + θ ) = (−1) cos θ , n ∈ I
n

π 5 −1
• sin or sin18 = sin(nπ + θ ) = (−1) n sin θ , n ∈ I
10 4
n +1
 nπ 
• tan15° =
3 −1
= 2 − 3 = cot 75° • cos  + θ  = (−1) 2
sin θ , n is odd integer
3 +1  2 
π 5 +1 n −1
• cos or cos36° =  nπ 
5 4 • sin 
 2
+ θ  = (−1)

2
cos θ , n is odd integer
3 +1
• tan 75° = = 2 + 3 = cot15°
3 −1
5 −1 10 − 2 5 Factorisation of the sum or Difference of sine
• sin18 
=
4
, sin36 =
4 03 and cosine with two variables
10 + 2 5 5 +1
• cos18 = 

4
, cos36 =
4 • sin( A ± B) = sin A cos B ± cos A sin B
• tan15 = 2 −
o
3, tan22.5o = 2 − 1, tan67.5 o = 2 + 1,
• cos( A ± B ) = cos A cos B + sin A sin B
• tan75 
= 2 + 3.
• sin( A + B) sin( A − B) = sin 2
A − sin 2 B

Transformation of Product into Sum or • cos( A + B) cos( A − B) = cos A − sin 2 2

B
04 Difference of Sines or Cosines θ
•sin 2θ = 2sin θ cos θ = 1 +2 tan
tan θ 2

01 2sinAcosB=sin(A+B)+sin(A-B) 02 2cosAsinB=sin(A+B)-sin(A-B) 1 − tan 2 θ

03 2cosAcosB=cos(A+B)+cos(A-B) 04 2sinAsinB=cos(AB)cos(A+B)
• cos 2θ = cos 2 θ − sin 2 θ = 2 cos 2 θ − 1 = 1 − 2 sin 2 θ =
1 + tan 2 θ
.

1 + cos 2θ 1 − cos 2θ 1 − cos 2θ

• cos θ =
2

2
,sin 2 θ =
2
tan 2 θ =
1 + cos 2θ

05 Some Special Series • tan 2θ = 1 −2 tan θ

tan θ
.2

• tan(A ± B) = 1tan+ tanA ±Atan B

tan B
01 • sin 3θ = 3sin θ - 4sin3 θ, cos 3θ = 4cos3 θ - 3cos θ,tan 3θ =
3tan θ − tan 3 θ
1 − 3tan 2 θ
sin α + sin (α+β) + sin (α+2β) + ... +sin {α + (n - 1) β} = C+D C−D
sin C − sin D = 2cos sin
C+D C−D 2 2
cos 
sin
 2α + (n − 1)β 
cos
sin
nβ • sin C + sin D = 2sin
2
cos
2
 2  2 cos C + cos D = 2cos
C+D
cos
C−D
β 2 2
cos .
sin
2 sin(A + B)
C+D D−C tan A + tan B =
• cos C − cos D = 2sin
2
sin
2
. cos A cos B
sin(A − B)
tan A − tan B = .
cos A cos B
02
cos α + cos (α+β) + cos (α+2β) + ... + cos {α + (n - 1) β} =

 2α + (n − 1)β  sin nβ
05
06 QUICK LOOK
cos   cos
 2  2
cos
β
sin .
For any three angles A, B, C
2
• sin (A + B + C) = sin Acos Bcos C + sin BcosCcos A +
sinCcos Acos B + sin Asin Bsin C
• cos (A + B +C) = cos A cos B cos, C- cos A sin B sin C – sin A cos
B sin C – sin A sin B cos C.

• tan(A + B + C) = 1tan− tanA +Atan B + tan C − tan A tan B tan C

tan B − tan B tan C − tan C tan A

• tan ( A + B + C + D...) = S1 −−SS ++SS −−......

1 3 5

2 4

S1 = ∑ tan A , S 2 = ∑ tan A tan B ,...

 07 Trigonometrical Ratio of allied Angles
tan A + tan B + tan C − tan A tan B tan C
• tan(A + B + C) = Equation of the type a cos θ + b sin θ = c
1 − tan A tan B − tan B tan C − tan C tan A
C1 tan A − nC3 tan 3 A + nC5 tan 5 A − ....
n Case 1:
• tan ( nA) = n −1  c 
1 − C2 tan 2 A + nC4 tan 4 A − nC6 tan 6 A − .... if c ≤ a 2 + b 2 ⇒ θ = α + 2nπ ± cos √a +b
 
2 2

• sin( B + C ) = sin A, cos B = − cos(C + A) for ∆ ABC

Case 2:
• cos( A + B) = − cos C ,sin C = sin( A + B)for ∆ ABC
if c > a 2 + b2
No solution
• tan(C + A) = − tan B, cot A = − cot( B + C ) for ∆ ABC
A+ B C C A +B
• cos 2
= sin , cos = sin
2 2 2
for ∆ ABC

C+A B A B+C 08 m-n Rule: in any triangle,

• sin 2 = cos 2 ,sin 2 = cos 2 for ∆ ABC
(m+n) cot θ = m cot α - n cot β. = n cot B - m cot C.
• sin 2 A + sin 2 B + sin 2C = 4sin A sin B sin C for ∆ ABC A

• cos 2 A + cos 2 B + cos 2C = −1 − 4 cos A cos B cos C for ∆ ABC α β

A B C
• sin A + sin B + sin C = 4 cos cos cos for ∆ ABC θ
2 2 2 B C
m n
A B C
• cos A + cos B + cos C = 1 + 4sin 2 sin 2 sin 2 for ∆ ABC
Standard General Solutions of
• tan A + tan B + tan C = tan A tan B tan C for ∆ ABC 09 Trigonometrical Equations

 π
• cot A cot B + cot B cot C + cot C cot A = 1 for ∆ ABC • sin θ = 0 ⇔ θ = nπ,cos θ = 0 ⇔ θ =  2nπ + 
 2
A B B C C A • sin θ = sin α and cos θ = cos α ⇔ θ = 2nπ + α, η∈ z
• tan tan + tan tan + tan tan = 1 for ∆ ABC
2 2 2 2 2 2
A B C A B C • sin 2 θ = sin 2 α ⇔ θ = nπ ± α,cos 2 θ = cos 2 α ⇔ θnπ
=±nπα+ α
• cot + cot + cot = cot cot cot for ∆ ABC
2 2 2 2 2 2 • cos θ = cos α = θ = 2nπ ± α, where α ∈ [0, π]

• sin 2mA + sin 2mB + sin 2mC = (−1) m+1 ⋅ 4sin mA sin mB sin mC • cos θ = 1 ⇔ θ = 2nπ,cos = −1 ⇔ θ = (2n + 1)π

mA mB mC  π π
• tan θ = 0 ⇔ θ = nπ,sin θ = sin α ⇔ θ = nπ + (−1) n α, where α ∈  − , 
• cos mA + cos mB + cos mC = 1 ± 4sin
2
sin
2
sin
2
.
 2 2
according as m is of the form 4n + 1 or 4n + 3.  π π 
• tan θ = tan α ⇔ θ = nπ + α, where α ∈  − , 
 A+B  B+C C+A  2 2 
• cos A + cos B + cos C + cos (A+B+C)= 4cos  2 
cos 
 2
 cos  2  .
   2 2 π
• tan θ = tan α ⇔ θ = nπ ± α,sin θ = 1 ⇔ θ = (4n + 1)
2
 A+B  B+C C+A 
• sin A + sin B + sin C -sin (A+B+C) = 4sin  sin sin
2   2   2 
 ERROR
SEQUENCE & SERIES
IS EVER THE

sequence
OF HASTE
- Duke of Wellington

A sequence{a n}of real numbers is called

General form of AP:
an arithmetic progression (AP) if a n +1 - an
is constant for all positive integers n ≥ 1, and The terms of an AP with first term ‘a’ and
this constant number is called the common 1 AP common difference d are a, a + d, a + 2d, a
difference of the AP. + 3d, …., and the nth term being an + (n – 1) d.

Arithmetic progression
(AP)

Quick Look
• If {a n} is an AP and k is any real number, then{an+k} is also an AP with same common difference and {k an} is also an AP.

• If{a n} and {bn } are arithmetic progressions, then {an+bn} is also an AP.
• Product of two arithmetic progressions is also an AP if and only if one of them is a constant sequence

• Arithmetic means (AM’s): If a, A1 , A2 , ..... An , b are in AP, then A1 , A2 , ..... An are called n AM’s between a and b. The K th mean Ak is given by

Ak = a + K
(b − a) for K = 1, 2, ….,n
n +1
• Sum to first n terms of an AP: Let sn be the sum to first n terms of an AP with first term ‘a’ and common difference ‘d’. Then
n n
s n = [2a + (n – 1) d] or s n= [first term + nth term]
2 2
n (a + b)
• If A1, A2, …., An are n AM’s between a and b then A1 + A2 + … + An =
2
• Ratio of nth terms of two AP’s: Let tn be the nth term of an AP whose first term is a and common difference d and Sn is its sum to first n terms. Let
tn’ be the nth term of another AP with first term b and common difference d whose sum of first n terms is Sn’ Then

tn s 2n −1
=
t 'n s'2n −1
• Characterization of an AP: A sequence of real numbers is an arithmetic progression if and only if its sum of the first n terms is a quadratic
expression in n with constant term zero.

• Helping points:
(1) Three numbers in AP can be taken as a – d, a, a + d.
(2) Four numbers in AP can be taken as a – 3d, a – d, a + d, a + 3d.
(3) Five numbers in AP can be taken as a – 2d, a – d, a, a + d, a + 2d.

A sequence {an} of non-zero real numbers is

General form
called GP if an / an-1 = an+1 / an for n ≥ 2
2 GP GP with first term a, ar, ar2 .... whose nth term is
2. That is the ratio an+1 / an is constant for n ≥ 1 n −1
and this constant ratio is called the common ar
ratio of the GP and is generally denoted by r.

Geometric progression
(GP)
3
Arithmetic geometric progression (AGP):

Quick Look
Sequence of numbers of the form a, (a + d)r,
(a + 2d)r², + …. is called AGP
sum to n terms of an AGP is
• If three numbers are in GP, then they can be taken as a/r, a, ar.
a
+
(
dr 1 − r n −1 ) -
( a + ( n − 1) d ) r n
• If four numbers are in GP, then they can be taken as a/r3,a/r ar, ar3.
1− r (1 − r) 2 1− r
a dr
• Sum to first n-terms of a GP: The sum of the first n-terms of a GP and + is the sum to infinity.
with first term ‘a’ and common ratio r ≠ 1 Is a 1 − r
n
( ) 1− r (1 − r )2
1− r
• Sum to infinity of a GP: If – 1 < r < 1 is the common ratio of a GP whose
first term is a, then Sn=a/1 – r is called sum to infinity of the GP. 4
• Geometric mean and geometric means: if three numbers a, b and c AM – GM inequality:
are in GP, then b is called the Geometric mean (GM) between a and c Let a1, a2, …..,an be positive reals. Then
and b² = ac. If x and y are positive real numbers, then x, xy ,y are in GP. a1 + a 2 + …. + a n is called AM of a , a , ......, a and
1 2 n
If a, g1, g2, …. gn , b are in GP, then g1, g2, …. gn are called n geometric n
(a1, a2, ......, an )1/n is called their GM. Further
means between a and b.
• k th GM gk is given by gk = a ( b / a )
k /n +1 a1 + a 2 + …. + a n
for k = 1, 2, …., n ≥ (a1, a2, ......, an)1/n and equality
n
( )
n
• Product of n GM’s between a and b is ab holds if an only if a1= a2=a3=....=an
 5. Harmonic progression (HP)
A sequence of non-zero reals is said to be in HP, if their
reciprocals are in AP.

Harmonic mean & Harmonic means: Theorem:

General form of an HP Let a1,a2, …..,an be positive real and A, G be AM and
(1) If a, b, c are in HP, then b is called the Harmonic
Sequence of real numbers 2ac GM of the given numbers. Then,
mean (HM) between a and c and in this case b = .
a+c n
1 1 , 1 ..... 1 ..... (2) If a, h1, h2, ….,h2, ….., hn, b are in HP, then h1, h2, ….,h2, ….., hn H=
, 1 / a1 + 1 / a 2 + …+ 1 / a n
a a + d a + 2d a + ( n − 1) d are called HM’s between a and b further
which is called harmonic mean of a1,a2, …..,an
can be taken as general form ab ( n + 1) Note: A ≥ G ≥ H and
hk = for k = 1, 2, …., n
of an HP. b ( n 1) k (a b ) equality holds if and only if a1= a2=a3=...=an

6. Some Useful Formulae

1. Telescopic Series: Suppose that we have to find the sum to n terms of a series u1+ u2 + u3 + …. .
u k = a k - a k +1 for all k
then u1+ u2 + ....un = a1 -an+1
1 1 1
For example, consider + +
2.3 3.4 4.5
+ ….. here, we have
1 1 1
K ( K + 1)
= K - K + 1 for all K ≥ 2

2. Suppose that the term un of a given series is the product of r successive terms of an AP beginning with the
nth term of the AP; such that 1
un = a + ( n − 1) d  [a + nd ]…. a + ( n + r − 2 ) d 
By choosing an= un [a+(n+r-1)d] , we can write
1
un = [a n - a n −1]
( r + 1) d
1
so that the sum to n terms is equal to (a − a )
( r + 1) d n 0
For example, consider
(i) 1.2.3 + 2.3.4 + 3.4.5 + ….
(ii) 1.3.5.7 + 3.5.7.9 + 5 5.7 .9 .11 +….

3.Suppose that the nth term of a series is the reciprocal of the nth term of the series given in II; that is,
1
un =
a + ( n − 1) d  [ a + nd ]…. a + ( n + r − 2 ) d 

Then, we can choose an= un [a+(n-1)d]

1
so that un = ( r − 1) d (an-1 - an) and sum to n terms is given by
1
(a − a )
( r − 1) d 0 n
For example, consider
1 1 1
(i) + + +…
1.4.7 4.7.10 7.10.13

1 1 1
(ii) + + +…
1.3.5.7 3.5.7.9 5.7.9.11
 Permutation & combination

01 Fundamental Principles of - Counting

(1) Multiplication Principle (2) Addition Principle

If an operation can be performed In 'm' different way, following which a second operation If an operation can be performed in 'm' different ways & another operation, Which is
can be performed in 'n' different ways, then the two operations in succession can be independent of the first operation, can be performed in 'n' different ways, then either of
performed in m × n ways.This can be extended to any finite number of operations the two operations can be performed in (m + n) ways. This can be extended to any
finite number of mutually exclusive operations.

02 Permutation
03 Important results
01

Each of the different arrangements which can be made

Number of permutations of n different things, taking r at a the is denoted by npr or P(n,r).
n!
by taking some or all of a number of things is called permutations. pr =
n
= n (n − 1)(n − 2) .... (n − r + 1)
(n − r )!
Factorial notation: n! = n(n – 1) (n – 2)……3 × 2 × 1
Number of permutations of n different things taken all at a time = npn = n!
n! = n(n – 1)! 0! = 1! = 1
2n! = 2n × n! [1, 3, 5, 7 …….. (2n – 1)]
n
P0 = 1, nP1 = n, nPn = n! n
Pr = n(n–1Pr–1) = n (n – 1) (n – 2) (n–2Pr–2) Pr = (n – r)n–1 Pn–1
n–1

Factorials of negative integers are not defined. Pn = n! n

Pr = n–1Pr + r n–1Pr–1

02 03 04
The number of permuation of n things Number of permutations of n different things taken r at a time when a
The number of permutations of
taken all at a time, p are alike of one kind, particular thing is to be always included in each arrangement, is r n–1Pr–1
n different things taken r at a time
Number of permutations of n different things, taken r at time, when p
q are alike of seond kind r are alike of when each thing may be repeated
n! particular things is to be always included in each arrangement, is
a third kind and n=p+q+r ; any numbr of times is nr.
p!q!r! p! (r – (p – 1)) n–PPr–p

05 06 07
Number of permutations of n different Number of permutations of n different things, taken all at a time,
Number of permutation of n different things things, taken all at a time, when m
taken r at a time, when a particular things when m specified things never come together is n! – m! ×
specified things always come together
is never taken in each arrangement is n – 1Pr. is m! × (n – m + 1)! (n – m + 1)!

04
Arrangement round a circular table: Number of circular permutations of n different things
Circular Permutations taken all at a time is (n – 1)!, if clockwise & anticlockwise orders are taken as different.

1
Arrangement of beads around a circular necklace: Number of circular permutations of n different things taken all at a time is (n − 1)! if clockwise &
2
anticlockwise orders are taken as not different
Number of circular permutations of n different things taken r at a time is-
n
Pr n
Pr
(i) , when anti clockwise & clockwise04
orders are taken as different. (ii) , when anticlockwise & clockwise orders are not different.
r 2r

05
each of the different selections made by taking some or all at a time, irrespective of their arrangements, is called a combination.
Combination n
The number of all combinations of n objects taken r at a time is denoted by c(n, r) or nCr or  
r

n n! n(n − 1)(n − 2)......(n − r + 1)

n
Pr
Cr = n
Cr =
n
Cn = nC0 = 1 n
Cr =
r!(n − r)! 1.2.3.....r r!

The number of combination (selections or groups) that can be formed from

06 Number of Combinations without Repetition n different objects taken r(0 ≤ r ≤ n) at a time is nC =
n!
r
r !( n − r ) !

n
Cr is a natural number n
C0 = nCn = 1, nC1 = n n
Cr = nCn – r n
Cr + nCr – 1 = n + 1Cr n
Cx = nCy ⇔ x = y or x + y = n n. n – 1Cr – 1 = (n – r + 1) nCr – 1

n n
Cn + 1 C
If n is even, then the greatest value of Cr is Cn/2.
n n
If n is odd, then the greatest value of Cr is or n − 1 n n
Cr = n . n – 1Cr – 1
2 2 r
 n
Cr n − r +1 n
C0 + nC1 + nC2 + … + nCn = 2n n
C0 + nC2 + nC4 + … = nC1 + nC3 + nC5 + … = 2n – 1 C0 + 2n + 1C1 + 2n + 1C2 + … + 2n + 1Cn = 22n
2n + 1

n
=
Cr − 1 r
n
Cn + n + 1Cn + n + 2Cn + n + 3Cn + … + 2n – 1Cn = 2nCn + 1

07 Total number of divisors of a given natural number

The number of factors of a given natural number greater than 1 we can write as, N = P1α1 P2α 2 P3α3 ...Pnα n where p1, p2, …., pn are distinct prime numbers

 α1 + 1   α 2 + 1   α3 + 1   α n + 1 
and are non - negative integers. (α1 + 1) (α2 + 1) … (αn + 1) ways. Sum of all the divisors of n is given by  p1 −1  .  p2 −1  .  p3 −1  …  pn −1 
 p1 −1   p2 −1   p3 −1   pn −1 

08 Derangements
09 Multinomial Theorem
Any change in the existing order of things is called a derangement. If ‘n’ things Let x1, x2, … xm be integers. Then number of solutions to the equation
are arranged in a row, the number of ways in which they can be deranged so x1 + x2 + … + xm = n …(i)
that none of them occupies its
subject to the conditions …(ii)
 1 1 1 n 1 
n
r 1
original place is n! 1− + − +…+ ( −1)  = n! ∑ ( −1) And it is denoted by D(n). a1 ≤ x1 ≤ b1, a2 ≤ x2 ≤ b2, … am ≤ xm ≤ bm is equal to the coefficient of xn in
 1! 2! 3! n !  r =0 r!

(xa1 + xa1 + 1 + … + xb1) (xa2 + xa2 + 1 + … + xb2) … (x am

+ x am + 1 +… x bm ) …(iii)

This is because the number of ways in which sum of m integers in (i) subject
10 Distribution to given conditions (ii) equals n is the same as the number of times xn comes in (iii).

(3)
(1) (2) (4) (5)
Number of ways of
Number of ways of Number of ways of distribution of n distinct balls
distribution of n distinct balls in distribution of n identical into r distinct boxes when order
r distinct boxes when order is balls into r distinct boxes is not considered= rn, if blank The number of
considered = n – 1Cr – 1 , if blank (empty) boxes are combinations of n objects
The coefficient of xr in the
allowed, And it is: of which p are identical
= n! n – 1Cr – 1 , if blank (empty) boxes ar not expansion of (1 – x)–n
taken r at a time is
(empty) boxes are not allowed. And it is: = n + r – 1Cr
= n-pCr + n – pCr – 1 +
allowed. And it is: = rn – rC1 (r – 1)n + rC2 (r – 2)n + … + n – pC0
= Cr – 1, if blank
n+r–1 – rC3 (r – 3)n + … + (–1)r–1 rCr – 1 if r ≤ p.
= n! n + r – 1Cr – 1 if blank (empty) boxes are if blank (empty) boxes are
(empty) boxes are allowed. not allowed.
allowed.

11 Multinomial Theorem

If there are n1 objects of one kind, n2 objects of second

kind and so on nk objects of kth kind, then the number of
ways of choosing r objects out of these objects is
= coeff of xr in (1 + x
+ x² + … + xn1) (1 + x + x² + … + xn2) … (1 + x + x² + … ).

If one object of each kind is to be included in selection

of (1), then the number of ways of choosing r objects is:
= coeff of xr in (x + x² + … + xn1 )
( x+ x² + … + xn₂ ) … (x + x² + … + x nk )

The number of possible arrangements permutations of p

objects out of n1 objects of kind 1, n2 of kind 2 and so on is
= p! times the coefficient of xp in the expansion

 x2 x n1   x2 x nk 
1 + x + +…+  … 1 + x + +…+ 
 2! n1 !   2! nk ! 
 Binomial
Theorem

BINOMIAL THEOREM FOR SOME USEFUL RELATIONS IN

01 POSITIVE INTEGRAL INDEX 02 COMBINATORIAL
Some useful relations in combinatorial:
(x + y)n = nC0 xn–0 y0 + nC1 xn–1 y1 + nC2 xn–2 y² + … +
(1) nCx = nCy ⇒ either x = y or x + y = n
n
Cr xn–r yr + … + nCn–1 xyn–1 + nCn x0 yn
n
n
i.e., (x + y) =n
∑ n
Cr . x n − r . y r …(i) Cr n − r +1
(2) =
n
r =0
Cr − 1 r
Here nC0, nC1, nC2, …, nCn are called binomial coefficients and
(3) nCr + nCr – 1 = n+1Cr
n!
n
Cr = , For 0 ≤ r ≤ n. (4) rCr + r + 1Cr + r + 2Cr + … + nCr = n+1Cr + 1
r !( n − r ) !
(5) mCr + m + 1Cr + m + 2Cr + … + nCr = n+1Cr + 1 – mCr + 1
The binomial coefficients nC0, nC1, nC2, … equidistant from beginning (6) nC0 + nC1 + nC2 + … + nCn = 2n
NOTE

and end are equal, i.e., Cr = Cn – r. n n

(7) nC0 – nC1 + nC2 – … + (–1)n nCn = 0
(8) 2n + 1C0 + 2n + 1C1 + 2n + 1C2 + … + 2n + 1Cn = 22n

SOME IMPORTANT EXPANSIONS

03
n 04 GENERAL TERMS
(1) (1 + x) = C0 x + C1 x + C2 x² + … + Cr x . + … + Cn x , i.e., (1 + x) =
n n 0 n 1 n n r n n n
∑ n
Cr x r
r=0
(2) (1 – x)n = nC0 x0 + nC1 x1 + nC2 x² – … + (–1)r nCr xr + … + (–1)n nCn xn Tr + 1 = nCr xn – r yr for r = 0, 1, 2, 3, … n defines respectively first, second,
n
third, …, nth term.
i.e., (1 – x)n =∑ ( −1)
r
n
Cr xr
r=0
(1) In the binomial expansion of (x + y)n, the pth term from the end is
(3) (x + y)n + (x – y)n = 2[nC0 xn y0 + nC2 xn – 2 y² + nC4 xn – 4 y4 + …] and
(n – p + 2)th term from beginning.
(x + y)n – (x – y)n = 2[nC1 xn – 1 y1 + nC3 xn – 3 y³ + nC5 xn – 5 y5 + …]
(2) The number of terms in the above binomial expansion aren + 1C1 = n + 1.
(4) The coefficient of (r + 1) term in the expansion of (1 + x) is Cr.
th n n n!
(3) The general term in the expansion of trinomial (x + y + z)n =∑ r!s! t!
r, s, t

(5) If n is odd, then (x + y)n + (x – y)n and (x + y)n – (x – y)n, both have the same X y z where n ∈ N and r, s, t ∈ {0, 1, 2, …, n} and r + s + t = n. The number of
r s t

 n +1  terms in this expansion = n + 2C2.

number of terms equal to  Tr + 1  n − r +1  y
 2  (4) In the expansion of (x + y)n, n ∈ N =  .
n 
Tr  r  x
(6) If n is even, then (x + y)n + (x – y)n has  2 +1 terms and (x + y)n – (x – y)n
n (5) The coefficient of xn – 1 in the expansion of (x – 1) (x – 2) … (x – n) = –
has terms.
2 n ( n +1)
2 n ( n +1)
(6) The coefficient of xn – 1 in the expansion of (x + 1) (x + 2) … (x + n)=
2

05 APPLICATION OF GENERAL TERM

I. To Determine a Particular Term in the Expansion

n 06 MIDDLE TERM
 α 1 
In the expansion of  x ± x β  , if xm occurs in Tr + 1, then r is given by
 
nα − m The middle term depends upon the value of n.
nα – r(α + β) = m ⇒ r = . (1) When n is even, then total number of terms in the expansion of (x + y)n is n + 1 (odd). So
α +β th
there is only middle term, i.e., n +1
Thus in above expansion if constant term which is independent of 2 

nα (2) When n is odd, then total number of terms in the expansion of (x + y)n is n + 1 (even). So
x, occurs in Tr + 1 then r is determined by nα – r(α + β) = 0 ⇒ r = there are two middle termsT n + 1 And T given by:
α +β 



 n + 3
 
 2   2 

n +1 n −1 n −1 n +1
T n + 1  n
C n −1 x 2 y 2
And T n + 3  n
Cn +1 x 2 y 2
Number of irrational terms in   = =
07
 
A  2  2  2  2
(a + b )
1/p 1/q N
a, b ∈ prime numbers
(1) When there are two middle terms in the expansion then their binomial
Method for finding terms free from radical or rational
coefficients are equal.
terms in the expansion of (a1/p + b1/q)N ∀ a, b ∈ Prime numbers:
NOTE

Find the general term N−r r

(2) Binomial coefficient of middle term is the greatest binomial coefficient.
p (3) If n is even, then greatest binomial coefficient isnCn .
Tr + 1 = NCr (a1/p)N – r (b1/q)r = NCr a . bq 2
n n
Putting the values of 0 ≤ r ≤ N, when indices of a and b are integers. (4) If n is odd, then greatest binomial coefficient are C n + 1 and C n + 3 .
2 2
08 Numerically Greatest Term PROPERTIES OF BINOMIAL COEFFICIENTS 09
Shortcut method: To find the greatest 01 In the expansion (1 + x) , 2 = C₀ + C₁ + C₂ + … + C
n n
n

02 0 = C0 – C1 + C2 – C3 + …
term (numerically) in the expansion of (1 + x)n.
x ( n +1)
(i) Calculate m =
x +1 03 Sum of the coefficients of the odd terms in the expansion
(ii) If m is integer, then Tm and Tm + 1 are equal of (1 + x)n is equal to sum of the coefficients of even terms
and both are greatest term. and each is equal to 2n – 1.
(iii) If m is not integer, then T[m] + 1 is the greatest C0 + C2 + C4 + … = C1 + C3 + C5 + … = 2n – 1
term, where [.] denotes the greatest integral part.

MULTINOMIAL THEOREM
10 (FOR POSITIVE INTEGRAL INDEX) 11 BINOMIAL THEOREM FOR ANY INDEX
Statement
If n is positive integer and a1, a2, a3, … an ∈ C, then
n ( n −1) x 2 n ( n −1)( n − 2 ) n ( n −1)…( n − r +1)
n! ... a n1 a n 2 a n m (1 + x)n = 1 + nx + + x³ + … + xr + … terms up to ∞,
(a1 + a2 + a3 + … + am) = ∑ n
1 2 m 2! 3! r!
n1 ! n 2 ! n 3 !… n m !
Where n1, n2, n3, … nm are all non-negative integers subject to
the condition, n1 + n2 + n3 + … + nm = n. Expansion is valid only when –1 < x < 1.
IMPORTANT TIPS

n n
Cr cannot be used because it is defined only for natural number,
n

(1) The coefficients ofa1 1 .a 2 2 ...a mm

n
in the expansion of
so nCr will be written as ( )(
n n −1)…( n − r +1)
(a1 + a2 + a3 + … + am)n is r!
n!
n1 ! n 2 ! n 3 !… n m !
The number of terms in the series is infinite.

If first term is not 1, then make first term unity in the following way,
(2) The greatest coefficients in the expansion of 2
y
(x + y)n = xn 1+ y  , if <1.
(a1 + a2 + a3 + … am)n is  x x
n!
r
( q!)m − r ( q +1) !
09
Where q is the quotient and r is the remainder when
n is divided by m.
GENERAL TERM 12
(3) If n is + ve integer and a1, a2, … am ∈ C, then n ( n −1)( n − 2 )…( n − r +1)
Tr + 1 = xr
coefficients of x in the expansion of
r
r!

(a1 + a2 x + … + am xm – 1)n is ∑
(
n! a1n1 . a n2 2 …a nmm )
n1 ! n 2 ! n 3 !… n m !

Where n1, n2, … nm are all non-negative integers

subject to the condition: n1 + n2 + … + nm = n
13 SOME IMPORTANT EXPANSIONS:
and n2 + 2n3 + 3n4 + … + (m – 1) nm = r. n ( n −1) n ( n −1)( n − 2 )…( n − r +1)
(i) (1 + x)n = 1 + nx + x² + …+ xr + …
2! r!
n ( n −1) n ( n −1)( n − 2 )( n − r +1)
(4) The number of distinct or dissimilar terms in (ii) (1 – x)n = 1 – nx + x² – … + (–x)r + …
2! r!
the multinomial expansion (a1 + a2 + a3 + … am)n
n ( n +1) n ( n +1)( n + 2 ) n ( n +1)…( n + r −1)
is n+m–1
Cm – 1. (iii) (1 – x)–n = 1 + nx + x² + x³ + … + (x)r + …
2! 3! r!
n ( n +1) n ( n +1)( n + 2 ) n ( n + 1)…( n + r −1)
(iv) (1 + x)–n = 1 – nx + X² – x³ + … + (–x)r + …
2! 3! r!
 PROPERTIES AND SOLUTION OF A TRIANGLE

01 Trigonometrical Ratios of Half

02
Sine Rule of The Angles of A Triangle
The sides of a triangle ( any type of triangle) are proportional to In any DABC, we have
the sines of the angle opposite to them in
a b c A ( s − b)( s − c) B ( s − c)( s − a ) C ( s − a )( s − b)
triangle ABC, = =
sin A sin B sin C
(i) sin = ,sin = ,sin =
2 bc 2 ac 2 ab
Note :- The above rule can also be written as
sin A sin B sin C A s(s − a) B s ( s − b) C s(s − c)
= =
a b c (ii) cos = , cos = , cos =
2 bc 2 ac 2 ab
Cosine Formulae
A ( s − b)( s − c) B ( s − c)( s − a ) C ( s − a )( s − b)
b2 + c2 − a 2 c2 + a 2 − b2 a 2 + b2 − c2 (iii) tan = , tan = , tan =
In any ∆ABC , cos A = , cos B = , cos C = 2 s( s − a) 2 s ( s − b) 2 s ( s − c)
2bc 2ac 2ab

Projection Formulae
In any ∆ABC, a = b cos C + c cos B, b = c cos A + a cos C, c = a cos B + b cos A
04 Napier’s Analogy
03 Area Of A Triangle In any triangle ABC,

 B −C  b−c A C − A c−a B
If D be the area of a triangle ABC, then tan  = cot tan   = cot
 2  b+c 2  2  c+a 2
1 1 1
(i) ∆= bc sin A = ca sin B = ab sin C
2 2 2  A− B  a −b C
tan  = cot
(ii) ∆
1 a 2 sin B sin C 1 b 2 sin C sin A 1 c 2 sin A sin B  2  a+b 2
= = =
2 sin( B + C ) 2 sin(C + A) 2 sin( A + B)

(iii) ∆ = s ( s − a )( s − b)( s − c) (Heron's formula)

05 Circumcircle of A Triangle
Form above results, we obtain following values of sinA, sinB, sinC,
a b c abc
2∆ 2 R= = = =
(iv) sin A = = s(s − a)(s − b)(s − c) 2sin A 2sin B 2sin C 4Δ
bc bc a+b+c
Where D is area of triangle and s =
2∆ 2 2
(v) sin B = = s ( s − a )( s − b)( s − c)
ca ca
(vi)sin C =
2∆ 2
= s ( s − a )( s − b)( s − c)
ab ab 06 Incircle Of A Triangle

∆
(i) r=
s
07 Formulae For r1 , r2 , r3
In any D ABC, we have A B C
(ii) r = (s − a) tan   , r = (s − b) tan   and r = (s − c) tan  
∆ ∆ ∆ 2 2 2
(i) r1 = , r2 = , r3 =
s−a s −b s−c  B C   A C   B  A
a sin   sin   b sin   sin   csin   sin  
A B C (iii) r =  2   2  ,r =  2   2  and
r= 2 2
(ii) 1 r = s tan , r2 = s tan , r3 = s tan  A
cos  
B
cos   C 
cos  
2 2 2 2 2 2
B C C A A B A B C
cos cos cos cos cos cos (iv) r = 4 R sin   ⋅ sin   ⋅ sin  
(iii) r1 = a 2 2 ,r = b 2 2 ,r = c 2 2 2 2 2
A 2
B 3
C
cos cos cos
2 2 2
A B C A B C A B C
(iv) r1 = 4 R sin cos cos , r2 = 4 R cos sin cos , r3 = 4 R cos cos sin
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
 08 Pedal Triangle

The point of intersection of perpendiculars drawn from the vertices on the opposite sides of a triangle is called its orthocentre.
Let the perpendicular AD, BE and CF from the vertices A, B and C on the opposite sides BC, CA and AB of ABC, respectively, meet
at O. Then O is the orthocentre of the D ABC.
1. The triangle DEF is called the pedal triangle of the D ABC.
2. The distances of the orthocentre from the vertices and the sides - If O is the orthocentre and DEF the pedal triangle of the
DABC, where AD, BE, CF are the perpendiculars drawn from A, B, C on the opposite sides BC, CA, AB respectively, then

(i) OA = 2R cos A, OB = 2R cos B and OC = 2R cos C (ii) OD = 2R cos B cos C, OE = 2R cos C cos A and OF = 2R cos A cos B

R
(iii) The circumradius of the pedal triangle = (iv) The area of pedal triangle = 2D cosA cos B cos C.
2

09 Some Important Results

A B s−c A B s A B c C c A B a −b
tan tan = ∴ cot cot = tan + tan = cot = (s − c)
(1)
2 2 s 2 2 s−c
(2)
2 2 s 2 ∆
(3)
tan − tan = ( s − c)
2 2 ∆

A B
tan
+ tan
A B 2 2 = c cot C
(4) cot + cot =
2 2 A B s−c 2
tan tan
2 2

10 Height and Distance

Terms Related to Height and Distance

Line of Sight: It is the straight line that is drawn from the

Horizontal Level: It is the horizontal line drawn from
01 eye of an observer to the point of an object which is to 02
the eye of the viewer.
be viewed.

The angle of elevation: It is the angle formed between The Angle of Depression: It is the angle formed between
03 the line of sight and horizontal level if the object is above 04 the line of sight and the horizontal level if the object is
the horizontal level. below the horizontal level.

To calculate the angle of elevation or depression we can use the following formul

Perpendicular Base Perpendicular

sin θ = , cos θ = , tan θ =
Hypotenuse Hypotenuse Base
 Straight Line
01 Slope of a Straight Line
If the line makes an angle θ with positive direction of x-axis, then tan θ is called slope of the line and is denoted by m.

02 Various forms of Line 03 Angle Between Two Lines 04 Family of Lines

Let the slope of the lines a1x + b1 y + c1 = 0 and
01 Slope intercept form: The line with slope a 2 x + b 2 y + c 2 = 0 are respectively m1 and m2 and If the
m and y intercept c is y=mx+c angle between these lines be θ, then Family of lines which are parallel
02 Slope point form : The line with slope m
to the line ax + by + c = 0
m1 − m 2 a b −a b is ax + by + λ = 0 where λ ∈ R
and passing through the point (x1 , y1) is tanθ = = 1 2 2 1
y-y1=m(x-x1).
1 + m1m 2 a1a 2 + b1b 2

03 Two point form : The line passing through (a) Condition for the lines to be parallel is
the point (x1, y1) and (x2 , y2 ) is a1 b1 Family of lines which is
m1 = m 2 or = perpendicular to the line
y 2 − y1 a 2 b2
y − y1 = ( x − x1 ) ax + by + c = 0 is bx − ay + λ = 0
x 2 − x1 (b) Condition for the lines to be coincidential is
where λ ∈ R
a1 b1 c1
04 Intercept form : = =
a 2 b2 c2
x y Family of lines passing through the
+ =1 (c) Condition for the lines to be perpendicular is intersection point of
a b
m1m 2 = −1 L1 = a1x + b1 y + c1 = 0
Here, a and b are x intercept and y intercept and L 2 = a 2 x + b 2 y + c 2 = 0 is
respectively which may be positive or negative a1a 2 + b1b 2 = 0
L1 + λL 2 = 0 where, λ ∈ R

05 Normal form : The line whose normal

makes an angle α with positive x axis and

05 Distance between a Point and a line

has length =p is

x cos α + γ sin α = p.
Let ( x1 , y1 ) be the given point and ax + by + c = 0 be the given line then distance between them, is
06 6. Distance or parametric form :
x − x1 y − y1 ax1 + by1 + c
= =r p=
cosθ sinθ a 2 + b2
07 General form of line : The equation
ax + by + c = 0 where a and b are not
simultaneously zero is called general
form of line.
06 Distance between Two Parallel Lines
Note Let the equation of two parallel lines be ax + by + c = 0 and ax + by + c′ = 0,
c
(a) x- intercept made by ax + by + c = 0 is − . c − c'
a then distance between them is given by P =
c
(b) y- intercept made by ax + by + c = 0 is − . a 2 + b2
b Note
 a 
(c) Slope of the line ax + by + c = 0 is  −  . 01 If the foot of perpendicular drawn from point ( x , y ) to the line ax + by + c = 0 be (h,k), then,
1 1
 b h − x1 k − y1
(d) Area of triangle which the line ax+by+c=0  ax + by + c 
= = −  1 2 12 
makes with coordinate axes 2
a b  a +b 
c
= . α − x1 β − y1  ax + by + c 
2ab 02 If the image of point ( x , y )in the line mirror ax + by + c = 0 be ( α,β ) , then
1 1
a
=
b
= −2  1 2 12 
 a +b 

07 Concurrent Lines 08 Comparison of Two Points with Respect to a Line

Three or more lines are said to be concurrent if
they have only one point in common Let the
three concurrent lines are a r x + b r y + c r = 0
Let the given line be
where r = 1, 2,3, then 1. If L ( x1 , y1 ) .L ( x 2 , y 2 ) > 0
L ( x, y ) = ax + by + c = 0 2. If L ( x1 , y1 ) .L ( x 2 , y 2 ) < 0
a1 b1 c1 and the points are P ( x1 , y1 ) and points P and Q lies on the points P and Q lies on the
same side of line L=0 opposite side of line L=0
∆ = a 2 b2 c2 = 0 Q ( x 2 , y2 ) , then

a 3 b 3 c3
Note
If lines are concurrent ∆ must be zero but
∆ = 0 not necessarily imply the lines are
concurrent.
 09 Angle Bisectors of Angle Between Two Lines
The equations of angle bisectors of the angle between the lines a1x + b1 y + c1 = 0 and a 2 x + b 2 y + c 2 = 0
is given by

a1x + b1 y + c1 a 2 x + b2 y + c2
=±
2 2
a +b
1 1 a 22 + b 22

Note
In the above equation if c1 and c2 are of same sign, then taking the sign same as the sign of a1a 2 + b1b 2 we always get angle
bisector of the given lines. Also by taking + in above formula we get the bisector of that angle region which contains origin.

1. Equation of straight line passing through given point ( x1 , y1 ) and making a given angle α with the given line
m − tanα m + tanα
y = mx + c, are y − y1 = ( x − x1 ) or y − y1 = ( x − x1 )
1 + m tanα 1 − m tanα
2. The image of the line ax + by + c = 0 in the line x = λ is a ( 2λ − x ) + by + c = 0
3. The image of the line ax + by + c = 0 in the line y = λ is ax + b ( 2λ − y ) + c = 0

10 Non-homogeneous equation of degree 2

2 2
The equation ax + 2hxy + by + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 ... (i) is called non-homogeneous equation of degree 2.
a hg
Let, ∆ = h b f
gf c
1. Equation (I) represents a pair of straight lines if ∆ = 0, h 2 ≥ ab, g 2 ≥ ac and f 2 ≥ bc.

2. If lines given by (I) have from y = m1x + c1 and y = m 2 x + c2 , then m1 + m 2 = −

2h a
, m1m 2 = , m1 − m 2 =
2 h 2 − ab
b b a+b
2 h 2 − ab
3. If angle between the lines given by (I) be θ, then tanθ = a+b
2
Condition for line pair (I) to represents a pair of parallel lines is h = ab
Condition for line pair (I) to represents a pair of perpendicular lines is a + b = 0
g 2 − ac f 2 − bc
4. If the line pair given by (I) be the pair of parallel lines, then distance between them is = 2 or 2
a (a + b) b (a + c)
5. Condition for the line pair (I) to represent coincidental lines is h 2 = ab and g 2 = ac and f 2 = bc
6. Point of intersection of the lines given by (I) is  hf − bg2 , hg − af2  = ( α,β )
 ab − h ab − h 
( x − α) − ( y − β) ( x − a )( y − β )
2 2

7. Equation of angle bisector of the angle between line pair (I) is =

a−b h

Note
2 2
In homogeneous case, ax + 2hxy + by = 0 replace g, f , c by 0.

11 Points to Remember

01 Equation of lines perpendicular to the lines ax 2 + 2hxy + by 2 = 0 is given by bx 2 − 2hxy + ay 2 = 0

02 2 2 2
Two pair of straight lines viz. a1x + 2h1xy + b1 y = 0 and a 2 x + 2h 2 xy + b 2 y = 0 have
2

2
a1 b1 a1 h1 h1 b1
(a) a line in common if =4
a 2 b2 a 2 h 2 h 2 b2

a1 h1 b1
(b) both lines in common if = = .
a 2 h 2 b2

03 Equation of line pair joining the point of intersection of curve ax 2 + 2hxy + by 2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 and line lx + my = 1 with origin is given by
ax 2 + 2hxy + by 2 + ( 2gx + 2fy )( lx + my ) + c ( lx + my ) = 0
2
 STATISTICS
1. Measures of Dispersion 6. Mean Deviation
1. Mean Deviation (M.D.) for ungrouped data

The degree to which numerical data tend to spread about M.D. about mean i.e., M.D. ( x ) = ∑ x − x , where x is mean and
i

an average value is called the dispersion of the data. n = no. of terms n

The four dispersions are: Range, Mean deviation, Standard
deviation and Variance. M.D. about median i.e., M .D.( M ) =
∑x j −M
n
n = no. of terms

2.
2. Mean Deviation (M.D.) for grouped data
Variance & standard Deviation
∑f xi − x
where N = ∑ fi
of a discrete frequency distribution
i
M.D. about mean i.e., M.D. ( x ) =
n
1
Variance of a discrete frequency distribution
1
M.D. about median i.e., M .D.( M ) =
N
∑f i xi − M
Var σ( ) 2
=
N
∑ f (x − x)
i i
2

Standard Deviation (S.D.) of a discrete frequency distribution

7.
1
∑ f (x − x)
2
S.D (σ ) = i i Variance & Standard Deviation of
N
a Continuous frequency distribution
where N = ∑ fi and x = mean
Variance of a continuous frequency distribution
1
( )
Var σ 2 = ∑ fi ( xi − x ) Standard deviation of a continuous
2

3.
N
1
NΣfi xi2 − ( ∑ fi xi )
2
Variance and Standard frequency distribution S.D(σ ) =
N
Deviation for ungrouped data

8.
Variance of ungrouped data
1
( )
Var σ 2 =
n
∑ ( xi − x )
2
Step Deviation or Shortcut Method
Standard Deviation (S.D.) for un grouped data
1
1
M .D ⋅ ( x ) =
N
∑ fi xi − x
∑ ( xi − x )
2
S.D. (σ ) = n
n ∑ fi di
i =1
where x = a + ×h
N

4.
xi − a
and di =
Coefficient of Variation h
Here, a= assumed mean
h = common factor
Coefficient of variation (C.V.) N = sum of frequencies
σ 1
=
x
×100; x ≠ 0 M.D. ( M ) =
N
∑f
xi − M i
N
where x is mean −C
where, M (median)= l + 2 ×h
f

5. Range
The difference between the highest and the lowest
element of a data called its range.
range = xmax - xmin
9. Shortcut method to find variance and
standard deviation
2

(σ ) = Nh
 ∑ fi yi − ( ∑ f i yi ) 
N 
2 2 2
Variance
Eg: Find the range of the given data: 2
4, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 13, 17
h
N ∑ fi yi 2 − ( ∑ f i yi )
2
Here, xmax =17 and xmin = 4 Standard Deviation σ =
Range =17-4=13 N
xi − A
where yi =
h
N = ∑ fi
A = assumed mean
h = width of class interval
 CIRCLE
1. THINGS TO REMEMBER

1. Equal chords of a circle are always be at a equal distance from centre and vice-versa.
2. Equal chord subtends equal angle at the centre and vice-versa.
3. Angles inscribed by a chord at the same segment are always equal.
4. Central angle is always be the twice of the inscribed angle.
5. Perpendicular dropped from centre to the chord always bisect the chord.
2 2
6. Let length of perpendicular dropped from centre to chord is p and radius is r then length of chord is 2 r − p .
7. If PAB is a secant and PT is tangent, then 8. If two chords AB and CD intersect each other at point P, the 9. If PT is tangent and T is the point of
contact, then if TA is chord such that
∠ ATP = θ, then
PA × PB = PT 2
PA × PB = PC × PD
∠ AQT = ∠ ATP

2. EQUATION OF CIRCLE IN VARIOUS FORMS

1. Centre Radius Form : Equation of circle with centre ( h, k ) and radius r. ( x − h ) + ( y − k ) = r 2

2 2

2. Diameter form : Equation of circle with a diameter ends ( x1, y1 ) and ( x 2 , y 2 ) are ( x − x1 )( x − x2 ) + ( y − y1 )( y − y2 ) = 0

3. General Form : x 2 + y 2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 Above equation represent circle only if, g 2 + f 2 − c > 0.
Centre ⇒ ( −g, − f )
2 2
• If g + f − c = 0, then equation represents a point sometimes called
a degenerate circle.
Radius ⇒ g 2 + f 2 − c 2 2
• If g + f − c < 0, then equation represents no locus. It is an imaginary
equation.

3. EQUATION OF CIRCLE IN PARTICULAR CASES

1. Equation of circle with centre ( h, k ) & passing through origin. 3. Equation circle with centre ( h, k ) that touches y-axis.
⇒ ( x − h ) + ( y − k ) = h2 + k2
2 2
(x − h) + (y − k)
2 2
= h2
⇒ x 2 + y 2 − 2hx − 2ky = 0
4. Equation of circle with radius r and which touches both the axes,
2. Equation of circle with centre ( h, k ) that torches x-axis
(x ± r) + (y ± r)
2 2
= r2.
(x − h) + (y − k)
2 2
= k2

2. Equation of circle passing through two given points ( x1 , y1 ) (x 2 , y 2 )

4. PARAMETRIC EQUATION
S + λL = O
Where S = ( x − x1 )( x − x 2 ) + ( y − y 2 )( y − y 2 ) and L = 0 is line passing
through these points.

3. Equation of circle passing through the intersection of two circles S = 0

1. If equation of circle isx 2 + y 2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0, then its parametric form is and S′ = 0 is
Note
x + g = rcos θ; y + f = rsinθ; r = g 2 + f 2 − c; S − S′ = 0 represents equation of common S + λ ( S − S′ ) = 0
chord if circles intersects.
θ = parameter
2 2 2
2. If equation of circle is x + y = r , then its parametric form is 4. Equation of the circle touching the given line given point ( x1y1 ) on it,
( x − x1 ) + ( y − y1 ) + λ ( ax + by + c ) = 0 ax + by + c = 0 at the
2 2
x = rcosθ, y = rsinθ, θ = parameter.

5. FAMILY OF CIRCLE
5. Equation of circumcircle of triangle whose sides are defined by the lines
L1 = 0, L 2 = 0 and L3 = 0
L1L 2 + λL 2 L3 + μL3 L1 = 0

1. Family of circle passing through the point of intersections of 6. Equation of circle circumscribing the cyclic quadrilateral whose sides in order
are given by lines ( L1 = 0, L 2 = 0, L3 = 0, L 4 = 0 ) L1L3 + λL 2 L 4 = 0
circle S = 0 and line L = 0 is
S + λL = O.
 6. INTERCEPT MADE BY CIRCLE ON
COORDINATE AXES
7. POSITION OF POINT WITH
RESPECT TO CIRCLE
Let the circle x 2 + y 2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 intersects x-axis at A and B
and y-axis of C and D respectively, then : Let circle is given by S ( x, y ) = x 2 + y 2 + 2 gx + 2 fy + c = 0
1. Length of x-intercept, AB = 2 g − c
2
and point is ( x1 , y1 ) .
2. Length of y-intercept, CD = 2 f 2 − c 1. If S ( x1 , y1 ) = 0 point, lies on the circle.
Note 2. S1 > 0, point lies outside the circle
• Circle intersect x-axis at two distinct point only if g
2
> c. If g 2 = c, then circle touches x-axis.
2
If g < c, then circle neither intersect nor touches.
3. S1 < 0, point lies inside the circle
2
• If f > c, then the circle intersect y-axis at two distinct points.
2
If f = c, then circle touches y-axis.
If < c, neither touches nor intersect y-axis.
f 2

9.
• Touches both axes simultaneously iff
g2 = f 2 = c

TANGENT TO A CIRCLE

8. DISTANCE BETWEEN A POINT AND CIRCLE

• Equation of tangent at point ( x1 , y1 ) on x 2 + y 2 = a 2 is xx1 + yy1 = a 2
• Condition for line y = mx + c to be tangent to circle
x2 + y 2 = a2 ,

Let S ( x, y ) = 0 be the circle with radius r and A ( x1 , y1 ) be the given point, then the (
c 2 = a 2 l + m2 )
distance between point A and circle S is equal to r − p  a2m a2 
And point at which it touches is  − , 
Where p is the distance between centre of  c c 
circle and point P. A

p
Note
• If line lx + my + c = 0, touches the fixed circle with center ( h, k ) and radius
r , then to find center and radius we can compare
the given relation with
ly + mk + c
=r
l 2 + m2

10. TWO CIRCLES CASES

Let S = 0 and S ′ = 0 be the circle with center C1 and C2 and radius r1 and r2 respectively. Let C1C2 = d .
INTERSECTING CIRCLE EXTERNALLY TOUCHING CIRCLE ONE CIRCLE TOUCHES INTERNALLY THE OTHER
r1 − r2 < d < r1 + r2 d = r1 + r2 d = r1 − r2
Number of common tangents = 2 Number of common tangents = 3 Number of common tangents = 1

DISJOINT CIRCLES ONE CIRCLE CONTAINED IN OTHER

Have no point in common in their interior region and on the circles
d > r1 + r2 d > r1 − r2
Number of common tangents = 4 Number of common tangents = 0

NOTE
• If the centre of both the circles lies on the same side of their 11. CONCEPT EQUATION
common tangent, then such a tangent is said to the direct
common tangent. 1. (Equation of pair of tangents drawn from external point
x1 , y1 ) to the curve S = 0.
SS1 = T 2

(
Chord of contact : From point x1 , y1 two tangents )
2. are drawn to curve S = 0,touching it at point Aand B, T =0
• Length of direct common tangent then chord joining AB is called chord of contact of

l = d 2 − ( r1 − r2 )
2 ( x1 , y1 ) with respect to curve S = 0.
• Length of indirect common tangent 3. Equation of tangent at point ( x1 , y1 ) on the curve S = 0. T =0
l = d 2 − ( r1 + r2 )
2

4.
If ( x1 , y1 ) be the internal point, then equation
Locus of centre of circle which is touched by two noncongruent T = S1
of chord of curve S = 0 with mid-point ( x1 , y1 ) .
circles externally is always a hyperbola.
 12. POLE AND POLAR
Locus of point of intersection of tangents drawn at the extremities of chords which are drawn from the fixed point ( x1 , y1 ) is called polar and for
that polar, the point ( x1 , y1 ) is called pole.
Equation of polar at point ( x1 , y1 ) w.r.t curve S = 0 is given by,
T =0

( )
1. If point x1 y1 i.e., pole is outside the curve, then chord of contact of it PARTICULARLY FOR A CIRCLE
and polar to it has same equation. S ( x, y ) = x + y 2 + 2 gx + 2 fy + c = 0 and P ( x1 y1 )
2

2. If pole is lying on the curve, then tangent through it always coincide

S1 = x12 + y12 + 2 gx1 + 2 fy1 + c
with polar of the pole.
3. If pole is inside the curve, then equation T = 0, represents only the polar. T = xx1 + yy1 + g ( x + x1 ) + f ( y + y1 ) + c, then

1. Length of tangent drawn from external point P ( x1 y1 ) is L = S1 2. Square of length of tangent i.e., S1 is called power of external point P ( x1 , y1 )
with respect to circle.

13. THINGS TO REMEMBER

14. DIRECTOR CIRCLE
If from P ( x1 , y1 ) two tangents are drawn to circle with radius R and
length of tangent from P to the circle be L
1. Length of chord of contact of point • Locus of point of intersection of perpendicular tangents is called director
circle.
P ( x1 , y1 ) 2
2 RL • Equation of director circle of the circle x + y 2 = a 2 is
AB =
R 2 + L2 x 2 + y 2 = 2a 2
1
2. Area of ∆OAP = ar ( ∆OBP ) = RL
2
CIRCLE

R3 L • Director circle is always concentric with original circle.

3. Area of ∆OAB = • Ratio of radius of director circle o the radius of circle is 2 :1
R 2 + L2
RL3 RADICAL AXIS OF TWO CIRCLE
4. Area of ∆PAB =
R 2 + L2
The locus of a point from where tangents drawn to the given circle are
5. Area of quadrilateral PAOB = RL equal in length is called radical axis of that pair of circles.
6. If angle between two pair of tangent is given by θ , then, S − S′ = 0
θ  R
tan   =
2 L
θ R
⇒ = tan −1  
2 L
R
⇒ θ = 2 tan −1  
L NOTE
7. In above picture P, A, O and B are always be concylic points • If circles are intersecting circles, radical axis of the circle has same
and circle which passes through them has OP always as its equation as equation of common chord.
diameter. • If circles are touching circles radical axis coincides with their common
tangents at the common point of contact.
• Radical axis is always perpendicular to line joining the centre of the circles.

15. RADICAL CENTRE

The point in the plane from where tangents drawn to three given circle are equal in length is called radical centre
of those three circles.
S = 0, S ′ = 0 and S ′′ = 0 be the circles in the standard form.

Radical centre lies on the line S − S ′ = 0, S ′ − S ′′ = 0 and S − S ′′ = 0,

i.e., radical centre always satisfy S = S ′ = S ′′ NOTE
If the point which satisfied of those three circles. S = S ′ = S ′
is lie inside of any one of the circles, radical centres of
the circles does not exist.

16. ANGLE OF INTERSECTION OF TWO CIRCLE

The angle between the tangents to the circle at the point of intersection of the curve is called angle of their intersection.
r12 + r22 − d 2
cosθ =
2r1r2
 17. ORTHOGONAL CIRCLES
If angle of intersection of circles is 90 °, then circles are said to be orthogonal circle : Condition for orthogonality of two circles is

r12 + r22 = d 2
• If circles are given by x 2 + y 2 + 2 g1 x + 2 f1 y + c1 = 0 and x 2 + y 2 + 2 gx2 + 2 f 2 y + c2 = 0, then above condition imply.

c1 + c2
g1 g 2 + f1 + f 2 =
2
Note
1. Taking centre on radical axis of two circles and radius equal to length of 2. Taking radical centre as a centre of circle and radius equal to the length of tangent
tangent from that point on either of circle. If circle being drawn, then angle from it to any of the three given circles if a circle being drawn, then that circle intersects
of intersection of that circle with each of the given two circles is 90°. all the three circles orthogonally.

18. COAXIAL FAMILY OF CIRCLES

The family of circles in which each pair of circle has same radical axis is called co-axial family of circles.

If two of the members of co-axial family are given by S = 0 and S ′ = 0, then co-axial family is described by
S + λ ( S − S ′) = 0
 Mathematical Reasoning & PMI

Contrapositive and Converse Statements Compound Statement

Many mathematical statements are obtained by
01 • The contrapositive of a statement p⇒ q is the statement~q ⇒ ~p 02 combining one or more statements using some
• The converse of a statement p⇒ q is the statement q⇒ p connecting words like "and", "or" etc. those statement
are called a "Compound Statement."

Implications
Negation
Sentence A statement which is formed 05 These are statements with word "if then", "only if" and "if and
only if". if p then q is the same as following:
by changing the true value of
03
A sentence is called a mathematically
04 a given statement by using
• p implies q is denoted by p⇒ q, then symbol ⇒ stands for implies
acceptable statement if it is either • p is a sufficient condition for q. then symbol⇒
true or false but not both. the word like 'no', 'not' is called
• p only if q • q is a necessary condition for p
negation of given statement.
• ~q implies ~p

Truth Table for Logical Operations

Additional Important Points
Conjunction operation: Disjunction operation: Negation operation: Implication operation: Biconditional operation: •p⇒q=∼p∨q
p q p⇒q p q p⇔q
06
p
T
q p∧q
T T
p
T
q
T
p∨q
T
p
T
∼p
F T T T T T T 07 • ∼ (p ⇒ q) = ∼ (∼ p ∨ q) = p ∧(∼ q)
• p ⇔ q = (p ⇒ q) ∧ (q ⇒ p)
T F F T F T T F T F F T F F
F T F F T T F T F T T F T F • ∼ (p ⇔ q) = (p ∧ ∼ q) ∨ (q ∧ ∼ p)
F F F F F F F T F F T F F T • (p ⇔ q) ⇔ r = p ⇔ (q ⇔ r)

General Logical Equivalences

It comprises the following laws:

Idempotent Law Associative Law Commutative Law Distributive Law

08 1. p ∨ p ⇔ p
2. p ∧ p ⇔ p
1. (p ∨ q) ∨ r ⇔ p ∨ (q ∨ r)
2. (p ∧ q) ∧ r ⇔ p ∧ (q ∧ r)
1. p ∨ q ⇔ q ∨ p
2. p ∧ q ⇔ q ∧ p
1. p ∨ (q ∧ r) ⇔ (p ∨ q) ∧(p ∨ r)
2. p ∧ (q ∨ r) ⇔ (p ∧ q) ∨ (p ∧ r)

Identity Laws Complement Laws

1. p V ∼ p ⇔ T Absorption Law De-Morgan's Law
1. p ∧ T ⇔ p Involution Law
2. p ∨ F ⇔ p 2. p ∧ ∼ p ⇔ F 1. p ∨ (p ∧ q) ⇔ p 1. q ∼(p ∨ q) ⇔ ∼ p ∧ ∼ q
3. p ∧ F ⇔ F 3. ∼ T ⇔ F 2. p ∧ (p ∨ q) ⇔ p 1. p ∼ (∼ p) ⇔ p
2. q ∼ (p ∧ q) ⇔ ∼ p ∨ ∼ q
4. ∼ F ⇔ T

Tautology and Fallacy Principle of Mathematical Induction

• A tautology asserts that every possible interpretation has only Base Case: The given statement is correct for first natural
one output, namely true. number that is, for n=1, p(1) is true.
• Fallacy implies an assertion of false in every possible interpretation.
Inductive Step: If the given statement is true for any natural
NOTE: To evaluate tautology and fallacy, we can adapt the concept
number like n=k then it will be correct for n = k + 1 also that is,
09 of the truth table that includes every possible valuation. 10 if p(k) is true then p(k + 1) will also be true.
p q p⇒q q ⇒ p (p ⇒ q) ∨ (q ⇒ p) ∼ {(p ⇒ q) ∨ (q ⇒ p)}
The first principle of mathematical induction says that if both
T T T T T F the above steps are proven then p(n) is true for all natural
T F F T T F numbers.
F T T F T F
F F T T T F
 Ellipse

Standard Equation of the Ellipse

1. Ellipse x2
+
y2
1, where b2 = a2 (1 – e2)
=
2 2
a b
The condition for second degree equation ax2 + 2hxy + by2 + Since e < 1, therefore a2(1 – e2) < a2 ⇒ b2 < a2
2gx + 2fy + c = 0 to represent an ellipse is that h2 – ab < 0 and
D = abc + 2fgh – af2 – bg2 – ch2 ≠ 0

2. Ellipse— Basic fundamentals

 x 2 y 2 
Equation  2+ 2 = 1
 a b 

For a > b For b > a

Centre (0, 0) (0, 0)

Vertices (±a, 0) (0, ±b)

Length of major axis 2a 2b

Length of minor axis 2b 2a

Foci (±a, 0) (0, ±b)

Equation of directrices x = ±a/e y = ±b/e

Relation in a, b and e b2 = a2 (1 – e2) a2 = b2 (1 – e2)

Length of latus rectum 2b 2 2a 2

a b

Ends of latus rectum  b2   a2 

 ±ae , ±  ± , ±be 
 a   b 
   

Parametric equations (acosf, bsinf) (acosf, bsinf) (0 ≤ f < 2p)

Focal radii SP = a – ex1 and S’P = a + ex1 SP = b – ey1 and S’P = b + ey1

Sum of focal radii SP + S’P = 2a 2b

Distance between foci 2ae 2be

Distance between directrices 2a/e 2b/e

Tangents at the vertices x = –a, x = a y = b, y = –b

 Concyclic Points
3. Parametric form of the
Ellipse
If circle intersects an ellipse in four points. They are called
concyclic points and the sum of their eccentric angles is an
even multiple p.
For the equation of ellipse in standard form the parametric
form will be given by taking x = acosf, y = bsinf, where f is the
x2 y2
eccentric angle, in 2 + 2 = 1
a b

4. Special forms of an Ellipse

If a, b, g, d be the eccentric angles of the four points P, Q, R, S of
circle intersect an ellipse then, a + b + g + d = 2np, where n is any
integer.
1. If the centre of the ellipse is at point (h, k) and the directions of
the axes are parallel to the coordinate axes, then its equation
( x − h ) + (y − k )
2 2

8.
is 1.
=
a2 b2 Equations of Tangent in
If we shift the origin at (h, k) without rotating the coordinate Different Forms
axes, then x = X + h and y = Y + k.

1. Point form: The equation of the tangent to the ellipse

(lx + my + n ) + (mx − ly + p )
2 2

2. If the equation of the curve is =1 x2 y2 xx 1 yy 1

a 2
b 2 + =1 at the point (x1 , y1) is + = 1
a2 b2 a2 b2
where lx + my + n = 0 and mx – ly + p = 0 are perpendicular
Note: Point of intersection of tangent drawn at point q and f on
lx + my + n mx − ly + p x2 y2
lines, then we substitute= X= , Y , to put + =1 is
l 2 + m2 l 2 + m2 a2 b2
the equation in the standard form.  θ +φ  θ +φ  
 acos   bsin  
  2 ,  2 
 θ −φ  θ −φ  
 cos   cos  
5.
2  
Position of a Point with   2  

Respect to an Ellipse 2. Slope from: If the line y = mx + c touches the ellipse

x2
+
y2
1
=
a2 b2
x2 y2 mx ± a 2m 2 + b 2
then c2 = a2m2 + b2. Hence, the straight line y =
Let P(x1, y1) be any point and let + 1 is the equation of
=
a2 b2 always represents the tangents to ellipse.
an ellipse. The point lies outside, on or inside the ellipse as if
x 12 y 12
S1 = + − 1 > 0, = 0, < 0. mx ± a 2m 2 + b 2 touches the ellipse
Points of contact: Line y =
a2 b2
x2 y2  −a 2m b 2 
+ 1 at 
= ,  where c2 = a2m2 + b2
a 2
b 2  c c 
 

6.
3. Parametric form: The equation of tangent at any point
Auxiliary Circle x y
f(acosf, bsinf) is cosφ + sinφ =
1.
a b

The circle described on the major of axis of an ellipse as diameter

9.
is called an auxiliary circle of the ellipse.

If
x2
+
y2
1 is an ellipse, then its auxiliary circle is a2 + y2 = a2.
=
Pair of Tangents
2 2
a b

Equation of Pair of Tangents SS1 = T 2

7. Equation of the Chord Joining
Two Points on an Ellipse
Pair of tangents: Let P(x1, y1) be any point lying outside the ellipse
x2 y2
+ 1 and let a pair of tangents PA, PB can be drawn to it from P.
=
a2 b2
The equation of the chord joining two points having
Then the equation of pair of tangents PA and PB is SS1 = T 2
x2 y2 Where
eccentric angles q and f on the ellipse + 1 is
=
a2 b2
x θ +φ  y θ +φ  θ −φ  x2 y2 x 12 y 12 xx 1 yy 1
cos   + sin  =cos  . S≡ + − 1 , S1 ≡ + −1, T ≡ + −1
a  2  b  2   2  a 2
b 2
a 2
b 2
a 2
b2
10. Director Circle 13. Reflection Property of
an Ellipse
Let S and S’ be the foci and PN the normal at the point P of the
The director circle is the locus of points from which perpendicular ellipse, then ∠SPS’ = ∠SQS’. Hence, if an incoming light ray aimed
tangents are drawn to the ellipse. towards one focus strike the concave side of the mirror in the
equation of director circle is shape of an ellipse, then it will be reflected towards the other
x2 + y2 = a2 + b2, focus.

It is circle concentric with ellipse and has radius a2 + b2 .

11. Equations of Normal in

Different Forms
1. Point form: The equation of the normal at (x1, y1) to the ellipse
x2 y2 a 2 x b 2y
+ 1 is
= − =a2 − b2 .
a2 b2 x1 y1
2. Parametric form: The equation of the normal to the ellipse
x2 y2
+ 1 at (acosf, bsinf) is axsecf – bycosecf = a2 – b2.
=
2 2
a b
3. Slope form: If m is the slope of the normal to the ellipse
x2 y2
14. Chord of Contact
+ =1, then the equation of normal is
a2 b2

=y mx ±
m a2 − b2 ( ) If PQ and PR be the tangents through point P(x1 , y1) to the ellipse
a 2 + b 2m 2 x2 y2
+ 1, then the equation of the chord of contact QR is
=
a2 b2

12.
xx 1 yy 1
Properties of Eccentric Angles a2
+
a2
1 or T = 0 at (x1 , y1).
=

of the Co-normal Points

1. The sum of the eccentric angles of the co-normal points on Equation of Chord with Mid-Point (x1 , y1)
x2 y2 x2 y2
the ellipse of 2 + 2 = 1 is equal to odd multiple of p. 1, whose mid-
The equation of the chord of the ellipse 2 + 2 =
a b point be (x1 , y1) is T = S1 , where a b
2. If a, b, g are the eccentric angles of three points on the
xx 1 yy 1 x 12 y 12
ellipse, the normals at which are concurrent, then sin(a + b) T= + 1 0, S=
−= + 1 0.
−=
1
+ sin (b + g) + sin (g + a) = 0. a2 b2 a2 b2
 Hyperbola
01
Definition of Hyperbola
02 Hyperbola

A hyperbola is the particular case of the conic

ax 2 + 2hxy + by 2 + 2 gx + 2 fy + c = 0 Hyperbola Fundamentals Hyperbola CONJUGATE HYPERBOLA

When, abc + 2 fgh − af 2 − bg 2 − ch 2 ≠ 0

i.e., ∆ ≠ 0 and h2 > ab x2 y 2
− 2 + 2 = 1 or
x2 y 2 a b
− =1
a 2 b2 x2 y 2
03 Auxiliary Circle of −
a 2 b2
= −1

Hyperbola Centre ( 0, 0 ) ( 0, 0 )

Let x2 y 2 be the hyperbola with centre C and transverse

− =1 axis A’A. Therefore, circle drawn with Length of transverse axis 2a 2b
a 2 b2
centre C and segment A’A as a diameter is called auxiliary circle
of the hyperbola x
2
y2 Length of conjugate axis 2b 2a
2
− 2
= 1.
a b

Foci ( ±ae, 0 ) ( 0, ±be )

Equation of the auxiliary circle is x2 + y2 =a2.
Equation of directrices x = ±a / e y = ±b / e

Eccentricity  a 2 + b2   a 2 + b2 
e=  2  e=  
 a
2
  b 

Length of latus rectum 2b 2 2a 2

a b
Let ∠ QCN = φ
Here, P and Q are the corresponding points on the hyperbola Parametric co-ordinates
( a sec φ , b tan φ ) , ( b sec φ , a tan φ ) ,
and the auxiliary circle 0 ≤ φ < 2π . ( ) 0 ≤ φ < 2π 0 ≤ φ < 2π
Note : Here φ is called eccentric angle of point P .
SP = ex1 − a and SP = ey1 − b and
Focal radii
S ′P = ex1 + a S ′P = ey1 + b

04 Parametric equations Difference of focal radii

of hyperbola ( S ′P − SP ) 2a 2b

The equations x = a sec φ and y = b tan φ are known as the Tangents at the vertices x = − a, x = a y = −b, y = b
x2 y 2
parametric equations of the hyperbola 2 − 2 = 1.
a b Equation of the transverse axis y=0 x=0
This ( a sec φ , b tan φ ) lies on the hyperbola for all values of φ .
Equation of the conjugate axis x=0 y=0
Position of points Q on auxiliary circle and the corresponding
1 1
point P which describes the hyperbola and 0 ≤ φ < 2π • If e and e’ are the eccentricities of a hyperbola and its conjugate, then + = 1.
e 2 e'2
• The foci of a hyperbola and its conjugate are concyclic.

φ varies from Q (a co φ ,b sin φ) P (a sec φ, b tan φ)

0 to
π I I
05 Position of a Point with Respect
2
to a Hyperbola
π
to π II III x2 y 2
2 Let the hyperbola be − = 1. Then , P ( x1 , y1 ) will lie inside, on or outside the hyperbola
a 2 b2
3π III II
π to x2 y 2 x12 y12
2 − = 1 according as − − 1 is positive, zero or negative.
a 2 b2 a 2 b2
3π IV IV
to 2π
2
 06 Equation of the Chord joining
Two Points on the Hyperbola 07 Intersection of a Line
and a Hyperbola
The equation of the chord joining the points P ( a sec φ1 , b tan φ1 ) and
x2 y 2
(a secφ2 , b tanφ2 ) The straight line y = mx + c will cut the hyperbola − =1
a 2 b2
in two points may be real, coincident
b tan φ2 − b tan φ1
y − b tan φ1 = ( x − a sec φ1 ) x cos  φ1 − φ2  − y sin  φ1 + φ2  = cos  φ1 + φ2  or imaginary according as c 2 >, = < a 2 m 2 − b 2 .
a sec φ2 − a sec φ1 a  2  b  2   2 

Note
08
• If the chord joining two points ( a sec φ1 , b tan φ1 ) and ( a sec φ2 , b tan φ2 ) passes through
Condition for tangency
x2 y 2 θ1 θ 1− e 1+ e
the focus of the hyperbola 2 − 2 = 1, then tan tan 2 = or .
a b 2 2 1+ e 1− e x2 y 2
If straight line y = mx + c touches the hyperbola − = 1,
a 2 b2
then c 2 = a 2 m 2 − b 2 .

9 Equations of Tangent in Different Forms

Point form :The equation of the tangent to the hyperbola x2 y 2

Parametric form : The equation of tangent to the hyperbola − =1
01 x2 y 2 xx yy a 2 b2
02
− 2 = 1 at ( x1 , y1 ) is 21 − 21 = 1. x y
a 2
b a b at (a sec φ1 , b tan φ1 ) is sec φ − tan φ = 1
a b

Note
Slope form :The equations of tangents of slope m to the hyperbola
x2 y 2
Point of intersection of tangents drawn at point on 2 − 2 = 1 is x2 y 2
− 2 = 1 are y = mx ± a m − b and the co-ordinates of points
2 2 2
a b 2
a b
  θ −φ  θ +φ  
 a cos  2  b sin  2    a 2m b2 
  ,   . 03 of contacts are  − , −  where c 2 = a 2 m 2 − b 2 .
  θ + φ   θ + φ    c c 
 cos  2  cos  2  
      Clearly for the existence of tangent with slope m to the hyperbola
b
m> ( where a, b > 0 ) .
a

Note

x2 y 2 2 2 2 2 2
• If the straight line lx + my + n = 0 touches the hyperbola − = 1, then a l − b m = n .
a 2 b2
2 2
• If the straight line x cosα + y sinα = p touches the hyperbola x 2 − y2 = 1, then a 2 cos 2 α − b 2 sin 2 α = p 2 . • Two tangents can be drawn from an outside point
a b to a hyperbola.

10 Equation of Pair of Tangents

x2 y 2
If P ( x1 , y1 ) be any point outside the hyperbola
− = 1, then a pair of tangents PQ, PR can be drawn to it from P
a 2 b2
2
The equation of pair of tangents PQ and PR is SS1 = T , where,

x2 y 2 x12 y12 xx yy
S= 2
− 2
− 1, S1 = 2
− 2 −1, T = 21 − 21 − 1.
a b a b a b

Director circle : The director circle is the locus of points from which perpendicular tangents are drawn to the given hyperbola. The equation of the directo
r circle of the hyperbola
x2 y 2
− = 1 is x 2 + y 2 = a 2 − b 2 .
a 2 b2
 11
Equations of Normal in Different Forms

01 02 03 04
Point form : The equation of normal Parametric form : The equation of Slope form : The equation of the Condition of normality : If
to the hyperbola normal at normal to the hyperbola y = mx + c is the normal of
x2 y 2
− = 1 at ( x1 , y1 ) is
( a secθ , b tanθ ) , to the hyperbola x2 y 2 x2 y 2 m a 2 + b2 ( )
a 2 b2 2 2 − = 1 in terms of the slope m of − = 1, then c = + or
x y a 2 b2 a 2 b2 a 2 − m2 b2
a 2 x b2
+ = a 2 + b2 . a 2
− 2 = 1 is
b y = mx +
(
m a 2 + b2 ) ( )
m2 a 2 + b2
2

x1 y1 c= , which is condition of
ax cosθ + bycotθ = a 2 + b 2 . a 2 − b2 m2 (a − m b )
2 2 2
normality.

12
Important Tips

01 02 03 04
if α , β , γ are the eccentric angles If the normal at P meets the transverse
In general, four normals can be drawn
of three points on the hyperbola. axis in G, then SG = e.SP. If the normal at P meets the
to a hyperbola from any point and if 2 2 transverse axis in G and conjugate
x y
α , β , γ , δ be the eccentric angles of 2
− 2 = 1, at which the normals are Also the tangent and normal bisect axis at g, then
a b concurrent, then
these four co-normal points, then the angle between the focal
α + β + γ + δ is an odd multiple of π . sin (α + β ) + sin ( β + γ ) + sin ( β + γ ) + sin (γ + α ) = 0.
distances of P PG : Pg = b 2 : a 2 .

13 Equation of Chord of Contact

14 Equation of the Chord of the
of Tangents drawn from a Point Hyperbola whose Mid-point
to a Hyperbola (x1, y1) is given
x2 y 2 x2 y 2
Let PQ and PR be tangents to the hyperbola − =1 Equation of the chord of the hyperbola 2 − 2 = 1, bisected at the given point ( x1 , y1 ) is
a 2 b2 a b
drawn from any external point P ( x1 , y1 ) .
xx1 yy1 x12 y12 1,
xx1 yy1 − −1 = 2 − 2 − i.e., T = S1.
Then equation of chord of contact QR is or − =1 a 2 b2 a b
a 2 b2 Note
or T = 0 ( At x1 , y1 )
x2 y 2
The length of chord cut off by hyperbola − = 1 from the line
a 2 b2

( )
2ab c 2 − a 2 m 2 − b 2  (1 + m )
2

15 Reflection Property
y = mx + c is
(
b2 − a 2 m2 )
.

of the Hyperbola
16
2

If an incoming light ray passing through one focus (S) strike Asymptotes of a Hyperbola
convex side of the hyperbola, then it will get reflected
towards other focus (S’). ∠ TPS ′ = ∠ LPM =α
x2 y 2
The equations of two asymptotes of the hyperbola − = 1 are
a 2 b2
b x y
y=± x or ± = 0.
a a b
Important Tips

The product of length of perpendiculars drawn from any point on the hyperbola

x2 y 2 a 2b 2
− = 1 to the asymptotes is 2 .
a 2 b2 a + b2

• The tangent at any point P on hyperbola if meet its asymptotes at Q and R, then :
Note
(i) the midpoint of QR is always P, (ii)area of triangle QCR is always “ab” where C
Hyperbola and ellipse are called orthogonal curves to each other is the of hyperbola and 2a= lengthof transverse
iff they are confocal (i.e., they have the same foci).
axis, 2b= length of conjugate axis of hyperbola.
 17
Rectangular or Equilateral Hyperbola

(i) Definition : A hyperbola whose asymptotes are at right angles to each other is called a rectangular hyperbola. The eccentricity of rectangular hyperbola is

always 2. The general equation of second degree represents a rectangular hyperbola if ∆ ≠ 0, h 2 > ab and coefficient of x2+ coefficient of y2 = 0.

18 Parametric coordinates of a point 19 Equation of the chord

ton he hyperbola xy = c2
joining points t1 and t2
If t is non-zero variable, the coordinates of any point on the rectangular
hyperbola xy = c2 can be written as  c  c  c
 ct ,  . The point The equation of the chord joining two points  ct1 ,  and  ct2 ,  on the
 t  t1   t2 
 c
 ct ,  on the hyperbola xy = c is generally referred as the point ‘t’. c c
2

 t −
c t2 t1
For rectangular hyperbola the coordinates of foci are ±a 2, 0 and( ) hyperbola xy = c2 is y − =
t1 ct2 − ct1
( x − ct1 )
directrices are x = ± a 2.

For rectangular hyperbola xy = c2, the coordinates of foci are ⇒ x + yt1t2 = c ( t1 + t2 ) .

( ±c )
2, ± c 2 and directrices are x + y = ± c 2.

20 Equation of tangent in 21 Equation of the chord

different forms joining points t1 and t2
(i)Point form : The equation of tangent (ii) Parametric form : The equation of the (i) Point form : The equation of the normal at (x1, y1) to the
2 2
at (x1, y1) to the hyperbola xy = c2 is c hyperbola xy = c2 is xx1 − yy1 = x1 − y1 .
tangent at  ct ,  to the hyperbola xy = c2 is
x y  t
xy1 + yx1 = 2c 2 or + = 2.  c
x1 y1 x c (ii) Parametric form : The equation of the normal at  ct ,  to the
+ yt =2c On replacing x1 by ct and y1 by  t
t t 2
hyperbola xy = c is xt − yt − ct + c = 0.
3 4

on the equation of the tangent at ( x1 , y1 ) ,

i.e., xy1 + yx1 = 2c 2 , we get x + yt = 2c. Note
t  c
Note • The equation of the normal at  ct ,  is a fourth degree in t. So, in general,
 t
 2ct1t2 2c   c
Point of intersection of tangents at ‘t1’ and ‘t2’ is , .
2
 • If the normal at  ct ,  on the curve xy = c meets the curve again
 t1 + t2 t1 + t2   t
1
in ‘t’ then t ′ = − 3 .
t

22
• Point of intersection of normals at ‘t1’ and ‘t2’is
Intersection of a Circle and
a Rectangular Hyperbola  { ( ) } { (
 c t1t2 t12 + t1t2 + t22 − 1 c t13 t23+ t12 + t1t2 + t22
,
)} 
.
 t1t2 ( t1 + t2 ) t1t2 ( t1 + t2 ) 
 

If a circle x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + k=0 cuts a rectangular • A triangle has its vertices on a rectangular hyperbola; then the orthocentre
of the triangle also lies on the same hyperbola
hyperbola xy = c2 in A, B, C and D and
• All conics passing through the intersection of two rectangular hyperbolas
the parameters of these four points t1, t2t3and are themselves rectangular hyperbolas.
t4 respectively, then :

(i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v)

2g k −2f
01 ∑ t1 = − ∑ t1 t 2 = ∑ t1 t 2 t 3 = t1 t 2 t 3 t 4 = 1 1 2f
c c2 c ∑ =−
t1 c
 PARABOLA 01 STANDARD PARABOLAS

S.NO CONCEPT y 2 = 4ax ( a > 0 ) y 2 = −4ax ( a > 0 ) x 2 = 4ay ( a > 0 ) x 2 = −4ay ( a > 0 )

1. GRAPH

2. FOCUS ( a, 0 ) ( −a, 0 ) ( 0, a ) ( 0, −a )
3. DIRECTRIX EQUATION x+a =0 x−a =0 y+a =0 y−a =0

4. VERTEX ( 0, 0 ) ( 0, 0 ) ( 0, 0 ) ( 0, 0 )
5. LATUS RECTUM (L.R.) 4a 4a 4a 4a
6. END OF L.R. ( a, ±2a ) ( −a, ±2a ) ( ±2a, a ) ( ±2a, −a )
7. AXIS y=0 y=0 x=0 x=0
8. FOCAL DISTANCE OF
POINT (X,Y)
( x + a) (a − x) ( y + a) (a − y)
9.
PARAMETRIC EQUATION x = at 2 , Y=2at x = at 2 , Y=2at x = 2at , y = at 2 x = 2at , y = −at 2

10. PARAMETRIC POINT ( at , 2at )

2
( −at , 2at )
2
( 2at , at )2
( 2at , −at )
2

02 EQUAL OF PARABOLA IN VARIOUS CONDITIONS

1. Equation of parabola whose vertex is (α , β ) and axis is parallel to x-axis is
( y − β ) = ±4a ( x − α ) where 4 a is L.R
2

2
2. Equation of parabola whose axis is parallel to x-axis is x = ay + by + c
3. Equation of parabola whose vertex is (α , β ) and axis is parallel to y-axis is ( x − α ) = ±4a ( y − β ) , 4a is L.R
2

= ax 2 + bx + c
4. Equation of parabola whose axis is parallel to y-axis is,y
5. Equation of parabola whose axis is ax + by + c = 0 and tangent at vertex is bx − ay + d = 0
2

and whose latus rectum is 4A is  ax + by + c  = ±4 A (

  bx − ay + d )
2 2
 a +b  a 2 + b2
2
Equation of Chord Joining Points t1 and t 2 on Parabola y = 4ax y − 2at1 =
2

t1 + t2
(
x − at12 )
NOTE
2
For the parabola y = 4ax :
2
• Slope of the chord joining the pointst1and t2 =
t1 + t2
 k
• The chord joining points t1 and t2 if intersects axis at point ( k , 0 ) , then t1t2 = − . • Condition for the chord to be focal chord t1t2 = −1
a
−1
2
( )
• If one end of focal chord is at , 2at , then coordinate of its other end will be obtained by replacing t by , i.e., the coordinate of
t
 a 2a 
the other end will be
 2,  . • Condition for the chord to subtend right angle at the vertext1t2 = −4. • All the chord which subtends
t t 
right angle at the vertex passes through fixed point ( 4a, 0 ) . • Focal chord never subtend right angle at vertex or line subtending right

angle at vertex never be a focal chord. • Let the variable chord is drawn from point P ( 2a, 0 ) , meets parabola at Q and R then

1 1 1
+ = ( constant ) • Area of triangle whose vertices are given by A ( t1 ) , B ( t2 ) and C ( t3 ) on parabola
PQ 2 PR 2 4a 2
at12 2at1 1
1
∆ = at22 2at2 1
2 2
at3 2at3 1

⇒ ∆ = a 2 ( t1 − t2 )( t2 − t3 )( t3 − t1 )

03 EQUATION OF TANGENT & NORMAL

Equation of Tangent at Point ( x1 , y1 ) on Parabola Equation of normal at ' t ', tx + y = 2at + at 3 Equation of tangent at point t , ty = x + at 2
y 2 = 4ax T = 0 ⇒ yy1 = 2a ( x + x1 )
a 2a
Equation of normal with slope m , Point of normality, ( am , −2am )
2
Equation of tangent with slope m has point of contact ,
y = mx − 2am − am3 a m2 m
y = mx +
m

04 PROPERTIES OF TANGENT
a m ≠ 0, cm < a. Neither chord nor
• Condition for line with finite slope say y = mx + c to be tangent to parabola is c= . Hence then, To be a chord
m
tangent is cm > a. • Image of the focus in any tangent always lies on directrix.• At any point P if tangent is drawn at parabola meet the axis atT
and normal to parabola meet axis on N then ST = SN = SP where S is focus. i) Tangent at points
1 and t t2  at1t2 , a
always intersect on  ( t1 + t2 ) .
ii) Area of triangle formed by tangents drawn on points ( t1 , t2 and t3 ) on parabola.
1
Let A ( t1 ) , B ( t2 ) and C ( t3 ) be the points on parabola an tangent at A, B and C forming∆PQR. ∆PQR = ∆ABC
2

iii) Tangents if drawn by taking any point on its directrix always touches the parabola at the ends of a focal chord.

iv) If tangents are drawn from P touching the parabola at A and B. Then AB is called chord of contact of P with respect to parabola P
if ( h, k ) , then
3
2
S1 k + 4a ( s1 ) 2
• ∆PAB =
2
• Length of AB = ; where s1 = k − 4ah
a 2a
v) If tangents are drawn at any 3 points on the parabola, then orthocentre of triangle formed by them is always lie on directrix.

05 PROPERTIES OF NORMAL
2
For the parabola y = 4ax

i)Line y = mx + c is a normal to the parabola if c = −2am − am3 ii) From a point there can be maximum 3 normals to the parabola.

iii) If from point ( h, k ) , three normals be drawn with slope m1 + m2 + m3 = 0 m1 , m2 and m3 , then and point of normalities corresponding to these are

given by ( am2
1 )(
− 2a1m1 , am22 − 2am2 ) and ( am 2
3 )
− 2am3 , called conormal points.

iv)If from a point 3 normals are possible, then sum of the ordinates of conormal points is always equal to zero.
 v) If a normal is drawn at point t on parabola meets the parabola again at point t then t1 vi) If normals drawn at points t1 and t2 on parabola meets each
is always equal to other on parabola at point t3 then t1 + t2 + t3 = 0

-
vii) Point of intersection of normal drawn at t1 and t2 on parabola
t 2 ( )
is given by a t1 + t2 + t1t2 + 2 , − at1t2 ( t1 + t2 )
2 2
t1 = −t −
t

1 2
t a ( t1 − t2 )( t2 − t3 )( t3 − t1 )( t1 + t2 + t3 )
2
viii) Area of triangle formed by the normal drawn at points t1 , t2 and 3 ∆=
2

ix) From a point ( h, 0 ) three normals are possibles on the parabola if h > 2a, i.e. if h ≤ 2a, then from ( h, 0 ) there is only one normal, i.e. axis of parabola.
2
x) The length of subnormal at any point on parabola y = 4ax is constant known as semi latus rectum.

06 OPTICAL PROPERTY OF PARABOLA

Let y 2 = 4ax be a parabola then all the rays from x → ∞ parallel the axis of parabola after reflecting from internal surface of parabolic mirror always
passes through focus of parabola.

Features of Parabola
Let P be any point on the parabola and tangent atP meets the axis at T and directrix at K Let tangent from K meets parabola at P and
Q Let S be the focus of parabola,PM is perpendicular to directrix andQM is also perpendicular to directrix.

• ∠ TPM = ∠ TPS = ∠ STP = ∠ SKQ

• Tangents at the ends of focal chord always meets each other on directrix at an
angle of Therefore, mutually orthogonal tangents touches the parabola at the end
of a focal chord. Since tangent form directrix are mutually perpendicular. Hence,
directrix is called director circle of parabola.
•  ∠ PKQ = 90°
∴ Taking PQ, i.e., focal chord as a diameter if a circle being drawn that always
touches the directrix at the point where tangent at point P & Q on the parabola
meet the directrix.
• In the above figure ∆PMK ≅ ∆PSK and ∆ SKQ ≅ ∆M'KQ
∴ ∠ KSP = 90°, i.e., the intercept of tangent between point of contact and directrix
always subtend right angle at the focus, therefore taking that intercept as a diameter
if a circle being drawn that always passes through focus of parabola.
• If tangent being drawn at point P on parabola meets tangent at vertex at Y.

SY AS
• If A be the vertex. ⇒ = ⇒ SY 2 = AS .SP Hence, AS, SY, SP are always in G.P.
SP SY
• ∆SPY ≅ ∆STY
• Perpendicular drawn from focus to the tangent always bisects the angle
between axis and focal radii of point of contact.

07 CONGRUENT OR EQUAL PARABOLA

• Two parabolas are said to be equal or • Two equal parabolas with the same axis different 
2
1
l = a ( t1 − t2 )
2
congruent if they have the same latus rectum vertex if sketch in the same irection never meets Length of focal chord, l = a  t1 + 
each other.  t1 

08 DIAMETER OF A PARABOLA
2
⇒ Lactus of mid-point of the set of parallel chords is called diameter lety = 4ax be the parabola and chords are
2a
drawn with slope m, then equation of corresponding diameter will be, y =
m
• Tangents at the end of the chord always meet each
• Each and every line parallel to axis of parabola is its diameter. other on the diameter corresponding to the chord.
 COMPLEX
NUMBER
1. Iota 4. Properties of Modulus

1 (i) |z| ≥ 0 ⇒ |z| = 0 iff z = 0 & |z| > 0 of z ≠ 0

i 4n = 1, i 4n +1 = i , i 4n +2 = −1, i
4 n +3
−i  i 2 =
= −1, i 3 = 1 , i =
−i , i 4 = −
  i (ii) –|z| ≤ Re(z) ≤ |z| & –|z| ≤ Im(z) ≤ |z|
(iii) | z | =| z | =| − z | =| − z |

2. Conjugate Complex Number

(iv) z z = | z 2 |
(v) |z1 ± z2| ≥ ||z1| – |z2||
(vi) |z1z2| = |z1| |z2|,
z= a − ib for z = a + ib (vii) |zn| = |z|n
2 2
z + z ′ 2=
= a, z z a + b .
(viii) |z1 ± z2| ≤ |z1| + |z2|
• Properties 2
(
) (z 1 ± z2 ) = z 1 ( )
2 2
(ix) z 1 ± z 2 = z1 ± z2 + z 2 ± z 1z 2 + z 1z 2 .
(i) (z ) = z (ii) z= z ⇔ z is purely real
(x) z=z + z 1z 2 2 z 1 z 2 cos (θ 1 − θ2 )
1 2
z +z
(iii) z =−z ⇔ z is purely (iv) Re
= z Re
= z ( ) ( ) 2
= θ1 arg
= ( z 1 ) , θ2 arg ( z 2 ) .
imaginary
z −z 2 2  2 2
(v) Im z =( ) 2i
(vi) z 1 + z 2 =z 1 + z 2 (xi) z 1 + z 2 + z 1 − z 2= 2  z 1 + z 2 
 

5.
(vii) z 1 − z 2 =z 1 − z 2 (viii) z1 z2 = z1 z2

z  z
(ix)  1  = 1 (x) z 1z 2 + =
z 1z 2 2Re z=z( )
2Re z 1z 2 ( ) Properties of argument
1 2
 z2  z2
(xi) ( z n ) = ( z )n , (xii) If z = f(z1), then z = f z 1 ( ) (i) arg(z1 z2) = arg(z1) + arg(z2) + 2kp

(ii) arg zn = n arg z + 2kp

3. Modulus and Argument

(iii) arg
z2
z1
θ ⇒ arg
=
z1
z2
2k π − θ . k ∈ I
=

(iv) arg z = − arg z

z = a + ib

a = r cosq, b = r sin q 6. De Moivre’s Theorem

|z|
= a 2 + b 2 , argument θ = tan−1 b . 0 ≤ q < 2p
a
(a) If n is any rational number, then
principal values: –p < q ≤ p
(cosq + i sin q)n = cosnq + i sin nq
b  b  (b) If z = r(cosq + i sinq) then
Ist quad θ = tan−1  2nd quad θ= π − tan−1  
a |a |   2k π + θ   2k π + θ  
= z 1/n r 1/n cos   + sin n  
−1  b  −1  | b |    n   n 
3rd quad θ =−π + tan       4th quad θ = − tan  
a   a  k = 0, 1, 2, ..., (n – 1)

7. Square Root of a Complex

(i) Arg (0) is not defined. Number
(ii) If z1 = z2 ⇔ |z1| = |z2| & arg z1 = arg z2.
 Square roots of z = a + ib are
(iii) If argz = p/2 or –p/2, z is purely imaginary.
 | z | +a | z | −a 
(iv) If argz = 0 or p, z is purely real. ± +i  for b > 0
(v) Any two arguments of a complex number differ by 2np.,  2 2 
  | z | +a | z | −a  3. Sum of complex numbers: 6. Quotient:
± −i  for b < 0
 2 2 
z2 z1 + z2 z1
z1/ z2
 1+i   1−i  θ2
 Square root of i → ±    Square root of −i → ±   z1 z2
 2  2 θ1
θ2
 Square root of ω → ±ω2       Square root of ω2 → ±ω
z1 = x1 + iy1

z2 = x2 + iy2

8.
z1 + z2 ≥ z1 + z2

Cube roots of Unity

x =31
−1 + i 3 −1 − i 3
1,= , . 1, ω , ω 2
10. Euler’s Formula
2 2
Properties
(i) 1 + ω + ω2 = 0 eiq = cosq + isinq
(ii) ω3 = 1
iθ (iθ )2 (iθ )3
(iii) ω3n = 1, ω3n+1 = ω, ω3n+2 = ω2, 1+ +
= + +  + ∞
1! 2! 3!
2
(iv) ω ω=
= & (ω )2 ω
z = reiq ⇒ argz = 2np + q
(v) Cube roots of unity lies on vertices of an equilateral
triangle inscribed in a unit circle. logz = logr + i(q + 2np)
(vi) a + bω + cω = 0 ⇒ a = b = c if a, b, c are real
2

\ Logarithm of an imaginary number is not unique

(vii) ωn + ωn+1 + ωn+2 = 0

9. Geometrical Meanings
11. Concept of Rotation

1. Conjugate, z : 4. Difference: z3
P(z) z1 + z2 C
r z2

θ z1
z2
−θ A
z1 B
r
− z2 z1 − z2
Q(z)

z = x + iy
AB = |z2 – z1|
z= x − iy

z1 = x1 + iy1

z = (r, q)
z2 = x2 + iy2 BC = |z3 – z2|

z

= (r , −θ ) CA = |z3 – z1|

2. Negation, –Z: 5. Product: z1 z2  z − z1 

z
z1 z2
arg  3 =
 z − z  (
arg z 3 − z 1 − arg z 2 − = )
z1 α ( )
 2 1
z2
θ1
z1 z3 − z1 CA z − z 1 CA
Also, = ∴ 3 = (cos α + i sinα )
−z z 2 − z 1 AB z 2 − z 1 AB
z = x + iy θ θ 1
2

–z = –x – iy If z21 + z22 + z23 + z1z2 + z2z3 + z3z1 = 0, then the triangle ABC is equilateral.