Electromagnetis

In physics, electromagnetism is
an interaction that occurs
between particles with electric
charge via electromagnetic fields.
The electromagnetic force is one
of the four fundamental forces of
nature. It is the dominant force in
the interactions of atoms and
:
 molecules. Electromagnetism can
be thought of as a combination of
electrostatics and magnetism, two
distinct but closely intertwined
phenomena. Electromagnetic
forces occur between any two
charged particles, causing an
attraction between particles with
opposite charges and repulsion
between particles with the same
charge, while magnetism is an
interaction that occurs exclusively
between charged particles in
relative motion. These two effects
combine to create
:
 electromagnetic fields in the
vicinity of charged particles,
which can accelerate other
charged particles via the Lorentz
force. At high energy, the weak
force and electromagnetic force
are unified as a single
electroweak force.

Electromagnetic interactions are responsible for the

glowing filaments in this plasma globe
:
 The electromagnetic force is
responsible for many of the
chemical and physical
phenomena observed in daily life.
The electrostatic attraction
between atomic nuclei and their
electrons holds atoms together.
Electric forces also allow different
atoms to combine into molecules,
including the macromolecules
such as proteins that form the
basis of life. Meanwhile, magnetic
interactions between the spin and
angular momentum magnetic
moments of electrons also play a
:
 role in chemical reactivity; such
relationships are studied in spin
chemistry. Electromagnetism also
plays a crucial role in modern
technology: electrical energy
production, transformation and
distribution; light, heat, and sound
production and detection; fiber
optic and wireless
communication; sensors;
computation; electrolysis;
electroplating; and mechanical
motors and actuators.

Electromagnetism has been

:
 studied since ancient times. Many
ancient civilizations, including the
Greeks and the Mayans created
wide-ranging theories to explain
lightning, static electricity, and the
attraction between magnetized
pieces of iron ore. However, it
wasn't until the late 18th century
that scientists began to develop a
mathematical basis for
understanding the nature of
electromagnetic interactions. In
the 18th and 19th centuries,
prominent scientists and
mathematicians such as
:
 Coulomb, Gauss and Faraday
developed namesake laws which
helped to explain the formation
and interaction of
electromagnetic fields. This
process culminated in the 1860s
with the discovery of Maxwell's
equations, a set of four partial
differential equations which
provide a complete description of
classical electromagnetic fields.
Besides providing a sound
mathematical basis for the
relationships between electricity
and magnetism that scientists
:
 had been exploring for centuries,
Maxwell's equations also
predicted the existence of self-
sustaining electromagnetic
waves. Maxwell postulated that
such waves make up visible light,
which was later shown to be true.
Indeed, gamma-rays, x-rays,
ultraviolet, visible, infrared
radiation, microwaves and radio
waves were all determined to be
electromagnetic radiation
differing only in their range of
frequencies.
:
 In the modern era, scientists have
continued to refine the theorem of
electromagnetism to take into
account the effects of modern
physics, including quantum
mechanics and relativity. Indeed,
the theoretical implications of
electromagnetism, particularly the
establishment of the speed of
light based on properties of the
"medium" of propagation
(permeability and permittivity),
helped inspire Einstein's theory of
special relativity in 1905.
Meanwhile, the field of quantum
:
 electrodynamics (QED) has
modified Maxwell's equations to
be consistent with the quantized
nature of matter. In QED, the
electromagnetic field is expressed
in terms of discrete particles
known as photons, which are also
the physical quanta of light.
Today, there exist many problems
in electromagnetism that remain
unsolved, such as the existence of
magnetic monopoles and the
mechanism by which some
organisms can sense electric and
magnetic fields.
:
 History of the theory

Cover of A Treatise on Electricity and

Magnetism

Originally, electricity and

magnetism were considered to be
two separate forces. This view
changed with the publication of
James Clerk Maxwell's 1873 A
Treatise on Electricity and
Magnetism[1] in which the
:
 interactions of positive and
negative charges were shown to
be mediated by one force. There
are four main effects resulting
from these interactions, all of
which have been clearly
demonstrated by experiments:

1. Electric charges attract or

repel one another with a
force inversely proportional
to the square of the distance
between them: unlike
charges attract, like ones
repel.[2]
:
 2. Magnetic poles (or states of
polarization at individual
points) attract or repel one
another in a manner similar
to positive and negative
charges and always exist as
pairs: every north pole is
yoked to a south pole.[3]
3. An electric current inside a
wire creates a corresponding
circumferential magnetic
field outside the wire. Its
direction (clockwise or
counter-clockwise) depends
on the direction of the
:
 current in the wire.[4]
4. A current is induced in a loop
of wire when it is moved
toward or away from a
magnetic field, or a magnet
is moved towards or away
from it; the direction of
current depends on that of
the movement.[4]

In April 1820, Hans Christian

Ørsted observed that an electrical
current in a wire caused a nearby
compass needle to move. At the
time of discovery, Ørsted did not
:
 suggest any satisfactory
explanation of the phenomenon,
nor did he try to represent the
phenomenon in a mathematical
framework. However, three
months later he began more
intensive investigations.[5][6]
Soon thereafter he published his
findings, proving that an electric
current produces a magnetic field
as it flows through a wire. The
CGS unit of magnetic induction
(oersted) is named in honor of his
contributions to the field of
electromagnetism.[7]
:
 His findings resulted in intensive
research throughout the scientific
community in electrodynamics.
They influenced French physicist
André-Marie Ampère's
developments of a single
mathematical form to represent
the magnetic forces between
current-carrying conductors.
Ørsted's discovery also
represented a major step toward a
unified concept of energy.

This unification, which was

observed by Michael Faraday,
:
 extended by James Clerk
Maxwell, and partially
reformulated by Oliver Heaviside
and Heinrich Hertz, is one of the
key accomplishments of 19th-
century mathematical physics.[8]
It has had far-reaching
consequences, one of which was
the understanding of the nature of
light. Unlike what was proposed
by the electromagnetic theory of
that time, light and other
electromagnetic waves are at
present seen as taking the form of
quantized, self-propagating
:
 oscillatory electromagnetic field
disturbances called photons.
Different frequencies of oscillation
give rise to the different forms of
electromagnetic radiation, from
radio waves at the lowest
frequencies, to visible light at
intermediate frequencies, to
gamma rays at the highest
frequencies.

Ørsted was not the only person to

examine the relationship between
electricity and magnetism. In
1802, Gian Domenico Romagnosi,
:
 an Italian legal scholar, deflected a
magnetic needle using a Voltaic
pile. The factual setup of the
experiment is not completely
clear, nor if current flowed across
the needle or not. An account of
the discovery was published in
1802 in an Italian newspaper, but
it was largely overlooked by the
contemporary scientific
community, because Romagnosi
seemingly did not belong to this
community.[9]

An earlier (1735), and often

:
 neglected, connection between
electricity and magnetism was
reported by a Dr. Cookson.[10] The
account stated:

A tradesman at
Wakefield in Yorkshire,
having put up a great
number of knives and
forks in a large box ...
and having placed the
box in the corner of a
large room, there
happened a sudden
:
 storm of thunder,
lightning, &c. ... The
owner emptying the box
on a counter where
some nails lay, the
persons who took up the
knives, that lay on the
nails, observed that the
knives took up the nails.
On this the whole
number was tried, and
found to do the same,
and that, to such a
:
 degree as to take up
large nails, packing
needles, and other iron
things of considerable
weight ...

E. T. Whittaker suggested in 1910

that this particular event was
responsible for lightning to be
"credited with the power of
magnetizing steel; and it was
doubtless this which led Franklin
in 1751 to attempt to magnetize a
sewing-needle by means of the
discharge of Leyden jars."[11]
:
 Fundamental forces

Representation of the electric field

vector of a wave of circularly polarized
electromagnetic radiation.

The electromagnetic force is one

of the four known fundamental
forces and the second strongest
(after the strong nuclear force),
operating with infinite range;[12]
The other fundamental forces are:

the strong nuclear force, which

binds quarks to form nucleons,
and binds nucleons to form
:
 nuclei; it is the strongest of the
four known fundamental forces,
but operates only at short
range;[12]
the weak nuclear force, which
binds to all known particles in
the Standard Model, and
causes certain forms of
radioactive decay; it is the
second weakest of the four
fundamental forces and, like the
strong nuclear force, operates
only at short range (in particle
physics, the electroweak
interaction is the unified
:
 description of two of the four
known fundamental
interactions of nature: electro-
magnetism and the weak
interaction);[12]
the gravitational force is the
only one of the four
fundamental forces that is not
part of the Standard Model of
particle physics; while by far
the weakest of the four
fundamental forces, the
gravitational force, along with
the electromagnetic force,
operates at infinite range.[12]
:
 All other forces (e.g., friction,
contact forces) are derived from
these four fundamental forces and
they are known as non-
fundamental forces.[13]

Roughly speaking, all the forces

involved in interactions between
atoms can be explained by the
electromagnetic force acting
between the electrically charged
atomic nuclei and electrons of the
atoms. Electromagnetic forces
also explain how these particles
carry momentum by their
:
 movement. This includes the
forces we experience in "pushing"
or "pulling" ordinary material
objects, which result from the
intermolecular forces that act
between the individual molecules
in our bodies and those in the
objects. The electromagnetic
force is also involved in all forms
of chemical phenomena.

A necessary part of
understanding the intra-atomic
and intermolecular forces is the
effective force generated by the
:
 momentum of the electrons'
movement, such that as electrons
move between interacting atoms
they carry momentum with them.
As a collection of electrons
becomes more confined, their
minimum momentum necessarily
increases due to the Pauli
exclusion principle. The behaviour
of matter at the molecular scale
including its density is determined
by the balance between the
electromagnetic force and the
force generated by the exchange
of momentum carried by the
:
 electrons themselves.[14]

Classical
electrodynamics
In 1600, William Gilbert proposed,
in his De Magnete, that electricity
and magnetism, while both
capable of causing attraction and
repulsion of objects, were distinct
effects.[15] Mariners had noticed
that lightning strikes had the
ability to disturb a compass
needle. The link between lightning
and electricity was not confirmed
:
 until Benjamin Franklin's
proposed experiments in 1752
were conducted on 10 May 1752
by Thomas-François Dalibard of
France using a 40-foot-tall (12 m)
iron rod instead of a kite and he
successfully extracted electrical
sparks from a cloud.[16][17]

One of the first to discover and

publish a link between man-made
electric current and magnetism
was Gian Romagnosi, who in
1802 noticed that connecting a
wire across a voltaic pile deflected
:
 a nearby compass needle.
However, the effect did not
become widely known until 1820,
when Ørsted performed a similar
experiment.[18] Ørsted's work
influenced Ampère to conduct
further experiments, which
eventually gave rise to a new area
of physics: electrodynamics. By
determining a force law for the
interaction between elements of
electric current, Ampère placed
the subject on a solid
mathematical foundation.[19]
:
 A theory of electromagnetism,
known as classical
electromagnetism, was developed
by several physicists during the
period between 1820 and 1873,
when James Clerk Maxwell's
treatise was published, which
unified previous developments
into a single theory, proposing
that light was an electromagnetic
wave propagating in the
luminiferous ether.[20] In classical
electromagnetism, the behavior of
the electromagnetic field is
described by a set of equations
:
 known as Maxwell's equations,
and the electromagnetic force is
given by the Lorentz force law.[21]

One of the peculiarities of

classical electromagnetism is that
it is difficult to reconcile with
classical mechanics, but it is
compatible with special relativity.
According to Maxwell's equations,
the speed of light in vacuum is a
universal constant that is
dependent only on the electrical
permittivity and magnetic
permeability of free space. This
:
 violates Galilean invariance, a
long-standing cornerstone of
classical mechanics. One way to
reconcile the two theories
(electromagnetism and classical
mechanics) is to assume the
existence of a luminiferous aether
through which the light
propagates. However, subsequent
experimental efforts failed to
detect the presence of the aether.
After important contributions of
Hendrik Lorentz and Henri
Poincaré, in 1905, Albert Einstein
solved the problem with the
:
 introduction of special relativity,
which replaced classical
kinematics with a new theory of
kinematics compatible with
classical electromagnetism. (For
more information, see History of
special relativity.)

In addition, relativity theory

implies that in moving frames of
reference, a magnetic field
transforms to a field with a
nonzero electric component and
conversely, a moving electric field
transforms to a nonzero magnetic
:
 component, thus firmly showing
that the phenomena are two sides
of the same coin. Hence the term
"electromagnetism". (For more
information, see Classical
electromagnetism and special
relativity and Covariant
formulation of classical
electromagnetism.)

Extension to nonlinear
phenomena
The Maxwell equations are linear,
in that a change in the sources
:
 (the charges and currents) results
in a proportional change of the
fields. Nonlinear dynamics can
occur when electromagnetic
fields couple to matter that
follows nonlinear dynamical
laws.[22] This is studied, for
example, in the subject of
magnetohydrodynamics, which
combines Maxwell theory with the
Navier–Stokes equations.[23]

Quantities and units

Here is a list of common units
:
 related to electromagnetism:[24]

ampere (electric current)

coulomb (electric charge)
farad (capacitance)
henry (inductance)
ohm (resistance)
siemens (conductance)
tesla (magnetic flux density)
volt (electric potential)
watt (power)
weber (magnetic flux)

In the electromagnetic CGS

:
 system, electric current is a
fundamental quantity defined via
Ampère's law and takes the
permeability as a dimensionless
quantity (relative permeability)
whose value in vacuum is
unity.[25] As a consequence, the
square of the speed of light
appears explicitly in some of the
equations interrelating quantities
in this system.

kipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:SI_electromagnetism_units&action=edit)
SI electromagnetism units

Name of
Symbol[26] Unit name Symbol Base units
quantity

E energy joule J = C∙V kg∙m2∙s−2

electric
Q coulomb C A∙s
charge

electric A = C/s =
:
 I current ampere W/V A

electric
ampere per
J current A/m2 A∙m−2
square metre
density

potential
difference;
U, ΔV; Δφ;
voltage; volt V = J/C kg∙m2∙s−3∙A−1
,
electromotive
force

electric
resistance;
R; Z; X ohm Ω = V/A kg∙m2∙s−3∙A−2
impedance;
reactance

ρ resistivity ohm metre Ω∙m kg∙m3∙s−3∙A−2

P electric power watt W = V∙A kg∙m2∙s−3

C capacitance farad F = C/V kg−1∙m−2∙A2∙s

ΦE electric flux volt metre V∙m kg∙m3∙s−3∙A−1

electric field
E volt per metre V/m = N/C kg∙m∙A−1∙s−3
strength

electric
coulomb per
D displacement C/m2 A∙s∙m−2
square metre
field

ε permittivity farad per metre F/m kg−1∙m−3∙A2∙s

electric
χe (dimensionless) 1 1
susceptibility

conductance;
G; Y; B admittance; siemens S = Ω−1 kg−1∙m−2∙s3∙A
susceptance

siemens per
κ, γ, σ conductivity S/m kg−1∙m−3∙s3∙A
metre
:
 magnetic flux T = Wb/m2
B density, tesla = kg∙s−2∙A−1
magnetic N∙A−1∙m−1
induction

Φ, ΦM, ΦB magnetic flux weber Wb = V∙s kg∙m2∙s−2∙A−1

magnetic field ampere per

H A/m A∙m−1
strength metre

H = Wb/A
L, M inductance henry kg∙m2∙s−2∙A−2
= V∙s/A

henry per
µ permeability H/m kg∙m∙s−2∙A−2
metre

magnetic
χ (dimensionless) 1 1
susceptibility

magnetic
ampere square A∙m2 =
µ dipole A∙m2
meter J∙T−1
moment

ampere square
mass
σ meter per A∙m2/kg A∙m2∙kg−1
magnetization
kilogram

Formulas for physical laws of

electromagnetism (such as
Maxwell's equations) need to be
adjusted depending on what
system of units one uses. This is
:
 because there is no one-to-one
correspondence between
electromagnetic units in SI and
those in CGS, as is the case for
mechanical units. Furthermore,
within CGS, there are several
plausible choices of
electromagnetic units, leading to
different unit "sub-systems",
including Gaussian, "ESU",
"EMU", and Heaviside–Lorentz.
Among these choices, Gaussian
units are the most common today,
and in fact the phrase "CGS
units" is often used to refer
:
 specifically to CGS-Gaussian
units.[27]

Applications
The study of electromagnetism
informs electric circuits and
semiconductor devices'
construction.

See also
Abraham–Lorentz force
Aeromagnetic surveys
Computational
electromagnetics
:
 Double-slit experiment
Electromagnet
Electromagnetic induction
Electromagnetic wave equation
Electromagnetic scattering
Electromechanics
Geophysics
Introduction to
electromagnetism
Magnetostatics
Magnetoquasistatic field
Optics
Relativistic electromagnetism
Wheeler–Feynman absorber
:
 Wheeler–Feynman absorber
theory

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41) .
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derived units" (https://physics.n
ist.gov/cuu/Units/units.html) .
physics.nist.gov. Retrieved
2022-08-22.
25. "Tables of Physical and
Chemical Constants, and some
Mathematical Functions" (https:
//www.nature.com/articles/107
264c0) . Nature. 107 (2687):
264. April 1921.
Bibcode:1921Natur.107R.264. (
:
 Bibcode:1921Natur.107R.264. (
https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/a
bs/1921Natur.107R.264.) .
doi:10.1038/107264c0 (https://
doi.org/10.1038%2F107264c0
) . ISSN 1476-4687 (https://w
ww.worldcat.org/issn/1476-46
87) .
26. International Union of Pure and
Applied Chemistry (1993).
Quantities, Units and Symbols
in Physical Chemistry, 2nd
edition, Oxford: Blackwell
Science. ISBN 0-632-03583-
8. pp. 14–15. Electronic
version. (https://old.iupac.org/p
ublications/books/gbook/green
_book_2ed.pdf)
:
 _book_2ed.pdf)
27. "Conversion of formulae and
quantities between unit
systems" (http://nlpc.stanford.e
du/nleht/Science/reference/co
nversion.pdf) (PDF).
www.stanford.edu. Retrieved
29 January 2022.

Further reading

Web sources

Nave, R. "Electricity and

magnetism" (http://hyperphysics.p
hy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/emcon.html
#emcon) . HyperPhysics. Georgia
State University. Retrieved
:
 2013-11-12.
Khutoryansky, E.
"Electromagnetism – Maxwell's
Laws" (https://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=9Tm2c6NJH4Y) .
YouTube. Retrieved 2014-12-28.

Textbooks

G.A.G. Bennet (1974). Electricity

and Modern Physics (2nd ed.).
Edward Arnold (UK). ISBN 978-0-
7131-2459-0.
Browne, Michael (2008). Physics
for Engineering and Science
(2nd ed.). McGraw-Hill/Schaum.
ISBN 978-0-07-161399-6.
:
 Dibner, Bern (2012). Oersted and
the discovery of
electromagnetism. Literary
Licensing, LLC. ISBN 978-1-258-
33555-7.
Durney, Carl H.; Johnson, Curtis C.
(1969). Introduction to modern
electromagnetics. McGraw-Hill.
ISBN 978-0-07-018388-9.
Feynman, Richard P. (1970). The
Feynman Lectures on Physics Vol
II (https://feynmanlectures.caltech.
edu/II_toc.html) . Addison Wesley
Longman. ISBN 978-0-201-
02115-8.
Fleisch, Daniel (2008). A Student's
:
 Guide to Maxwell's Equations.
Cambridge, UK: Cambridge
University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-
70147-1.
I.S. Grant; W.R. Phillips; Manchester
Physics (2008). Electromagnetism
(https://archive.org/details/electro
magnetism0000gran) (2nd ed.).
John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-
471-92712-9.
Griffiths, David J. (1998).
Introduction to Electrodynamics (h
ttps://archive.org/details/introducti
ontoel00grif_0) (3rd ed.). Prentice
Hall. ISBN 978-0-13-805326-0.
Jackson, John D. (1998). Classical
:
 Electrodynamics (https://archive.or
g/details/classicalelectro0000jack
_e8g9) (3rd ed.). Wiley.
ISBN 978-0-471-30932-1.
Moliton, André (2007). Basic
electromagnetism and materials (h
ttps://books.google.com/books?id=
2kPAIlxjDJwC&q=fundamental) .
ISBN 978-0-387-30284-3.
{{cite book}}: |work=
ignored (help)
Purcell, Edward M. (1985).
Electricity and Magnetism
Berkeley, Physics Course Volume
2 (2nd ed.). McGraw-Hill.
ISBN 978-0-07-004908-6.
:
 Purcell, Edward M and Morin,
David. (2013). Electricity and
Magnetism, 820p (3rd ed.).
Cambridge University Press, New
York. ISBN 978-1-107-01402-2.
Rao, Nannapaneni N. (1994).
Elements of engineering
electromagnetics (4th ed.).
Prentice Hall. ISBN 978-0-13-
948746-0.
Rothwell, Edward J.; Cloud, Michael
J. (2001). Electromagnetics. CRC
Press. ISBN 978-0-8493-1397-4.
Tipler, Paul (1998). Physics for
Scientists and Engineers: Vol. 2:
Light, Electricity and Magnetism
:
 (4th ed.). W.H. Freeman. ISBN 978-
1-57259-492-0.
Wangsness, Roald K.; Cloud,
Michael J. (1986). Electromagnetic
Fields (2nd ed.). Wiley. ISBN 978-
0-471-81186-2.

General coverage

A. Beiser (1987). Concepts of

Modern Physics (4th ed.).
McGraw-Hill (International).
ISBN 978-0-07-100144-1.
L.H. Greenberg (1978). Physics
with Modern Applications (https://
archive.org/details/physicswithmo
der0000gree) . Holt-Saunders
:
 International W.B. Saunders and
Co. ISBN 978-0-7216-4247-5.
R.G. Lerner; G.L. Trigg (2005).
Encyclopaedia of Physics
(2nd ed.). VHC Publishers, Hans
Warlimont, Springer. pp. 12–13.
ISBN 978-0-07-025734-4.
J.B. Marion; W.F. Hornyak (1984).
Principles of Physics. Holt-
Saunders International Saunders
College. ISBN 978-4-8337-0195-
2.
H.J. Pain (1983). The Physics of
Vibrations and Waves (3rd ed.).
John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-
471-90182-2.
:
 C.B. Parker (1994). McGraw Hill
Encyclopaedia of Physics (https://a
rchive.org/details/mcgrawhillencycl
1993park) (2nd ed.). McGraw Hill.
ISBN 978-0-07-051400-3.
R. Penrose (2007). The Road to
Reality. Vintage books. ISBN 978-
0-679-77631-4.
P.A. Tipler; G. Mosca (2008).
Physics for Scientists and
Engineers: With Modern Physics
(6th ed.). W.H. Freeman and Co.
ISBN 978-1-4292-0265-7.
P.M. Whelan; M.J. Hodgeson
(1978). Essential Principles of
Physics (2nd ed.). John Murray.
:
 ISBN 978-0-7195-3382-2.

External links

Wikiquote has quotations related

to Electromagnetism.
Magnetic Field Strength
Converter (http://www.unitconv
ersion.org/unit_converter/magn
etic-field-strength.html)
Electromagnetic Force (http://s
cienceworld.wolfram.com/physi
cs/ElectromagneticForce.html)
– from Eric Weisstein's World of
Physics
:
 Retrieved from
"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?
title=Electromagnetism&oldid=1169425
802"

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