Electromagnetism Electromagnetism is the physics of the electromagnetic field; a field encompassing all of space which exerts a force on particles

that possess the property of electric charge, and is in turn affected by the presence and motion of those particles. The magnetic field is produced by the motion of electric charges, i.e. electric current. The magnetic field causes the magnetic force associated with magnets. The term "electromagnetism" comes from the fact that electrical and magnetic forces are involved simultaneously. A changing magnetic field produces an electric field (this is the phenomenon of electromagnetic induction, which provides for the operation of electrical generators, induction motors, and transformers). Similarly, a changing electric field generates a magnetic field. Because of this interdependence of the electric and magnetic fields, it makes sense to consider them as a single coherent entity the electromagnetic field. This unification, which was completed by James Clerk Maxwell, and formulated by Oliver Heaviside, is one of the triumphs of 19th century physics. It had far-reaching consequences, one of which was the understanding of the nature of light. As it turns out, what is thought of as "light" is actually a propagating oscillatory disturbance in the electromagnetic field, i.e., an electromagnetic wave. Different frequencies of oscillation give rise to the different forms of electromagnetic radiation, from radio waves at the lowest frequencies, to visible light at intermediate frequencies, to gamma rays at the highest frequencies. The theoretical implications of electromagnetism development of special relativity by Albert Einstein in 1905. The Electromagnetic Force The force that the electromagnetic field exerts on electrically charged particles, called the electromagnetic force, is one of the four fundamental forces. The other fundamental forces are the strong nuclear force (which holds atomic nuclei together), the weak nuclear force (which causes certain forms of radioactive decay), and the gravitational force. All other forces are ultimately derived from these fundamental forces. As it turns out, the electromagnetic force is the one responsible for practically all the phenomena encountered in daily life, with the exception of gravity. Roughly speaking, all the forces involved in interactions between atoms can be traced to the electromagnetic force acting on the electrically charged protons and electrons inside the atoms. This includes the forces we experience in "pushing" or "pulling" ordinary material objects, which come from the intermolecular forces between the individual molecules in our led to the

bodies and those in the objects. It also includes all forms of chemical phenomena, which arise from interactions between electron orbitals. According to modern electromagnetic theory, electromagnetic forces are mediated by the transfer of virtual photons. Classical Electrodynamics The scientist William Gilbert proposed, in his De Magnete (1600), that electricity and magnetism, while both capable of causing attraction and repulsion of objects, were distinct effects. Mariners had noticed that lightning strikes had the ability to disturb a compass needle, but the link between lightning and electricity was not confirmed until Benjamin Franklin's proposed experiments in 1752. One of the first to discover and publish a link between man-made electric current and magnetism was Romagnosi, who in 1802 noticed that connecting a wire across a Voltaic pile deflected a nearby compass needle. However, the effect did not become widely known until 1820, when rsted performed a similar experiment. rsted's work influenced Ampre to produce a theory of electromagnetism that set the subject on a mathematical foundation. An accurate theory of electromagnetism, known as classical electromagnetism, was developed by various physicists over the course of the 19th century, culminating in the work of James Clerk Maxwell, who unified the preceding developments into a single theory and discovered the electromagnetic nature of light. In classical electromagnetism, the electromagnetic field obeys a set of equations known as Maxwell's equations, and the electromagnetic force is given by the Lorentz force law. One of the peculiarities of classical electromagnetism is that it is difficult to reconcile with classical mechanics, but it is compatible with special relativity. According to Maxwell's equations, the speed of light is a universal constant, dependent only on the electrical permittivity and magnetic permeability of the vacuum. This violates Galilean invariance, a long-standing cornerstone of classical mechanics. One way to reconcile the two theories is to assume the existence of a luminiferous aether through which the light propagates. However, subsequent experimental efforts failed to detect the presence of the aether. In 1905, Albert Einstein solved the problem with the introduction of special relativity, which replaces classical kinematics with a new theory of kinematics that is compatible with classical electromagnetism. In addition, relativity theory shows that in moving frames of reference a magnetic field transforms to a field with a nonzero electric component and vice versa; thus firmly showing that they are two sides of the same coin, and thus the term "electromagnetism".

The Photoelectric Effect In another paper published in that same year, Einstein undermined the very foundations of classical electromagnetism. His theory of the photoelectric effect (for which he won the Nobel prize for physics) posited that light could exist in discrete particle-like quantities, which later came to be known as photons. Einstein's theory of the photoelectric effect extended the insights that appeared in the solution of the ultraviolet catastrophe presented by Max Planck in 1900. In his work, Planck showed that hot objects emit electromagnetic radiation in discrete packets, which leads to a finite total energy emitted as black body radiation. Both of these results were in direct contradiction with the classical view of light as a continuous wave. Planck's and Einstein's theories were progenitors of quantum mechanics, which, when formulated in 1925, necessitated the invention of a quantum theory of electromagnetism. This theory, completed in the 1940s, is known as quantum electrodynamics (or "QED"), and is one of the most accurate theories known to physics. Definition The term electrodynamics is sometimes used to refer to the combination of electromagnetism with mechanics, and deals with the effects of the electromagnetic field on the dynamic behavior of electrically charged particles. Electricity Electricity (from Greek (electron) "amber") is a general term for the variety of phenomena resulting from the presence and flow of electric charge. Together with magnetism, it constitutes the fundamental interaction known as electromagnetism. It includes many well-known physical phenomena such as lightning, electromagnetic fields and electric currents, and is put to use in industrial applications such as electronics and electric power. In casual usage, the term electricity is applied to several related concepts that are better identified by more precise terms:

Electric potential - the capacity of an electric field to do work, typically measured in volts. Electric current - a movement or flow of electrically charged particles, typically measured in amperes. Electric field - an effect produced by an electric charge that exerts a force on charged objects in its vicinity. Electrical energy - the energy made available by the flow of electric charge through an electrical conductor.

Electric power - the rate at which electric energy is converted to or from another energy form, such as light, heat, or mechanical energy. Electric charge - a fundamental conserved property of some subatomic particles, which determines their electromagnetic interactions. Electrically charged matter is influenced by, and produces, electromagnetic fields.

History of electricity The ancient Greek and Parthian civilizations knew of static electricity from rubbing objects against fur. The Parthians may have had some knowledge of electroplating, based on the discovery of the Baghdad Battery, which resembles a Galvanic cell. Benjamin Franklin conducted extensive research in electricity. His theories on the relationship between lightning and static electricity, including his famous kite-flying experiment, sparked the interest of later scientists whose work provided the basis for modern electrical technology. Most notably these include Luigi Galvani (17371798), Alessandro Volta (17451827), Michael Faraday (17911867), Andr-Marie Ampre (17751836), and Georg Simon Ohm (1789-1854). The late 19th and early 20th century produced such giants of electrical engineering as Nikola Tesla, Samuel Morse, Antonio Meucci, Thomas Edison, George Westinghouse, Werner von Siemens, Charles Steinmetz, and Alexander Graham Bell. Electric charge Electric charge is a property of certain subatomic particles (e.g., electrons and protons) which interacts with electromagnetic fields and causes attractive and repulsive forces between them. Electric charge gives rise to one of the four fundamental forces of nature, and is a conserved property of matter that can be quantified. In this sense, the phrase "quantity of electricity" is used interchangeably with the phrases "charge of electricity" and "quantity of charge". There are two types of charge: we call one kind of charge positive and the other negative. Through experimentation, we find that like-charged objects repel and opposite-charged objects attract one another. The magnitude of the force of attraction or repulsion is given by Coulomb's law. Electric field

Michael Faraday The concept of electric fields was introduced by Michael Faraday. The electrical field force acts between two charges, in the same way that the gravitational field force acts between two masses. However, the electric field is a little bit different. Gravitational force depends on the masses of two bodies, whereas electric force depends on the electric charges of two bodies. While gravity can only pull masses together, the electric force can be an attractive or repulsive force. If both charges are of same sign (e.g. both positive), there will be a repulsive force between the two. If the charges are opposite, there will be an attractive force between the two bodies. The magnitude of the force varies inversely with the square of the distance between the two bodies, and is also proportional to the product of the unsigned magnitudes of the two charges. Electric potential The electric potential difference between two points is defined as the work done (against electrical forces) per unit of charge in moving a positive point charge slowly between two points. If one of the points is taken to be a reference point with zero potential, then the electric potential at any point can be defined in terms of the work done per unit charge in moving a positive point charge from that reference point to the point at which the potential is to be determined. For isolated charges, the reference point is usually taken to be infinity. The potential is measured in volts. (1 volt = 1 joule/coulomb) The electric potential is analogous to temperature: there is a different temperature at every point in space, and the temperature gradient indicates the direction and magnitude of the driving force behind heat flow. Similarly, there is an electric potential at every point in space, and its gradient indicates the direction and magnitude of the driving force behind charge movement. Electric current

Nikola Tesla An electric current is a flow of electric charge, and its intensity is measured in amperes. Examples of electric currents include metallic conduction, where electrons flow through a conductor or conductors such as a metal wire, and electrolysis, where ions (charged atoms) flow through liquids. The particles themselves often move quite slowly, while the electric field that drives them propagates at close to the speed of light. See electrical conduction for more information. Devices that use charge flow principles in materials are called electronic devices. A direct current (DC) is a unidirectional flow, while an alternating current (AC) reverses direction repeatedly. The time average of an alternating current is zero, but its energy capability (RMS value) is not zero. Ohm's Law is an important relationship describing the behaviour of electric currents, relating them to voltage. For historical reasons, electric current is said to flow from the most positive part of a circuit to the most negative part. The electric current thus defined is called conventional current. It is now known that, depending on the conditions, an electric current can consist of a flow of charged particles in either direction, or even in both directions at once. The positive-to-negative convention is widely used to simplify this situation. If another definition is used - for example, "electron current" - it should be explicitly stated. Electrical energy Electrical energy is energy stored in an electric field or transported by an electric current. Energy is defined as the ability to do work, and electrical energy is simply one of the many types of energy. Examples of electrical energy include:

the energy that is constantly stored in the Earth's atmosphere, and is partly released during a thunderstorm in the form of lightning the energy that is stored in the coils of an electrical generator in a power station, and is then transmitted by wires to the consumer; the consumer then pays for each unit of energy received the energy that is stored in a capacitor, and can be released to drive a current through an electrical circuit

Electric power Electric power is the rate at which electrical energy is produced or consumed, and is measured in watts (symbol is: W).

A nuclear power station. A fossil-fuel, solar-thermal, nuclear or biomass power station converts heat to electrical energy, and the faster the station burns fuel, assuming positively-sloped efficiency of conversion, the higher its power output. The output of a power station is usually specified in megawatts (millions of watts). The electrical energy is then sent over transmission lines to reach the consumers. Every consumer uses appliances that convert the electrical energy to other forms of energy, such as heat (in electric arc furnaces and electric heaters), light (in light bulbs and fluorescent lamps), or motion, i.e. kinetic energy (in electric motors). Like the power station, each appliance is also rated in watts, depending on the rate at which it converts electrical energy into another form. The power station must produce electrical energy at the same rate as all the connected appliances consume it. In electrical engineering, the concepts of apparent power and reactive power are also used. Apparent power is the product of RMS voltage and RMS current, and is measured in volt-amperes (VA). Reactive power is measured in volt-amperes-reactive (VAr). Non-nuclear electric power is categorized as either green or brown electricity.

Green power is a cleaner alternative energy source in comparison to traditional sources, and is derived from renewable energy resources that do not produce any nuclear waste; examples include energy produced from wind, water, solar, thermal, hydro, combustible renewables and waste. Some, however, argue that nuclear energy is also a form of "clean" energy, and is one of the many ways future generations will supply themselves with energy. Modern day nuclear power techniques have been able to greatly minimize nuclear waste output from nuclear plants. Electricity from coal, oil, and natural gas is known as traditional power or "brown" electricity. Electrical phenomena in nature Matter: since atoms and molecules are held together by electric forces. Lightning: electrical discharges in the atmosphere. The Earth's magnetic field created by electric currents circulating in the planet's core. Sometimes due to solar flares, a phenomenon known as a power surge can be created. Piezoelectricity: the ability of certain crystals to generate a voltage in response to applied mechanical stress. Triboelectricity: electric charge taken on by contact or friction between two different materials. Bioelectromagnetism: electrical phenomena within living organisms. o Bioelectricity Many animals are sensitive to electric fields, some (e.g., sharks) more than others (e.g., people). Most also generate their own electric fields. Gymnotiformes, such as the electric eel, deliberately generate strong fields to detect or stun their prey. Neurons in the nervous system transmit information by electrical impulses known as action potentials. Magnetism In physics, magnetism is one of the phenomena by which materials exert an attractive or repulsive force on other materials. Some well known materials that exhibit easily detectable magnetic properties are iron, some steels, and the mineral lodestone; however, all materials are influenced to greater or lesser degree by the presence of a magnetic field. History In China, the earliest literary reference to magnetism lies in a 4th century BC book called Book of the Devil Valley Master ( ): "The lodestone makes iron come or it attracts it."[1] The earliest mention of the attraction of a needle appears in a work composed between 20 and 100 AD (Louen-heng): "A lodestone attracts a needle." [2] By the 12th century the Chinese were known to use the lodestone compass for navigation. Far earlier

Magnetotactic bacteria had evolved to build miniature magnets inside themselves and use them to establish their orientation relative to the Earth's magnetic field [1]. Physics of magnetism Magnetic forces are forces that arise from the movement of electrical charge. Maxwell's equations and the Biot-Savart law describe the origin and behavior of the fields that govern these forces. Thus, magnetism is seen whenever electrically charged particles are in motion. This can arise either from movement of electrons in an electric current, resulting in "electromagnetism", or from the quantum-mechanical spin and orbital motion of electrons, resulting in what are known as "permanent magnets". Electron spin is the dominant effect within atoms. The so-called 'orbital motion' of electrons around the nucleus is a secondary effect that slightly modifies the magnetic field created by spin. The magnetic force is actually due [3] to the finite speed (the speed of light) of a disturbance of the electric field which gives rise to forces that appear to be acting along a line at right angles to the charges. In effect, the magnetic force is the portion of the electric force directed to where the charge used to be. For this reason magnetism can be considered to be basically an electric force that is a direct consequence of relativity. Charged particle in a magnetic field When a charged particle moves through a magnetic field B, it feels a force F given by the cross product:

where

is the electric charge of the particle, is the magnetic field.

is the velocity vector of the

particle, and

Because this is a cross product, the force is perpendicular to both the motion of the particle and the magnetic field. It follows that the magnetic force does no work on the particle; it may change the direction of the particle's movement, but it cannot cause it to speed up or slow down. One tool for determining the direction of the velocity vector of a moving charge, the magnetic field, and the force exerted is labeling the index finger "V", the middle finger "B", and the thumb "F" with your right hand. When making a gun-like configuration (with the middle finger crossing under the index finger), the fingers represent the velocity vector, magnetic field vector, and force vector, respectively. See also right hand rule. Magnetic dipoles

Normally, magnetic fields are seen as dipoles, having a "South pole" and a "North pole"; terms dating back to the use of magnets as compasses, interacting with the Earth's magnetic field to indicate North and South on the globe. Since opposite ends of magnets are attracted, the 'north' magnetic pole of the earth must be magnetically 'south'. A magnetic field contains energy, and physical systems stabilize into the configuration with the lowest energy. Therefore, when placed in a magnetic field, a magnetic dipole tends to align itself in opposed polarity to that field, thereby canceling the net field strength as much as possible and lowering the energy stored in that field to a minimum. For instance, two identical bar magnets normally line up North to South resulting in no net magnetic field, and resist any attempts to reorient them to point in the same direction. The energy required to reorient them in that configuration is then stored in the resulting magnetic field, which is double the strength of the field of each individual magnet. (This is, of course, why a magnet used as a compass interacts with the Earth's magnetic field to indicate North and South). Magnetic monopoles The modern understanding of magnetism posits that all magnetic effects are actually due to relativistic effects [4] caused by relative motion between the observer and the charged particles. Since all magnetism is caused by moving charges, all magnets are in fact electromagnets. Even atoms have a tiny field. In the planetary model of an atom, the electrons orbit the nucleus and thus have a change in motion giving rise to a magnetic field. Permanent magnets have measurable magnetic fields because the atoms (and molecules) are arranged in a way that their individual tiny fields align and add up. In this model, the lack of a single pole makes intuitive sense; cutting a bar magnet in half does nothing to the arrangement of the molecules within, and you end up with two bars with the same arrangement, and thus the same field. This also explains how heating or simply hitting a magnet made from a soft material will degauss it, as the molecules within are moved about. Since all known forms of magnetic phenomena involve the motion of electrically charged particles, and since no theory suggests that "pole" is, in that context, a thing rather than a convenient fiction, it may well be that nothing that could be called a magnetic monopole exists or ever did or could. Contrary to normal experience, some theoretical physics models predict the existence of magnetic monopoles. Paul Dirac observed in 1931 that, because electricity and magnetism show a certain symmetry, just as quantum theory predicts that individual positive or negative electric charges can be observed without the opposing charge, isolated South or North magnetic poles should be observable. In practice, however, although charged

particles like protons and electrons can be easily isolated as individual electrical charges, magnetic south and north poles have never been found in isolation. Using quantum theory Dirac showed that if magnetic monopoles exist, then one could explain why the observed elementary particles carry charges that are multiples of the charge of the electron. In modern elementary particle theory, the quantization of charge is realized in a spontaneous breakdown of a non-abelian gauge symmetry. Monopoles predicted in certain grand unified theories differ from the one originally thought of by Dirac. These monopoles, unlike elementary particles, are solitons, which are localized energy packets. If they exist at all, they contradict cosmological observations. A solution to this monopole problem in cosmology gave rise to the currently-interesting idea of inflation.

Atomic magnetic dipoles The physical cause of the magnetism of objects, as distinct from electrical currents, is the atomic magnetic dipole. Magnetic dipoles, or magnetic moments, result on the atomic scale from the two kinds of movement of electrons. The first is the orbital motion of the electron around the nucleus; this motion can be considered as a current loop, resulting in an orbital dipole magnetic moment along the axis of the nucleus. The second, much stronger, source of electronic magnetic moment is due to a quantum mechanical property called the spin dipole magnetic moment (although current quantum mechanical theory states that electrons neither physically spin, nor orbit the nucleus).

Dipole moment of a bar magnet. The overall magnetic moment of the atom is the net sum of all of the magnetic moments of the individual electrons. Because of the tendency of magnetic dipoles to oppose each other to reduce the net energy, in an atom the opposing magnetic moments of some pairs of electrons cancel each other, both in orbital motion and in spin magnetic moments. Thus, in the case of an atom with a completely filled electron shell or subshell, the magnetic moments normally completely cancel each other out and only atoms with partially-filled electron shells have a magnetic moment, whose strength depends on the number of unpaired electrons. The differences in configuration of the electrons in various elements thus determine the nature and magnitude of the atomic magnetic moments, which in turn determine the differing magnetic properties of various

materials. Several forms of magnetic behavior have been observed in different materials, including:

Diamagnetism Paramagnetism o Molecular magnet Ferromagnetism o Antiferromagnetism o Ferrimagnetism o Metamagnetism Spin glass Superparamagnetism

Magnetars, stars with extremely powerful magnetic fields, are also known to exist.

Types of magnets Electromagnets Electromagnets are useful in cases where a magnet must be switched on or off; for instance, large cranes to lift junked automobiles. For the case of electric current moving through a wire, the resulting field is directed according to the "right hand rule." If the right hand is used as a model, and the thumb of the right hand points along the wire from positive towards the negative side ("conventional current", the reverse of the direction of actual movement of electrons), then the magnetic field will wrap around the wire in the direction indicated by the fingers of the right hand. As can be seen geometrically, if a loop or helix of wire is formed such that the current is traveling in a circle, then all of the field lines in the center of the loop are directed in the same direction, resulting in a magnetic dipole whose strength depends on the current around the loop, or the current in the helix multiplied by the number of turns of wire. In the case of such a loop, if the fingers of the right hand are directed in the direction of conventional current flow (i.e., positive to negative, the opposite direction to the actual flow of electrons), the thumb will point in the direction corresponding to the North pole of the dipole. Permanent and temporary magnets Permanent and temporary magnets are alike in that they do not require another influence to create their magnetic field, they rely on magnetic poles. There are always two poles, a north and a south. Even by cutting a magnet in numerous pieces you will not get a magnetic monopole,

you will get many abated magnets. A helpful way to think of it is to think of a line of pencils, all facing the same way. each has a sharp end and an eraser end, or a north and south end. If you diverse that line into two lines each line will still have a sharp side and eraser side. A permanent magnet differs from a temporary magnet in that a temprary magnet is simply temporary. Stroking a metal onto a magnetized material such as magnetite (a naturally magnetized mineral) would turn the metal into a ferromagnetic material. Permanent magnets that contain other materials such as those in strong magnets, are difficult to magnetize, but tend to keep its magnetism for a greater period. Permanent magnets may be metals such as steel, and iron, natural minerals such as magnetite, or even plastic magnets. Although they are called permanent they are not completely permanent, if dropped, heated, or struck against a hard object at a fast speed the magnetic domains within the magnet may shift out of alignment causing the magnet to become debilitated. There are two types of rare-earth magnets:

Neodymium magnets - made from sintered neodymium, iron and small amounts of boron; the most powerful and affordable. Samarium-cobalt magnets (SmCo5) are less common than neodymium magnets, are not as strong, and are more expensive, but they have a higher curie point, making them more applicable for situations when they will be under intense heat.

Magnetic metallic elements Many materials have unpaired electron spins, but the majority of these materials are paramagnetic. When the spins interact with each other in such a way that the spins align spontaneously, the materials are called ferromagnetic (what is often loosely termed as "magnetic"). Due to the way their regular crystalline atomic structure causes their spins to interact, some metals are (ferro)magnetic when found in their natural states, as ores. These include iron ore (magnetite or lodestone), cobalt, zinc and nickel, as well the rare earth metals gadolinium and dysprosium (when at a very low temperature). Such naturally occurring (ferro)magnets were used in the first experiments with magnetism. Technology has since expanded the availability of magnetic materials to include various manmade products, all based, however, on naturally magnetic elements. Ceramic or ferrite Ceramic, or ferrite, magnets are made of a sintered composite of powdered iron oxide and barium/strontium carbonate ceramic. Due to the low cost of the materials and manufacturing methods, inexpensive magnets (or nonmagnetized ferromagnetic cores, for use in electronic component such as radio antennas, for example) of various shapes can be easily mass produced.

The resulting magnets are noncorroding, but brittle and must be treated like other ceramics. Alnico Alnico magnets are made by casting or sintering a combination of aluminium, nickel and cobalt with iron and small amounts of other elements added to enhance the properties of the magnet. Sintering offers superior mechanical characteristics, whereas casting delivers higher magnetic fields and allows for the design of intricate shapes. Alnico magnets resist corrosion and have physical properties more forgiving than ferrite, but not quite as desirable as a metal. Injection molded Injection molded magnets are a composite of various types of resin and magnetic powders, allowing parts of complex shapes to be manufactured by injection molding. The physical and magnetic properties of the product depend on the raw materials, but are generally lower in magnetic strength and resemble plastics in their physical properties.

Flexible Flexible magnets are similar to injection molded magnets, using a flexible resin or binder such as vinyl, and produced in flat strips or sheets. These magnets are lower in magnetic strength but can be very flexible, depending on the binder used. Rare earth magnets 'Rare earth' (lanthanoid) elements have a partially occupied f electron shell (which can accommodate up to 14 electrons.) The spin of these electrons can be aligned, resulting in very strong magnetic fields, and therefore these elements are used in compact high-strength magnets where their higher price is not a factor. Samarium-cobalt Samarium-cobalt magnets are highly resistant to oxidation, with higher magnetic strength and temperature resistance than alnico or ceramic materials. Sintered samarium-cobalt magnets are brittle and prone to chipping and cracking and may fracture when subjected to thermal shock. Neodymium-iron-boron (NIB) Neodymium magnets, more formally referred to as neodymium-ironboron (NdFeB) magnets, have the highest magnetic field strength, but are

inferior to samarium cobalt in resistance to oxidation and temperature. This type of magnet has traditionally been expensive, due to both the cost of raw materials and licensing of the patents involved. This high cost limited their use to applications where such high strengths from a compact magnet are critical. Use of protective surface treatments such as gold, nickel, zinc and tin plating and epoxy resin coating can provide corrosion protection where required. Beginning in the 1980s, NIB magnets have increasingly become less expensive and more popular in other applications such as controversial children's magnetic building toys. Even tiny neodymium magnets are very powerful and have important safety considerations. [5] Single-molecule magnets (SMMs) and single-chain magnets (SCMs) In the 1990s it was discovered that certain molecules containing paramagnetic metal ions are capable of storing a magnetic moment at very low temperatures. These are very different from conventional magnets that store information at a "domain" level and theoretically could provide a far denser storage medium than conventional magnets. In this direction research on monolayers of SMMs is currently under way. Very briefly, the two main attributes of an SMM are:

1. a large ground state spin value (S), which is provided by ferromagnetic

Most SMM's contain manganese, but can also be found with vanadium, iron, nickel and cobalt clusters. More recently it has been found that some chain systems can also display a magnetization which persists for long times at relatively higher temperatures. These systems have been called singlechain magnets. Nano-structured magnets Some nano-structured materials exhibit energy waves called magnons that coalesce into a common ground state in the manner of a Bose-Einstein condensate. Electromagnetic induction Electromagnetic induction is the production of voltage across a conductor situated in a changing magnetic field or a conductor moving through a stationary magnetic field. Discovery Michael Faraday is generally credited with having discovered the induction phenomenon in 1831 though it may have been anticipated by the work of Francesco Zantedeschi in 1829. Around 1830 [1] to 1832 [2] Joseph Henry made a similar discovery, but did not publish his findings until later.

Findings Faraday found that the electromotive force (EMF) produced around a closed path is proportional to the rate of change of the magnetic flux through any surface bounded by that path. In practice, this means that an electrical current will be induced in any closed circuit when the magnetic flux through a surface bounded by the conductor changes. This applies whether the field itself changes in strength or the conductor is moved through it. Electromagnetic induction underlies the operation of generators, induction motors, transformers, and most other electrical machines. Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction states that:

, where is the electromotive force (emf) in volts B is the magnetic flux in webers For the common but special case of a coil of wire, comprised of N loops with the same area, Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction states that

where is the electromotive force (emf) in volts N is the number of turns of wire (per metre) B is the magnetic flux in webers through a single loop. Further, Lenz's law gives the direction of the induced emf, thus: The emf induced in an electric circuit always acts in such a direction that the current it drives around the circuit opposes the change in magnetic flux which produces the emf. Lenz's law is therefore responsible for the minus sign in the above equation. Applications

The principles of electromagnetic induction are applied in many devices and systems, including:

Induction Sealing Induction motors Electrical generators Transformers Contactless charging of rechargeable batteries Induction cookers Induction welding Inductors Electromagnetic forming Magnetic flow meters Transcranial magnetic stimulation Faraday Flashlight Graphics tablet