M33 Mazu0536 01 Ism C33

RAY OPTICS
33
Questions and Problems
33.1. (a) Light from all sources (a-h) strikes A. Light will emanate radially outward from all sources, and there
exists a straight line path (ray) from each light to detector A. (b) Now there is a possibility that light from some
sources might not reach detector B, because it might lie in the shadow of detector A. Note that a line from the right-
⎛ Δx ⎞ −1 ⎛ (0.29 m) ⎞
most edge of detector A to the right-most edge of detector B makes an angle θ max = tan −1 ⎜ ⎟ = tan ⎜ ⎟
⎝ Δ y ⎠ ⎝ (0.20 m) ⎠
= 55.4 ° with the vertical. If a ray from a source passes the right-most edge of detector A at an angle smaller than
this, it will strike detector A. If light from a source passes the right-most edge of detector A at an angle greater than
this, it will miss the detector. One can determine the maximum horizontal distance from the right most edge of
detector A where a source could be placed, or one could simply check a few sources to see if they work. Simple
geometry shows
⎛ Δx ⎞ ⎛ (0.41 m) ⎞
θ A = tan −1 ⎜ A ⎟ = tan −1 ⎜ ⎟ = 64.0° > θ max
Δ
⎝ A⎠y ⎝ (0.20 m) ⎠
⎛ Δ xB ⎞ −1 ⎛ (0.31 m) ⎞
θ B = tan −1 ⎜ ⎟ = tan ⎜ ⎟ = 57.2 ° > θ max
Δ
⎝ B⎠y ⎝ (0.20 m) ⎠
⎛ Δx ⎞ ⎛ (0.21 m) ⎞
θ C = tan −1 ⎜ C ⎟ = tan −1 ⎜ ⎟ = 46.4° < θ max
⎝ ΔyC ⎠ ⎝ (0.20 m) ⎠
Since the angles for all subsequent sources will be smaller than this, we can say with confidence that light from six
sources (c-h) strikes B. Light from sources a and b is obscured by detector A and cannot reach detector B.
33.2. Since rays of light reach the same points on the screen and originate from the same source location, the
outermost rays of light make the same angle with the z axis as when the first sheet was used. Call this widest angle
at which rays of light pass through the hole in the cardboard θ max . Call the side length of square hole in the
first piece of cardboard A 1 , and that in the second piece A 2 . Call the side length of the bright image on the screen
A1 A A Δz2 A 1
A screen . Since θ max,1 = θ max,2 , we can say tan(θ max,1 ) = tan(θ max,2 ) ⇒ = screen = 2 . Thus A2 =
Δ z1 Δ zscreen Δ z2 Δ z1
(0.25 m)(0.040 m)
= = 0.020 m. Because the hole is a square, the side length could refer to either the height or the
(0.50 m)
width, so the dimensions are (0.020 m) × (0.020 m).
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33-1
33-2 Chapter 33
33.3. (a) Consider the figure below. Note that the dimensions of the hole in the screen have been somewhat
exaggerated for clarity of the picture.
Because ray 1 travels the same distance in z before reaching the hole and between the hole and the screen, it will
travel the same distance along the x axis before reaching the hole and between the hole and the screen. Clearly this
distance along the x axis is 135 mm (from x = 150 mm to x = 15 mm). 135 mm to the left of the right-most edge
of the hole corresponds to x = −120 mm on the screen. Similarly, ray 2 travels 165 mm parallel to the x axis before
reaching the hole, and will reach a point on the screen x = − 180 mm. Thus the width of the image in the x direction
is 60 mm.
Similar arguments demonstrate that the highest (in the y direction) ray that passes through the hole will travel
15 mm parallel to the y axis on the way to the hole, and another 15 mm parallel to the y axis between the hole
and the screen, meaning it will strike the screen at a position y = 30 mm. Similarly, the lowest ray of light that
passes through the hole will strike the screen at the position y = − 30 mm. Thus, the dimensions of the bright image
on the screen are (60 mm) × (60 mm). (b) The points that mark the corners of the perimeter are (–120 mm, 30 mm),
(–120 mm, –30 mm), (–180 mm, 30 mm), (–180 mm, –30 mm). Alternatively, one could express the perimeter as the
lines x = −120 mm, x = − 180 mm, y = − 30 mm, and y = 30 mm.
33.4. (a) Consider the figure below, in which the distances and sizes of objects have been drastically altered for
clarity of geometry.
The umbra is nearly a half of a spherical shell, with the half of Earth farthest from the sun being in shadow. However,
the fact that the sun is so much larger than Earth means that light emitted from the very outer edge of the sun may
strike Earth slightly on the far side of Earth. Let the z axis point directly from the center of the sun through the
center of the Earth, exiting the Earth on its dark side (the center of the umbra). The umbra extends across all points
on the surface of the Earth from an angle of 0° from this z axis, to some angle very close to 90 °. We calculate the
small angle away from 90° at which light may still strike the distant side of Earth (θ in the figure above). Simple
geometry shows that this small angle is the same as the angle from the z axis to the outer edge of the sun:
Ray Optics 33-3
⎛ RSun − REarth ⎞ −1 ⎛ (7 × 10 m) − (6.738 × 10 m) ⎞

8 6
θ = tan −1 ⎜ ⎟ = tan ⎜ ⎟ = 0.27°. Thus, the umbra extends across all points
⎝ DEarth-Sun ⎠ ⎝ (1.496 × 10 m)
11
⎠
on the surface of Earth from an angle of 0° from the z axis to 89.73° from the z axis. Equivalently, the umbra is
0.27° shy of being a complete half-sphere.
The penumbra is a band of Earth’s surface having an angular width of 0.53°. This is simply twice the angle obtained
in part (a), because we must consider light from the opposite side of the sun. This angular spread is equivalent to a
band with a width of approximately 60 km. (b) A person can see part of the sun from the penumbra. Geometrically
speaking, one cannot see the sun from the umbra, although light is bent significantly by Earth’s atmosphere. There
may be a very narrow region of the umbra in which the geometry of the solar system is not sufficient to explain why
one can see some sunlight. One would have to consider the index of refraction of the atmosphere at different
altitudes.
33.5. (a) In model A, light leaves the surface of the bulb radially outward from the center of the bulb. In model B,
light leaves the bulb radially outward from a few specific points on the bulb.(b) Experiments could be done to see if
there were a few key points emitting most of the light (such as the four points shown in the figure). An example of
such an experiment would be to place a 2-sided solar panel pointed directly at the center of the light. If you move the
panel around the surface (taking care to keep its length normal to the surface of the bulb) a disparity in the voltages
produced by the panels on either side would indicate a region of higher intensity on one side than the other. If,
however, the figure is suggesting that a continuum of points along the surface of the bulb can be thought of as
emitting light (rather than the light emanating from the center of the bulb) then there is no experiment that can
distinguish models A and B. This is Huygens’ Principle.
33.6. Assume a vertex of the triangle points vertically upward. The bright region would be shaped like a tall
rectangle with a pointed top, as shown below.
33.7. We are not told anything about the size of the hole. Let us initially assume that it is large on the scale of light
rays ( several millimeters or larger). In this case, light from throughout the flame would pass through the large hole
and produce a bright spot in roughly the same of a circle. The position of the circle may fluctuate as variations in the
candle’s flame cause the brightest spot to move slightly. The boundary of the circle would not be sharp, as light
comes from a 1-3 cm region of flame, rather than a single point source. If, instead, the hole is extremely small then
(relatively) few light rays from a given region of the flame could pass through the hole. Consider two parts of the
flame: region A and region B, with region B being higher than region A. Any rays of light from region A that passes
through the hole will be nearly parallel, and will strike the screen in a small well-defined region. Also, simple
geometry tells us that light rays from region B will strike the screen below the light rays from region A. This
argument could be extended to describe light coming from many such regions of the flames. Bright regions would
produce bright images on the screen, reddish regions would produce reddish regions on the screen, and so on,
meaning that an image of the entire flame as a whole will appear on the screen. But as we noted with points A and B,
the image must be inverted. If the candlestick or other nearby objects were very strongly illuminated, their images
might also appear on the screen. This setup is known as a “pinhole camera”.
33.8.
33-4 Chapter 33
33.9.
33.10. The shirt is actually reflecting blue light. The shirt absorbs colors in the visible spectrum that are not blue.
The “blueness” that the students sees is not in the shirt, nor did it originate in the shirt.
33.11. Consider the figure below.
The rays drawn are the right-most and left-most rays that can be reflected by the mirror. We can describe the left-
1
most line by y = − 2 x, and the right-most line by y = ( x − 4), but only after the rays have been reflected. Thus the
3
positions in the y direction at which the image can be seen for a given
⎧x > 4 y > ( x − 4)/3
⎪
x : ⎨0 < x < 4 all y > 0
⎪x < 0 y > −x
⎩
33.12.
33.13. The reason we obtain a different result for viewing objects in a mirror as compared to viewing your own
image, is that when viewing yourself the object distance and image distance is always the same. When viewing
distant objects, the image distance and object distance can be drastically different. Assume you are looking into a
mirror at the distant object behind you. Call the distance from you to the distant object d o , call the distance from you
to the mirror d m , call the height of the distant object ho , and call the height of the mirror hm . Consider the angles of
incidence and reflection for an arbitrary ray of light striking the mirror. Since they are identical, we can write
Δyobject-mirror Δy
= tan(θi ) = tan(θ r ) = eye-mirror (1)
Δ xobject-mirror Δ xeye-mirror
Ray Optics 33-5
We can apply equation (1) to the highest ray and the lowest ray that make it from the object (reflecting off the mirror)
and to the eye. This yields
Δ xeye-mirror d
Δ yeye-mirror,highest = Δ yobject-mirror,highest = i Δyobject-mirror,highest (2)
Δxobject-mirror do
Δ xeye-mirror di
Δ yeye-mirror,lowest = Δyobject-mirror,lowest = Δ yobject-mirror,lowest (3)
Δ xobject-mirror do
The highest ray and the lowest ray making it to the eye will cover a combined distance
Δ yeye-mirror,highest + Δ yeye-mirror,lowest = hm , and we are requiring that these rays can come from the entire height of the
distant object, so Δ yobject-mirror,highest + Δ yobject-mirror,lowest + hm = ho . Using these facts and adding equations (2) and (3), we
obtain
di d dh
hm,min = Δ yeye-mirror,lowest + Δyeye-mirror,highest = (Δyobject-mirror,lowest + Δ yobject-mirror,highest )= i (ho − hm,min ) ⇒ hm,min = i o
do do di + do
33.14. If the image appears to be 2.0 m behind the mirror, then the object is 2.0 m in front of the mirror. This means
the flashlight is 1.0 m behind you. Heights and distances parallel to the plane of the mirror should be preserved, so
the flashlight is 1.0 m above your head, and 3.0 m to your right.
33.15. There may be many correct answers. Let us suppose at first that we are interested in planar mirrors only. We
might first try a very qualitative example. In that case, we might stand 1.0 m from a mirror and reach one hand out
toward the mirror. If we slowly approach the mirror with outstretched fingers, hopefully our friend will agree that the
reflection appears to get closer and closer to the actual fingers (approaching the plane of the mirror). If the reflection
is approaching the plane of the mirror from behind, then clearly the image is behind the mirror by at least some small
distance. Alternatively, we could get quantitative by taking two laser pointers, with a small fixed angle between
them. Shining both laser pointers into the mirror would result in two reflected beams that continue to spread out. By
measuring where the beams strike a nearby wall, and measuring where the bright spots on the glass of the mirror
occur, you can determine the distance to the image. You will find that the image is behind the mirror. If we are not
restricted to planar mirrors, we could demonstrate the difference between a real image and a virtual image by casting
a real image onto a screen. Then place a screen on the mirror’s surface. Note that no visible image appears on the
screen. Hence, the image is not being formed at the mirror’s surface.
33.16. (a) Both the boy and his reflection approach the mirror at a speed of 1.0 m/s. (b) The woman approaches the
boy at 1.0 m/s, whereas his reflection approaches him at 2.0 m/s. This is because he and the mirror move closer
together at a rate of 1.0 m/s, and the same is true of his reflection.
33.17. (a) The image of the moon contains all the same features, regardless of what reflective surface is used to
view it. The image of the moon should not change size, significantly. But the surface area of reflective material
required to view the entire image will change. (b) For a planar mirror, the image size is determined by the distance
light travels from the object to your eye (from your eye to the reflecting surface, and by the distance from the
reflecting surface to the object being viewed) and by the size of the original object. Because the Earth-moon distance
is so much larger than any plausible distance from your eye to a reflecting surface, the size of the image will not
change substantially. But the surface area of the reflective material required for you to see the object does depend on
the distance from your eye to the surface. The figures below show you viewing the moon with your eyes about a
meter from a reflecting surface, and just a few centimeters from the surface. Note that the image is unchanged, but
the length of the reflecting surface required is very different.
33-6 Chapter 33
33.18. (a) Light from the top of your hat strikes the very top of the mirror and reflects to your eyes. Since the angles
of incidence and reflection are the same, such a ray of light must cross half the vertical distance to eyes on the way to
the mirror, and half the vertical distance on the way from the mirror to the eyes. Thus, the vertical distance from the
top of the mirror to the eyes is half the distance from the eyes to the top of the hat. The top of the mirror is 55.0 mm
above the eyes. (b) By the same arguments as in (a), light from the belt buckle will travel half the vertical distance to
the eyes before striking the mirror, and half the distance after striking the mirror. Thus, it must strike the bottom edge
of the mirror 400 mm below the eyes. Since the bottom edge is 400 mm below the eyes and the top edge is 55 mm
above the eyes, the entire height of the mirror is 455 mm.
33.19. The shadow is smaller when the tub is filled with water than when the tub is empty. Consider a ray of light
that travels from the bulb to the very edge of the boat, and then down to the bottom of the tub. This ray of light will
mark the edge of the shadow on the tub. When the tub is empty, the path this ray follows is a straight line all the way
from the bulb, past the boat, and to the bottom of the tub. When the tub is filled with water, the light bends at the air-
water interface. We know it bends toward a normal line, meaning its angle with the vertical decreases as it enters the
water. Thus, the ray will not spread as far (horizontally) as it did in the absence of water. This argument applies for
all the rays marking all edges of the shadow. Thus, the shadow will be smaller with water in the tub.
33.20. (a) We know from the chapter and from Figure 33.22b that short wavelength light (toward the blue end of
the spectrum) bends more at an interface between two materials than does red light. Light at the red end of the
spectrum (long wavelength) will bend less, and is more likely to go straight through an interface will little deflection.
Thus, red light is your best bet. Since orange light also has a longer wavelength than yellow light, you might also try
orange light. (b) No, the dependence on frequency of the index of refraction is relatively small.
Ray Optics 33-7
33.21. Light will travel from the coin to each of the observer’s eyes. As light leaves the surface of the water, it will
bend away from the normal line. The eyes perceive depth by tracing back the light rays to their point of origin in a
linear path. Since the rays bent at the interface, the eyes will trace them back to a point closer to the surface than the
actual coin. Thus the water appears shallower to the observer than it actually is.
33.22. The plank appears to be bent at the air-water interface. The submerged part appears to be closer to the
surface than it actually is. This happens because rays of light that exit the water bend away from the line normal to
the surface of the water. The eyes perceive depth by tracing the rays back to an origin in a linear path. Due to the
bending of rays at the surface, the eyes trace the light back to a point that is shallower than the actual plank.
33.23. Case A: (a) Light travels faster in material 2. We know this because the light is closer to the normal line in
material 1. (b) Light originates in material 2. The two rays in material 2 are the incident and reflected rays. If light
had originated in material 1, there would be no way to explain why there are two rays in material 2. Case B: (a) Light
travels faster in material 1. Total internal reflection can only keep light rays in a medium where light moves more
slowly. (b) Light originates in material 2. In fact, it never leaves material 2. Case C: (a) One cannot tell in which
material light moves more quickly from examining a ray that is incident normal to the interface. (b) One cannot tell
in which material the light originates from examining a ray that is incident normal to the interface.
33.24.
The red light bends less than the green light as it enters the glass. This results in the red light ray moving closer to the
green light, and it causes the two rays to no longer be parallel inside the glass. But as the rays exit, again the red light
is bent by less than the green light, and the rays end up being parallel again. They have, however, moved closer
together.
33.25.
33.26. (a) Consider a ray of light that leaves the bulb and just barely misses the edge of the boat, making it up to the
ceiling. This ray will mark the edge of the shadow. With water in the tub, the light will bend away from a line normal
to the water-air interface before reaching the ceiling. This means the shadow on the ceiling is already larger than the
shadow would be if the tub were empty. Now we replace the water with a material in which light travels faster than
in water. This means the light will not bend away from normal as much as it previously did, when entering the air.
Thus, the shadow on the ceiling shrinks. (b) We use the same approach and logic as in part (a). But now we replace
the water with a material in which light moves more slowly than in water. This means the light will bend away from
normal to an even greater extent than before when exiting the material and entering air. Thus, the shadow on the
ceiling becomes larger.
33-8 Chapter 33
33.27. The light will pass straight through the vertical edge into the prism. Light cannot undergo total internal
reflection when it strikes the diagonal edge. Rather, light will exit the diagonal edge and bend toward the line normal
to that diagonal edge. This is shown below.
33.28. The air near black asphalt is typically hotter than the air around it. Light propagates slightly faster through
hot air than cold air. Hence, light that is incident on this layer of hot air could undergo total internal reflection in the
region of air (colder air) that has the higher index of refraction. This can result in specular reflection of oncoming
vehicles or even the sky off of the layer of air above the road. This is sometimes called a road mirage.
33.29. Place a second identical prism next to the first. Invert the second prism, so that its vertex points downward as
shown below.
33.30. Light travels directly through the oil and through the glass cylinder without bending. If light bent at the
interface, we would see differences in the light reach our eyes from near the interface. Since we see no such interface,
light must not be bent there. Thus, light travels at the same speed through the glass and through the oil.
33.31. (a)
(b) The image is real. We know this because light is actually focused to a real point. (c) The image is inverted. This is
clear from the figure. (d) The image shrinks. This is most easily seen by considering what happens to the principle
ray that passes through the lens center, as the object is moved farther from the lens.
Ray Optics 33-9
33.32. (a)
(b) The image is virtual. We know this because light is not actually focused to a real point. Light is spread by the lens
such that our eyes would trace the rays back to a point. So the light appears to originate from that point, but light is
not actually there. (c) The image is upright. This is clear from the figure. (d) The image shrinks. Consider the
principle ray that passes through the focal point on the opposite side of the lens. If the object is moved away, this ray
will clearly intersect the lens at a lower position. This will result in the dashed line over to the virtual image being
lower (closer to the lens axis). Thus the image will be shorter.
33.33. The object is held closer to the lens than the focal point, such that the lens is not able to focus the light down
to a single point.
33.34. The focal length is still 100 mm. The original focal length given already included the refraction at both sides
of the lens. This is not changed by turning the lens around.
33.35. The image is on the same side as the object (opposite side from your eyes). If the image is magnified, the
lens is converging. If the image is reduced, the lens is diverging.
33.36. (a)
(b) The image is virtual. We know this because the light is not actually focused down to a point. The rays spread as
they pass through the lens, such that our eyes trace the rays back to a single point. But light is not actually focused at
that point. (c) The image is upright. This is clear from the figure. (d) The image shrinks. Consider the principle ray
that passes through the focal point on the opposite side of the lens. If the object is moved away, this ray will clearly
intersect the lens at a lower position. This will result in the dashed line over to the virtual image being lower (closer
to the lens axis). Thus the image will be shorter.
33.37. (a)
33-10 Chapter 33
(b) The image is virtual. We know this because light is not actually focused down to a point. The rays move closer
together as they pass through the lens, but not enough to collect them to a point. They still spread in such a way that
our eyes can trace them back to a point behind the lens. Thus our eyes perceive an image at that point. But no light is
actually focused at that point. (c) The image is upright. This is clear from the figure. (d) The image becomes larger.
Consider the ray that travels upward to the lens and is parallel to the lens axis after being refracted. It is parallel to the
lens axis upon refraction because it approached the lens from the direction of the focal point. As the object is moved
closer to the focus, such a ray must still come from the direction of the focal point, which would cause it to strike the
lens at a higher position (farther from the lens axis). This means the horizontal dashed line (that the eye traces back to
form the image) would be higher, and the image would be larger.
33.38. (a)
(b) The image is virtual. We know it should be because the object is closer to the lens than the focal length. We can
confirm that it is virtual, because no light is actually focused down to the image. Rather, the image is formed by our
eyes tracing the refracted rays back to an apparent point of origin. (c) The image is upright. This is clear from the
figure. (d) The image is larger than the object. This is clear from the figure.
33.39. (a)
(b) The image is virtual. We know it should be because diverging lenses cannot focus light down to a point. We see
that it is virtual from the figure, because light is not focused down to a point. Rather, the image is formed by our eyes
tracing the refracted rays back to an apparent point of origin. (c) The image is upright. This is clear from the figure.
(d) The image is smaller than the object. This is clear from the figure.
Ray Optics 33-11
33.40. Each entry in the table can be determined from sketching a simplified ray diagram. Here are the correct table
values for a converging lens:
Object Location Image Location Image
Upright or Larger or smaller
Real or virtual? inverted? than object?
Between positive
Between lens and infinity and lens
focus (same side) Virtual Upright Larger
At focus Infinity NA NA NA
Between positive
infinity and twice
Between focus and the focal point
twice the focal (opposite side from
length object) Real Inverted Larger
At twice the focal
length x = +2 f Real Inverted Same size
Between the focal
point and twice the
Beyond twice the focal point (opposite
focal length side from the object) Real Inverted Smaller
Real (though
focused down to a Infinitesimal,
point, usually not Inverted (usually not essentially zero
At infinity f called an image) called an image) height
33.41. When parallel rays of light are refracted by the diverging lens, the resulting spreading rays can be traced
back to a point 100 mm behind the diverging lens. By definition, the focal length of the diverging lens must be 100
mm. When these spreading rays pass through the converging lens, they emerge parallel to each other. The rays can be
traced back to a point 200 mm from the converging lens. By definition, the focal length of the converging lens must
be 200 mm. Thus f diverging = 100 mm and f converging = 200 mm.
33.42. (a) and (b)
(c) The image formed by the right lens is real. We know this because light is actually focused down to a point. (d)
The image is upright. This is clear from the figure. (e) The image is smaller than the object. The exact factor by
which the image is shrunken will depend on the quality of your diagram. But the image should be close to 60% the
size of the object.
33-12 Chapter 33
c0 (3.00 × 108 m/s)

33.43. The index of refraction of such a material is given by n = = = 2.42. While there may be
c (1.24 × 108 m/s)
many materials with this index of refraction, the only material in Table 33.1 with this index of refraction is diamond.
The material is likely to be diamond.
c0
33.44. The index of refraction is given by Equation 33.1: n = , which in this case can be written
c
c0
n= = 1.08.
(1 − 0.075)c0
33.45. The frequency of the light is unchanged when it passes from one medium to another. Thus
c0 (3.00 × 108 m/s)
f = f0 = = = 5.66 × 1014 Hz. The wavelength does change as the light moves from one medium
λ0 (530 × 10−9 m)
to another. The new wavelength is given by Equation 33.3:
λ (530 nm)
λglass = 0 = = 321 nm
nglass 1.65
33.46. (a) This minimum incident angle at which total internal reflection occurs is exactly the critical angle, given
by Equation 33.9:
⎛ n2 ⎞ − 1 ⎛ 1.24 ⎞
θ c = sin −1 ⎜
⎟ = sin ⎜ ⎟ = 58.8 °
n
⎝ 1⎠ ⎝ 1.45 ⎠
(b) Total internal reflection is not possible in this case. Light cannot become trapped in the material in which it
moves faster. This should be qualitatively understood from the discussion in the text, but it can also be seen by
looking at what happens if you switch the indices of refraction in Equation 33.9. When the ratio in the inverse sine is
greater than one there is no solution.
33.47. The minimum angle from normal at which total internal reflection will occur is the critical angle, given by
Equation 33.9:
⎛ n ⎞ ⎛ 1.00 ⎞
θ c = sin −1 ⎜ air ⎟ = sin −1 ⎜ ⎟ = 46.9 °
⎝ nwater ⎠ ⎝ 1.37 ⎠
Any angle greater than or equal to 46.9° would result in total internal reflection.
33.48. (a) Using Snel’s Law, which is Equation 33.7, we can write nair sin(θ air ) = nglass sin(θ glass ), or
⎛ nair ⎞ ⎛ (1.0) ⎞
θ glass = sin −1 ⎜ sin(θ air ) ⎟ = sin −1 ⎜ sin(30 °) ⎟ = 19 °
⎜ nglass ⎟ ⎝ (1.5) ⎠
⎝ ⎠
(b)
Ray Optics 33-13
(c) The answer to (a) would be

⎛ nair ⎞ ⎛ (1.0) ⎞
θ glass = sin −1 ⎜
sin(θ air ) ⎟ = sin −1 ⎜ sin(45°) ⎟ = 28°
⎜ nglass ⎟ ⎝ (1.5) ⎠
⎝ ⎠
meaning the figure in (b) would show a larger angle inside the glass. This is shown below.
λ0 538 nm
33.49. (a) The wavelength is reduced by 1.333 to λ = = = 404 nm. This follows immediately from
n 1.333
c (3.00 × 108 m/s)
Equation 33.3. (b) The frequency does not change. It remains f = 0 = = 5.58 × 1014 Hz. (c) The
λ0 (538 × 10−9 m)
speed is reduced according to the definition of the index of refraction (Equation 33.1) to
c (3.00 × 108 m/s)
c= 0 = = 2.25 × 108 m/s. (d) The angle from normal is reduced according to Equation 33.7 to
n 1.333
⎛ n ⎞ ⎛ (1.000) ⎞
θ water = sin −1 ⎜ air sin(θ air ) ⎟ = sin −1 ⎜ sin(60 °) ⎟ = 41 °
⎝ nwater ⎠ ⎝ (1.333) ⎠
(e) The wavelength, frequency, and speed would not be altered by changing the angle of entry. The refracted angle
would change to 0°; the light will continue on parallel to the normal line.
33.50. (a)
(b) We apply Snel’s law twice: once at each interface. For the air-oil interface, we have
na sin(θ a ) = no sin(θ o ) (1)
For the oil-water interface, we have
no sin(θ o ) = nw sin(θ w ) (2)
The right hand side of equation (1) and the left hand side of equation (2) are exactly the same. This allows us to
equation the left hand side of equation (1) and the right hand side of equation (2): na sin(θ a ) = nw sin(θ w ). (c) No, we
cannot ignore the middle layer if we care about the displacement of the rays of light. The displacement in the middle
layer (oil, in this case) is determined by the thickness of that layer and the angle made by the rays of light. The angle
is of course determined using Snell’s law which involves the index of refraction of this middle layer. Hence the
optical properties of the oil are important for determining the position of the exiting rays of light.
33-14 Chapter 33
33.51. (a) Applying Equation 33.7 we can write nair,blue sin(θair,blue ) = nglass,blue sin(θ glass,blue ). Let us assume that the
index of refraction for air is approximately 1.00 for all colors of light, and we focus only on the frequency
dependence of the glass’s index of refraction. Then we can write
⎛n ⎞ ⎛ (1.66) ⎞
θ air,blue = sin −1 ⎜ glass,blue sin(θ glass,blue ) ⎟ = sin −1 ⎜ sin(30 °) ⎟ = 56.1°
⎝ n air ⎠ ⎝ (1.00) ⎠
⎛ n ⎞ ⎛ (1.61) ⎞
(b) We apply Equation 33.7 as in part (a) to obtain θ air,red = sin −1 ⎜ glass,red sin(θ glass,red ) ⎟ = sin −1 ⎜ sin(30 °) ⎟
⎝ nair ⎠ ⎝ (1.00) ⎠
= 53.6 °. (c) The angle between the ray of red light and blue light is Δ θ = θ blue − θ red = (56.1 °) − (53.6 °) = (2.5 °).
Δ yscreen
Simple trigonometry tells us that tan(Δ θ ) = , where Δ x is the orthogonal distance from the glass to the
Δx
screen and Δyscreen is the distance between the two bright spots on the screen. Then Δ yscreen =
Δ x tan(Δ θ ) = (0.50 m) tan(2.5°) = 22 mm.
⎛ n1 ⎞ −1 ⎛ 1.0 ⎞
33.52. (a) Equation 33.9 tells us θ c = sin −1 ⎜ ⎟ = sin ⎜ ⎟ = 46°. (b) As in part (a), we write
n
⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 1.4 ⎠
⎛ n1 ⎞ −1 ⎛ 1.0 ⎞
θ c = sin −1 ⎜ ⎟ = sin ⎜ ⎟ = 34°. (c) A small radius of curvature corresponds to a very sharp bend in the cable,
n
⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 1.8 ⎠
this means a ray of light travelling (more or less) parallel to the cable will strike the curved edge of the cable at an
angle closer to normal if the radius of curvature is small. Thus, the material with the smaller critical angle will allow
the light to remain in the cable through total internal reflection with a smaller radius of curvature in the cable. Thus
the cable with the index of refraction of 1.8 could have a smaller radius of curvature while maintaining total internal
reflection.
33.53. We apply Snell’s law twice: once at the top interface and once at the bottom interface. For the top interface,
we have
n sin(θ ) = n1 sin(θ1 ) (1)
Let us call the final angle at which the light exits the slab θ f . Then, for the bottom interface, we have
n1 sin(θ1 ) = n sin(θ f ) (2)
Clearly, the right hand side of equation (1) and the left hand side of equation (2) are identical. Hence we can equate
n sin(θ ) = n sin(θ f ). Cancelling the index of refraction (which is the same above and below the slab), we have
sin(θ ) = sin(θ f ). Because both angles are less than 90°, the only way the sines can be equal is if θ = θ f . Hence the
angles at which the light enters and leaves the slab are identical.
λ0 (700 nm)
33.54. (a) The wavelength changes according to Equation 33.3: λ1 = = = 289 nm. The frequency
n1 (2.42)
does not change at the interface, such that
c c (3.00 × 108 m/s)
f = 1 = 0 = = 4.29 × 1014 Hz
λ1 λ0 (700 × 10−9 m)
⎛ n ⎞ ⎛ (1.00) ⎞
(b) θ diamond = sin −1 ⎜ air sin(θ air ) ⎟ = sin −1 ⎜ sin(40.0 °) ⎟ = 15.4 °
⎝ ndiamond ⎠ ⎝ (2.42) ⎠
33.55. We require that the reflected ray and refracted ray be orthogonal. We can express both angles in terms of the
incident angle using our knowledge that incident and reflected angles are the same, and using Equation 33.7 to
describe the refracted angle. Thus we require (90 ° − θ refracted ) + (90° − θ reflected ) = 90° or θ reflected + θ refracted = 90 °, which
we write as
Ray Optics 33-15
⎛ n1 ⎞ ⎛n ⎞
θincident + sin −1 ⎜
sin(θincident ) ⎟ = 90° or sin −1 ⎜ 1 sin(θincident ) ⎟ = 90° − θ incident
n
⎝ 2 ⎠ n
⎝ 2 ⎠
Taking the sine of both sides and noting that sin(90° − θ ) = cos(θ ), we find
n2 ⎛n ⎞ ⎛ 1.5 ⎞
tan(θincident ) = ⇒ θincident = tan −1 ⎜ 2 ⎟ = tan −1 ⎜ ⎟ = 54°
n1 ⎝ n1 ⎠ ⎝ 1.1 ⎠
⎛ Δx ⎞ −1 ⎛ (3.0m) ⎞
33.56. Basic geometry tells us that θ = tan −1 ⎜ ⎟ = tan ⎜ ⎟ = 36.9° (where we have kept an additional
⎝ Δ y ⎠ ⎝ (4.0 m) ⎠
significant digit because this is an intermediate step). Equation 33.7 tells us that the refracted angle is
⎛ n ⎞ ⎛ (1.00) ⎞
θ refracted = sin −1 ⎜ air sin(θ ) ⎟ = sin −1 ⎜ sin(36.9 °) ⎟ = 26.8 °. Because we can see the buoy on the surface, we
n
⎝ water ⎠ ⎝ (1.33) ⎠
know the light must come from a horizontal distance of 3.0 m to the right of the point on the surface where the
Δx Δxwater (3.0 m)
researcher is looking. Thus we can write tan(θ refracted ) = water ⇒ Δywater = = = 5.9 m.
Δywater tan(θ refracted ) tan(26.8 °)
33.57. (a) Let us call the angle of refraction just inside the flat end of the fiber on the far left θ refracted , and call the
angle from normal at which the ray strikes the top flat surface of the cable θ reflected . The smallest that the reflected
⎛n ⎞
angle can be is the critical angle. Using Equation 33.9, we can write θ reflected,min = θ c = sin −1 ⎜ air ⎟ . Simple geometry
⎝ n ⎠
⎛n ⎞
shows us that θ refracted = 90 ° − θ reflected or θ refracted,max = 90° − θ reflected,min = 90° − sin −1 ⎜ air ⎟ . Now using Equation 33.7,
⎝ n ⎠
we can write the incident angle in terms of this refracted ray
⎛ n ⎞ ⎛ n ⎞ ⎛ n ⎛ ⎛ n ⎞⎞⎞
θ = sin −1 ⎜ sin(θ refracted ) ⎟ ⇒ θ max = sin −1 ⎜ sin(θ refracted,max ) ⎟ = sin −1 ⎜
⎜
sin ⎜ 90° − sin −1 ⎜ air ⎟ ⎟ ⎟
⎝ nair ⎠ ⎝ nair ⎠ ⎝ nair ⎝ ⎝ n ⎠ ⎠ ⎟⎠
Rewriting the sine in terms of cosine, we find
⎛ n ⎛ n 2 ⎞
⎛ ⎛ n ⎞⎞ ⎞ ⎛ n ⎛ ⎛ n ⎞⎞ ⎞ ⎛n ⎞
θ max = sin −1 ⎜ 1 − cos 2 ⎜ 90° − sin −1 ⎜ air ⎟ ⎟ ⎟ = sin −1 ⎜ 1 − sin 2 ⎜ sin −1 ⎜ air ⎟ ⎟ ⎟ = sin −1 ⎜ 1 − ⎜ air ⎟ ⎟
⎜n ⎝ ⎝ n ⎠ ⎠ ⎠⎟ ⎜n ⎝ ⎝ n ⎠ ⎠ ⎠⎟ ⎜ nair ⎝ n ⎠ ⎟
⎝ air ⎝ air ⎝ ⎠
Finally, inserting nair = 1.00, we have θ max = sin −1 ( n 2 − 1). (b) Using the result of part (a), we can see that the
maximum angle reaches 90° when the argument of the inverse sine approaches one. Thus we require
n02 − 1 = 1 ⇒ n0 = 2.
33.58. Let us choose a + y axis that points vertically upward, perpendicular to the interface, and choose a + x axis
that points to the right. Let us assume that the ray of light strikes the interface such that some component of its
momentum is along the + x axis. If the ray were not bent at the interface, then it would continue at the same 40°
angle from normal, and would exit the bottom of medium 2 a distance
xunbent = d tan(θincident ) = (12 mm) tan(40°) = 10.07 mm in the + x direction away from the point of entry. Of course,
we know that the light does bend at the interface, and it does so according to Snel’s Law. Equation 33.7 tell us
⎛n ⎞ ⎛ 1.3 ⎞
θ 2 = sin −1 ⎜ 1 sin(θ1 ) ⎟ = sin −1 ⎜ sin(40 °) ⎟ = 31.48 °. So the point at which the ray of light will actually exit
⎝ n2 ⎠ ⎝ 1.6 ⎠
medium 2 is a distance along the x axis from the point of entry equal to xreal = Δ y tan(θ 2 ) = (12 mm) tan(31.48°)
= 7.35 mm. So the distance between where a straight (unbent) ray of light would exit and where light actually exits
is Δ x = xunbent − xreal = (10.07 mm) − (7.35 mm) = 2.72 mm. This is the distance the ray is displaced along the plane
of medium 2. The perpendicular distance from the ray to the path the unbent ray would follow is then given by
cos(θ1 ) = A / Δx ⇒ A = Δ x cos(θ1 ) = (2.72 mm)cos(40 °) = 2.1 mm.
33-16 Chapter 33
33.59. Let us call the height of the child’s eyes above the water Δ xair , and the distance along the surface of the
water from the edge of the pool to the point where light rays exit the water on their way to the child’s eyes Δ ysurface .
Call the distance along the surface from that point at Δ ysurface to a point directly above the toy Δ ywater , such that
Δ ytoy = Δ ysurface + Δywater . Let us note first that the child’s eyes trace the ray of light back in a linear (unbent) fashion.
Δysurface ( Δytoy,apparent − Δ ysurface )
This means that the child’s brain processes the image assuming θ air = θ water or = .
(h − d ) d
(h − d ) Δytoy,apparent
((3.5 m) − (1.8 m))(4.2 m)
Rearranging this to solve for Δ ysurface , we obtain Δ ysurface = =
h (3.5 m)
= 2.04 m. We can determine the angle that light rays make with the normal line in air using simple geometry:
⎛ Δysurface
⎞ −1 ⎛ (2.04 m) ⎞
θ air = tan −1 ⎜ ⎟ = tan ⎜ ⎟ = 50.2°
⎝ (h − d )
⎠ ⎝ ((3.5 m) − (1.8 m)) ⎠
The angle that the ray makes with the normal line in the water is given by Equation 33.7:
⎛ n ⎞ ⎛ (1.00) ⎞
θ water = sin −1 ⎜ air sin(θ air ) ⎟ = sin −1 ⎜ sin(50.2 °) ⎟ = 35.3 °
⎝ nwater ⎠ ⎝ (1.33) ⎠
Now the horizontal distance that the rays travel in the water is given by Δ ywater = d tan(θ water ) = (1.8 m) tan(35.3 °)
= 1.27 m. The light rays travel a horizontal distance of 2.04 m in the air, and 1.27 m in the water. Thus the toy is a
horizontal distance of 3.3 m from the side of the pool.
33.60. We know that the focal length for a diverging lens is negative. Using Equation 33.22 we have
1m 1m
d= = = −2.5 diopters.
f (− 0.400 m)
33.61. For a diverging lens, the focal length is negative. Using the lens equation (Principles Equation 33.16) we can
1 1 1
write = − . The object distance is always positive. The only way for a real image to be formed is it the image
i f o
distance is also positive. But clearly both terms on the right hand side of the above equation are negative. Hence
1
< 0, from which it immediately follows that i < 0. Since the image distance is always negative for a diverging
i
lens, a diverging lens cannot form a real image.
1m 1m 1m
33.62. Using Equation 33.22 we have d = or f = = = 0.67 m.
f d (+ 1.5 diopters)
−1 −1
⎛ 1 1⎞ ⎛ 1 1 ⎞
33.63. Using Equation 33.16 we have i = ⎜ − ⎟ =⎜ − ⎟ = 0.105 m or 105 mm.
⎝ f o⎠ ⎝ (0.100 m) (2.00 m) ⎠
33.64. We know that the magnification of an image can be written either in terms of object and image distances or
in terms of object and image heights. Equating the two expressions as in Equation 33.17, we obtain
h (324 m)
o = −i o = −(5.8 mm) = 1.9 × 102 m.
hi (− 10 mm)
f1 f (2.0 m)
33.65. Using the result of Example 33.9, we have M θ = ⇒ f 2 = f eye = 1 = = 50 mm.
f2 Mθ (40)
Ray Optics 33-17
−1 −1
⎛ 1 1⎞ ⎛ 1 1 ⎞
33.66. (a) Using Equation 33.16 we have i = ⎜ − ⎟ =⎜ − ⎟ = 1.33 m. (b) Using
⎝ f o⎠ ⎝ (0.500 m) (0.800 m) ⎠
i (1.33 m)
Equation 33.17, we can write the magnification as M = − = − = − 1.67.
o (0.800 m)
(c)
−1 −1
⎛ 1 1⎞ ⎛ 1 1 ⎞
33.67. (a) Using Equation 33.16 we have i = ⎜ − ⎟ = ⎜ − ⎟ = − 240 mm. (b) Using
⎝ f o⎠ ⎝ (400 mm) (150 mm) ⎠
i ( −240 mm)
Equation 33.17, we can write the magnification as M = − = − = 1.60.
o (150 mm)
(c)
−1 −1
⎛ 1 1⎞ ⎛ 1 1 ⎞
33.68. (a) Using Equation 33.16 we have i = ⎜ − ⎟ =⎜ − ⎟ = − 200 mm. (b) Using
⎝ f o ⎠ ⎝ ( − 300 mm) (600 mm) ⎠
i (− 200 mm)
o (600 mm)
−1 −1
⎛ 1 1⎞ ⎛ 1 1 ⎞
33.69. (a) Using Equation 33.16 we have i = ⎜ − ⎟ = ⎜ − ⎟ = −143 mm. (b) Using
⎝ f o⎠ ⎝ ( −500 mm) (200 mm) ⎠
i (− 143 mm)
o (200 mm)
(c)
33-18 Chapter 33
33.70. The image appears 250 mm from your eyes, which is 150 mm from the lens (but on the same side of the lens
as the bug). This means the image must be virtual, and the image distance is i = − 150 mm. The object distance is
o = 30 mm. Using Equation 33.16, we have
−1 −1
⎛1 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 1 ⎞
f =⎜ + ⎟ =⎜ + ⎟ = 38 mm
⎝i o⎠ ⎝ ( −150 mm) (30 mm) ⎠
33.71. The way the eyeglasses work is by creating an image at the woman’s near point of 400 mm, when the object
is at a distance of the normal human near point of 250 mm. Since the image is still in front of the woman’s eyes, the
image distance will be negative. Thus, Equation 33.16 tells us
−1 −1
1 ⎛1 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 1 ⎞
= + =⎜ + ⎟ = 1.5 diopters
f ⎜⎝ i o ⎟⎠ ⎝ ( − 0.400 m) (0.250 m) ⎠
33.72. (a) We solve this problem by finding the position of the image from lens 1, and using that as the object for
lens 2. Equation 33.16 tells us
−1 −1
⎛1 1⎞ ⎛ 1 1 ⎞
i1 = ⎜ − ⎟ = ⎜ − ⎟ = 240 mm
f
⎝ 1 o1 ⎠ ⎝ (150 mm) (400 mm) ⎠
Since the lenses are 600 mm apart, this image is 360 mm from lens 2, so we set o2 = 360 mm. A second application
of Equation 33.16, this time to lens 2 yields
−1 −1
⎛ 1 1⎞ ⎛ 1 1 ⎞
i2 = ⎜ − ⎟ = ⎜ − ⎟ = 450 mm
f
⎝ 2 o2 ⎠ ⎝ (200 mm) (360 mm) ⎠
and this distance is measured relative to lens 2. Thus the final image is 450 mm to the right of lens 2. (b) To find the
overall magnification, we find the magnification due to each lens and multiply them:
⎛ i ⎞⎛ i ⎞ ⎛ (240 mm) ⎞⎛ (450 mm) ⎞
M = M 1M 2 = ⎜ − 1 ⎟⎜ − 2 ⎟ = ⎜ − ⎟⎜ − ⎟ = 0.750
⎝ o1 ⎠⎝ o2 ⎠ ⎝ (400 mm) ⎠⎝ (360 mm) ⎠
(c) From the sign of the magnification, we can see the image is upright. Physically, the image is upright because it is
inverted once by lens 1, and then inverted again (flipped upright again) by lens 2.
33.73. (a) Since the two foci coincide, we know f1 + f 2 = d . We obtain a second equation relating these quantities
f1
from Example 33.9: Mθ = . Solving the first equation for f2 (the eyepiece) we find
f2
f1 dM θ
Mθ = ⇒ f1 = . (b) Inserting the answer to part (a) to either of the initial equations ( f1 + f 2 = d or
d − f1 (1 + M θ )
dM θ d
Example 33.9) we find f 2 = d − f1 = d − = .
(1 + M θ ) M θ + 1
33.74. (a) We first find the position of the image from lens 1 (the objective), and then use this image as the object
for lens 2 (the eyepiece). We use Equation 33.16 to write
−1 −1
⎛1 1⎞ ⎛ 1 1 ⎞
i1 = ⎜ − ⎟ = ⎜ − ⎟ = 150 mm
⎝ f1 o1 ⎠ ⎝ (25 mm) (30 mm) ⎠
Since the two lenses are 200 mm apart, this makes the object distance for lens 2 50 mm. A second application of
Equation 33.16, this time to lens 2, yields
−1 −1
⎛ 1 1⎞ ⎛ 1 1 ⎞
i2 = ⎜ − ⎟ = ⎜ − ⎟ = −2.4 × 10 mm
2
⎝ f 2 o2 ⎠ ⎝ (63 mm) (50 mm) ⎠

Thus the image formed by the eyepiece is 240 mm to the left of the eyepiece lens. (b) The overall magnification is
the product of the magnification due to each lens:
Ray Optics 33-19
⎛ i ⎞⎛ i ⎞ ⎛ (150 mm) ⎞⎛ (− 242 mm) ⎞

M = M 1M 2 = ⎜ − 1 ⎟⎜ − 2 ⎟ = ⎜ − ⎟⎜ − ⎟ = − 24
⎝ o1 ⎠⎝ o2 ⎠ ⎝ (30 mm) ⎠⎝ (50 mm) ⎠
33.75. (a) We want to know the image distance for lens 2 so that we can get a crisp clear image on our screen. We first
find the position of the image from lens 1, and then use this image as the object for lens 2. We use Equation 33.16 to write
−1 −1
⎛1 1⎞ ⎛ 1 1 ⎞
i1 = ⎜ − ⎟ = ⎜ − ⎟ = − 100 mm
⎝ f1 o1 ⎠ ⎝ (100 mm) (50 mm) ⎠
which is 100 mm to the left of lens 1. Since the two lenses are 150 mm apart, this makes the object distance for lens 2
o2 = 250 mm. A second application of Equation 33.16, this time to lens 2, yields
−1 −1
⎛ 1 1⎞ ⎛ 1 1 ⎞
i2 = ⎜ − ⎟ = ⎜ − ⎟ = 0.64 m
f
⎝ 2 o2 ⎠ ⎝ (180 mm) (250 mm) ⎠
Thus the image formed by the eyepiece is 0.64 m to the right of lens 2. This is where we should place our screen.
(b) The overall magnification is the product of the magnification due to each lens:
⎛ i ⎞⎛ i ⎞ ⎛ (− 100 mm) ⎞⎛ (642 mm) ⎞
M = M 1M 2 = ⎜ − 1 ⎟⎜ − 2 ⎟ = ⎜ − ⎟⎜ − ⎟ = −5.1
⎝ o1 ⎠⎝ o2 ⎠ ⎝ (50 mm) ⎠⎝ (250 mm) ⎠
(c) We see from the sign of the magnification that the image is inverted. The first lens formed an upright virtual
image, but the second lens inverted this image and formed a real image.
33.76. We solve this problem by finding the position of the image from lens 1, and using that as the object for lens 2.
Equation 33.16 tells us
−1 −1
⎛1 1⎞ ⎛ 1 1 ⎞
i1 = ⎜ − ⎟ = ⎜ − ⎟ = 300 mm
f
⎝ 1 o1 ⎠ ⎝ (100 mm) (150 mm) ⎠
Since the lenses are 550 mm apart, this image is 250 mm from lens 2, so we set o2 = 250 mm. A second application
of Equation 33.16, this time to lens 2, yields
−1 −1
⎛ 1 1⎞ ⎛ 1 1 ⎞
i2 = ⎜ − ⎟ = ⎜ − ⎟ = 1.00 m
⎝ f 2 o2 ⎠ ⎝ (200 mm) (250 mm) ⎠
and this distance is measured relative to lens 2. Thus the final image is 1.00 m to the right of lens 2.
33.77. It appears as though the position of the object relative to lens 1 is roughly twice the focal length. This means
the image distance (created by lens 1) will also be twice the focal length. Thus the image due to the first lens will be
the same size as the object, but inverted. This also means that the image created by lens 1 will be just inside the focal
length of lens 2 (closer to lens 2 than its focal length). This means converging lens 2 will not be able to focus the rays
into a real image; the image due to this lens (and therefore the overall image) is virtual. Since the image created by
lens 1 was inverted, and lens 2 does not invert the image, the overall image is inverted. Lens 1 left the size of the
image equal to the size of the object. So the overall magnification will be determined by the magnification due to lens
2. It appears that the image due to lens 1 (which is the object for lens 2) is very close to the focal point of lens 2.
−1
1 1 ⎛ 1 1⎞
Looking at Equation 33.16, we see that because − is small and negative, its inverse: i2 = ⎜ − ⎟ will be
f 2 o2 ⎝ f 2 o2 ⎠
i
large and negative. Thus we expect the magnification due to lens 2 M 2 = − 2 to be large and positive. Collecting all
o2
this together, we expect the image to be virtual, inverted, and enlarged.
33.78. (a) We solve this problem by finding the position of the image from lens 1, and using that as the object for
lens 2. Equation 33.16 tells us
−1 −1
⎛1 1⎞ ⎛ 1 1 ⎞
i1 = ⎜ − ⎟ = ⎜ − ⎟ = 225 mm
f
⎝ 1 o1 ⎠ ⎝ (100 mm) (180 mm) ⎠
33-20 Chapter 33
Since the lenses are 160 mm apart, this image is 65 mm to the right of lens 2. This image will act as the object for
lens 2, but it is to the right of lens 2. Since light does not actually emanate from that point and pass through lens 2,
this can be thought of as a “virtual object”, and the object distance is negative. So we set o2 = − 65 mm. A second
application of Equation 33.16, this time to lens 2, yields
−1 −1
⎛ 1 1⎞ ⎛ 1 1 ⎞
i2 = ⎜ − ⎟ = ⎜ − ⎟ = 3.5 × 10 mm
2
f
⎝ 2 o2 ⎠ ⎝ ( − 80.0 mm) ( − 65 mm) ⎠
and this distance is measured relative to lens 2. Thus the final image is 0.35 m to the right of lens 2. (b) The overall
magnification is the product of the magnification due to each lens:
⎛ i ⎞⎛ i ⎞ ⎛ (225 mm) ⎞⎛ (347 mm) ⎞
M = M 1M 2 = ⎜ − 1 ⎟⎜ − 2 ⎟ = ⎜ − ⎟⎜ − ⎟ = −6.7
⎝ o1 ⎠⎝ o2 ⎠ ⎝ (180 mm) ⎠⎝ (− 65 mm) ⎠
33.79. (a) We solve this problem by finding the position of the image from lens 1 (the left lens), and using that as
the object for lens 2 (the right lens). Equation 33.16 tells us
−1 −1
⎛1 1⎞ ⎛ 1 1 ⎞
i1 = ⎜ − ⎟ = ⎜ − ⎟ = 177 mm
f
⎝ 1 o 1 ⎠ ⎝ (100 mm) (230 mm) ⎠
Since the lenses are 400 mm apart, this image is 223 mm to the left of lens 2. This image will act as the object for
lens 2, so we set o2 = 223 mm. A second application of Equation 33.16, this time to lens 2, yields
−1 −1
⎛ 1 1⎞ ⎛ 1 1 ⎞
i2 = ⎜ − ⎟ = ⎜ − ⎟ = 181 mm
⎝ f 2 o2 ⎠ ⎝ (100 mm) (223 mm) ⎠
and this distance is measured relative to lens 2. Thus the final image is 181 mm to the right of lens 2 (the right-most
lens). (b) Because all image distances were positive, it is easy to see that the magnification due to the first lens will
be negative, as will the magnification due to the second lens, making the product of the two magnifications (the total
magnification) positive. Physically, this means that the first lens inverts the image, and the second lens inverts it
again leaving it upright. (c) The final image distance is positive, which corresponds to a real image. (d) The overall
magnification is the product of the magnification due to lens 1 and that due to lens 2:
⎛ i ⎞⎛ i ⎞ ⎛ (177 mm) ⎞⎛ (181 mm) ⎞
M = M 1M 2 = ⎜ − 1 ⎟⎜ − 2 ⎟ = ⎜ − ⎟⎜ − ⎟ = 0.625
⎝ o1 ⎠⎝ o2 ⎠ ⎝ (230 mm) ⎠⎝ (223 mm) ⎠
33.80. Since we know the image distance from the second lens and the focal length of the final lens (which we call
lens 2), we can find the object distance for the second lens using Equation 33.16:
−1 −1
⎛ 1 1⎞ ⎛ 1 1 ⎞
o2 = ⎜ − ⎟ = ⎜ − ⎟ = 150 mm
f
⎝ 2 2⎠ i ⎝ (100 mm) (300 mm) ⎠
This information can be used in a number of ways. Because this lens inverts the image and the total image must be
upright, we know the image must also be inverted by the first lens (lens 1). This means a real image will be formed
by the first lens, which allows us to relate the object distance for lens 2 to the image distance for lens 1, using the
distance between lenses, d : i1 = d − o2 . We apply Equation 33.16 a second time, this time to lens 1, to obtain
−1 −1
⎛ 1 1⎞ ⎛1 1 ⎞
o1 = ⎜ − ⎟ = ⎜ − ⎟ (1)
⎝ f1 i1 ⎠ ⎝ f1 d − o2 ⎠
⎛ i ⎞⎛ i ⎞ i1i2
We also know the total magnification is M = M 1M 2 = ⎜ − 1 ⎟⎜ − 2 ⎟ = 3.00 ⇒ o1 = or
⎝ o1 ⎠⎝ o2 ⎠ (3.00)o2
( d − o2 )i2
o1 = (2)
(3.00)o2
(3.00)o2 f1 (3.00)(150 mm)(100 mm)
Equating expressions (1) and (2) and solving for d yields d = + o2 + f1 =
i2 (300 mm)
( d − o2 )i2
+ (150 mm) + (100 mm) = 400 mm. Inserting this result back into equation (2) yields o1 =
(3.00)o2
Ray Optics 33-21
((400 mm) − (150 mm))(300 mm)

= = 167 mm. Thus the lenses should be placed 400 mm apart, with the lens
(3.00)(150 mm)
nearest the object being 167 mm from it.
33.81. From the information on the near point of the average human, we know that the minimum angle subtended
⎛ Δ x/2 ⎞ −1 ⎛ (0.1000 mm)/2 ⎞
by the image must be Δ θ min = 2 tan −1 ⎜ ⎟ = 2 tan ⎜ ⎟ = 0.02292 °. We require that our telescope
r
⎝ near ⎠ ⎝ (250 mm) ⎠
have a magnification that allows us to see a geosynchronous satellite, so we must determine the distance to the
satellite (and the angle of our vision that it subtends) in order to determine the minimum required angular
magnification. Recall from rotational motion and gravitation, that a geosynchronous satellite must be held in place by
gravity and have the same period of rotation as Earth. From this one obtains
1/3 1/3
⎛ GmEarthT 2 ⎞ ⎛ (6.67 × 10−11 N ⋅ m 2 /kg 2 )(5.97 × 1024 kg)(24 × 3600 s) 2 ⎞
R=⎜ ⎟ =⎜ ⎟ = 4.2227 × 10 km
4
⎝ 4π 2
⎠ ⎝ 4π 2
⎠
This distance is measured from the center of Earth, such that the distance from an observer on the surface of Earth to
⎛ Δx /2 ⎞
the satellite is 3.585 × 104 km. Thus the angle subtended by the satellite is Δ θ min = 2 tan −1 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ Robserver-satellite ⎠
⎛ (5.5 m)/2 ⎞
= 2 tan −1 ⎜ −6
⎟ = (8.790 × 10 )°. Finally we can write two equations relating the focal lengths of the
⎝ (3.585 × 10 m) ⎠
7
two lenses, using Example 33.9:

Δ θ min f
Mθ = = 1 (1)
Δθ f2
f1 + f 2 = A (2)
where A is the length of the telescope. Solving equation (1) for lens 1 and inserting this into equation (2) yields
A (1.000 m)
f2 = = = 0.3834 mm
⎛ Δθ min ⎞ ⎛ (0.02292 °) ⎞
⎜ 1 + 1+
⎝ Δθ ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ (8.790 × 10−6 )° ⎟⎠
From this it follows trivially from equation (2) that f1 = 0.9996 m. So this setup requires an objective lens with a
focal length of 999.6 mm and an eyepiece lens with a focal length of 0.383 mm. The eyepiece focal length would
be very difficult to achieve, and is not likely to be found in a home telescope. It would be much easier to use a longer
telescope, and allow for a more complex setup involving multiple lenses and/or mirrors.
33.82. The sun’s rays are approximately parallel, so they will be focused down to a point at the focal point of the
mirror. Equation 33.23 tells us R = 2 f = 2(160 mm) = 320 mm.
33.83. Because there is a positive radius of curvature, we know the focal length is also positive (which corresponds
to a concave mirror). We use Equation 33.23 to write the focal length in terms of the radius of curvature, and we
insert this into Equation 33.24 to obtain
−1 −1 −1
⎛ 1 1⎞ ⎛ 2 1⎞ ⎛ 2 1 ⎞
i=⎜ − ⎟ =⎜ − ⎟ =⎜ − ⎟ = 333 mm
⎝ f o⎠ ⎝R o⎠ ⎝ (250 mm) (200 mm) ⎠
So the image is 333 mm in front of the mirror.
33.84. (a) We use Equation 33.23 to write the focal length in terms of the radius of curvature, and we insert this into
Equation 33.24 to obtain
−1 −1 −1
⎛ 1 1⎞ ⎛2 1 ⎞ ⎛ 2 1 ⎞
i=⎜ − ⎟ =⎜ − ⎟ =⎜ − ⎟ = − 200 mm
⎝ f o⎠ ⎝ R d close ⎠ ⎝ (400 mm) (100 mm) ⎠
33-22 Chapter 33
The sign of the image distance tells us that the image is virtual, and the magnification is
i ( −200 mm)
m=− =− = 2.00. So the image is virtual, upright, magnified by a factor of 2.00, and located 200 mm
o (100 mm)
behind the mirror. (b) We proceed as in part (a), and write
−1 −1 −1
⎛ 1 1⎞ ⎛2 1 ⎞ ⎛ 2 1 ⎞
i=⎜ − ⎟ =⎜ − ⎟ =⎜ − ⎟ = 240 mm
⎝ f o⎠ ⎝ R d far ⎠ ⎝ (400 mm) (1200 mm) ⎠
The sign of the image distance tells us that the image is real, and it is located 240 mm in front of the mirror. The
i (240 mm)
magnification is m = − = − = − 0.200, such that the image is inverted and 0.200 times as large as the object.
o (1200 mm)
33.85. We use Equation 33.23 to write the focal length in terms of the radius of curvature, and we insert this into
Equation 33.24 to obtain
−1 −1 −1
⎛ 1 1⎞ ⎛ 2 1⎞ ⎛ 2 1 ⎞
i=⎜ − ⎟ =⎜ − ⎟ =⎜ − ⎟ = −0.392 mm
⎝ f o⎠ ⎝R o⎠ ⎝ (− 0.800 m) (20.0 m) ⎠
The image appears 392 mm behind mirror. But because the image is reduced, it occupies a much smaller fraction of
your field of view than the car itself would. The size of the image is given by
⎛i⎞ ⎛ −0.392 m ⎞
hi = Mho = − ⎜ ⎟ ho = − ⎜ ⎟ ho = 0.0196ho . The angle subtended by an object decreases linearly with
o
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ 20.0 m ⎠
distance (in the small angle approximation), so your brain perceives this image height as coming from
h h 1
hi = o ⇒ r = o = = 51 m. Thus, the image occupies roughly the same angular spread in your field of view
r hi 0.0196
as a car that is 51 m away.
−1 −1 −1
⎛ 1 1⎞ ⎛ 2 1⎞ ⎛ 2 1 ⎞
Equation 33.24 to obtain i = ⎜ − ⎟ = ⎜ − ⎟ = ⎜ − ⎟ = − 150 mm. So, the image is
⎝ f o ⎠ ⎝ R o ⎠ ⎝ (200 mm) (60 mm) ⎠
i ( −150 mm)
150 mm behind the mirror. (b) The magnification is given by m = − = − = 2.5. (c) The image is
o (60 mm)
virtual; the image distance is negative, meaning it is behind the mirror. (d) The image is upright. This is clear from
the positive magnification.
(e)
Equation 33.24 to obtain the image distance:
−1 −1 −1
⎛ 1 1⎞ ⎛ 2 1⎞ ⎛ 2 1 ⎞
i=⎜ − ⎟ =⎜ − ⎟ =⎜ − ⎟ = 45.65 mm
⎝ f o ⎠ ⎝ R o ⎠ ⎝ (70.0 mm) (150 mm) ⎠
Ray Optics 33-23
hi i i
Now we can use the magnification to determine the image height: = m = − ⇒ hi = − ho
ho o o
( −45.65 mm)
=− (20.0 mm) = − 6.09 mm, where the negative sign indicates that the image is inverted; the
(150 mm)
magnitude of the image height is 6.09 mm. (b) From the positive image distance, we see the image is real. (c) From
the negative magnification, we see the image is inverted.
(d)
−1
⎛ 1 1⎞
33.88. (a) Equation 33.23 can be solved for the image distance to obtain i = ⎜ − ⎟ . Without inserting any
⎝ f o⎠
values, we know the focal length is negative, meaning that both terms on the right hand side are negative and
i
therefore the image distance is negative. Thus the image is virtual. (b) Since the magnification is given by m = − ,
o
and we know the object distance is positive and the image distance is negative, clearly the magnification will have a
positive sign. Thus the image is upright. (c) We use Equation 33.23 to write the focal length in terms of the radius of
curvature, and we insert this into Equation 33.24 to obtain the image distance:
−1 −1 −1
⎛ 1 1⎞ ⎛ 2 1⎞ ⎛ 2 1 ⎞
i=⎜ − ⎟ =⎜ − ⎟ =⎜ − ⎟ = − 0.39 m
⎝ f o⎠ ⎝R o⎠ ⎝ (− 3.5 m) (0.50 m) ⎠
Thus the image is located 0.44 m behind the mirror. (d) Your image is smaller than you by a factor of
i ( −0.389 m)
m=− =− = 0.78.
o (0.50 m)
33.89. The magnification tells us that i = −mo, but we are not told whether the image is upright or inverted. Since
the image distance is smaller than the object distance (in magnitude) a negative image distance would result in a
negative focal length. But this cannot be the case, because we are told the mirror is a converging mirror. Thus, we set
i = − mo = (1/4)(1.0 m) = 0.25 m. Then we can insert this into Equation 33.23, which can be rearranged to yield
−1 −1
⎛1 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 1 ⎞
R = 2⎜ + ⎟ = 2⎜ + ⎟ = 0.40 m
⎝i o⎠ ⎝ (0.25 m) (1.0 m) ⎠
i
33.90. Using the expression for the magnification gives us m = N = − , and Equation 33.23 tells us
o
−1
⎛ 2 1⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞R
i = ⎜ − ⎟ . Inserting the latter equation into the former and solving for o yields o = ⎜1 − ⎟ .
⎝ R o ⎠ ⎝ N ⎠2
33-24 Chapter 33
33.91. Since the image is real, we know the image distance is positive, which allows us to use the magnification to
determine i = − mo = −( −2)(0.750 m) = 1.50 m. Then we can use Equation 33.23 to write
−1 −1
⎛1 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 1 ⎞
R = 2⎜ + ⎟ = 2⎜ + ⎟ = 1.00 m.
⎝ i o ⎠ ⎝ (1.50 m) (0.750 m) ⎠
−1
⎛ 1 1⎞
33.92. In all cases we use Equation 33.23 to determine the image distance: i = ⎜ − ⎟ , and we insert this into
⎝ f o⎠
−1
i ⎛1 1 ⎞ i −f
the magnification expression: m = − . (a) i = ⎜ − ⎟ = − f = −300 mm and m = − = − = 2.00. (b) The
o ⎝ f f /2 ⎠ o f /2
image position would go to infinity as the object approaches the focal point. The magnification is not defined in such
−1
⎛1 1 ⎞ i 3f
a case, as no clear image is visible. (c) i = ⎜ − ⎟ = 3 f = 900 mm and m = − = − = − 2.00.
⎝ f 3 f /2 ⎠ o 3 f /2
−1 −1 −1 −1
⎛ 1 1⎞ ⎛1 1 ⎞ i 2f ⎛ 1 1⎞ ⎛1 1 ⎞
(d) i = ⎜ − ⎟ = ⎜ − ⎟ = 2 f = 600 mm and m = − = − = − 1.00. (e) i = ⎜ − ⎟ = ⎜ − ⎟
⎝ f o ⎠ ⎝ f 2 f ⎠ o 2 f ⎝ f o ⎠ ⎝ f 3 f ⎠
i 3 f /2
= 3 f /2 = 450 mm and m = − = − = −0.500. (f) In this case the image is formed at i = 300 mm, meaning all
o 3f
the light is focused down to a single point. One might call this a magnification of zero.
−1
⎛ 1 1⎞
33.93. In all cases we use Equation 33.23 to determine the image distance: i = ⎜ − ⎟ , and we insert this
⎝ f o⎠
−1 −1
i ⎛ 1 1⎞ ⎛ 1 1 ⎞ f
into the magnification expression: m=− . (a) i = ⎜ − ⎟ = ⎜− − ⎟ =− = −100 mm and
⎝ f o⎠ ⎜ ⎟
o ⎝ f f /2 ⎠ 3
−1 −1
i − f /3 ⎛ 1 1⎞ ⎛ 1 1 ⎞ f i − f /2
m=− =− = 0.667. (b) i = ⎜ − ⎟ = ⎜− − ⎟ =− = − 150 mm and m=− =−
o f /2 ⎝ f o⎠ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ f f ⎠ 2 o f
−1 −1
⎛ 1 1⎞ ⎛ 1 1 ⎞ 3 f i −3 f / 5
= 0.500. (c) i = ⎜ − ⎟ = ⎜− − ⎟ =− = − 180 mm and m=− =− = 0.400. (d)
⎝ f o ⎠ ⎜ f 3 f / 2 ⎟ 5 o 3 f /2
⎝ ⎠
−1 −1 −1
⎛ 1 1⎞ ⎛ 1 1 ⎞ 2 f i −2 f / 3 ⎛ 1 1⎞
i = ⎜ − ⎟ = ⎜− − ⎟ =− = −200 mm and m=− =− = 0.333. (e) i=⎜ − ⎟ =
⎝ f o ⎠ ⎜ f 2 f ⎟ 3 o 2 f ⎝ f o⎠
⎝ ⎠
−1
⎛ 1 1 ⎞ 3 f i −3 f / 4
⎜− − ⎟ =− = − 225 mm and m = − = − = 0.250. (f) In this case the image appears to be at
⎜ f ⎟
3 f ⎠ 4 o 3 f
⎝
i = − 300 mm, meaning all the light is focused down to a single point. One might call this a magnification of zero.
For the converging mirror, some positions gave magnified images and some positions gave images reduced in size.
But for diverging mirrors, all images were reduced in size. Converging mirrors can produce images that are either
upright or inverted, whereas diverging mirrors can only produce images that are upright. Placing an object at the
focal point of a converging mirror causes the image to be ill-defined (projected at infinity). Because we cannot place
the object at the focal point of diverging mirror (which is behind the mirror) an analogous condition does not exist for
a diverging mirror.
Ray Optics 33-25
33.94. If the image appears 10.0 m behind the mirror, we know i = −10.0 m. From the magnification we
i i (− 10.0 m)
find m=− ⇒o=− =− = 100 m. Inserting these distances into Equation 33.23 we find
o m (0.100)
−1 −1
⎛1 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 1 ⎞
R = 2 f = 2⎜ + ⎟ = 2⎜ + ⎟ = − 22.2 m.
⎝ i o ⎠ ⎝ ( − 10.0 m) (100 m) ⎠
33.95.
The final image is upright, smaller than the object, and is located a distance in front of the mirror equal to
approximately 0.83R.
33.96. Images made by diverging mirrors are always virtual, upright, behind the mirror, and shrunken. Images made
by flat mirrors are always virtual, upright, behind the mirror, and the same size as the original object. Images made
by converging mirrors may make real or virtual images depending on the location of the object relative to the focal
length of the mirror. If the object is closer to the mirror than the focal length, then the image will be virtual, upright,
behind the mirror, and magnified. If the object is farther from the mirror than the focal length, then the image will be
real, inverted, and in front of the mirror. Whether the image is magnified or reduced depends again on where the
object is. If the object is between the focal point and twice the focal length, then the object will be magnified. If the
object is farther from the mirror than twice the focal length, the image will be reduced.
33.97. The first mirror must be concave, because a convex mirror cannot form a real image. The second mirror must
be concave because a convex mirror cannot increase the size of an image compared to the object. Considering the
−1
⎛1 1 ⎞ 4o
magnification, for the first mirror we can write i1 = 2o1 which implies R1 = 2 ⎜ + ⎟ = 1 . In the case of the
i
⎝ 1 o1 ⎠ 3
−1
⎛1 1 ⎞
second mirror, we have i2 = −2o2 , such that R2 = 2 ⎜ + ⎟ = 4o1. Thus R2 / R1 = 3.
⎝ i2 o2 ⎠
1 1
33.98. For each lens, we refer to Equation 33.36 and check to see if the sum + is positive, negative, or zero.
R1 R2
This will tell us if the focal length is positive, negative, or infinite (planar). (a) Both radii are positive, so the focal
length is positive. The lens is converging. (b) One radius is positive and the other is infinite, making the focal length
positive. The lens is converging. (c) One radius is positive and the other is negative. They appear to have roughly the
1 1
same magnitude, making + ≈ 0. This makes the focal length approximately infinite, meaning the lens is
R1 R2
neighter converging nor diverging. (d) Both radii are negative, so the focal length is negative. The lens is diverging.
(e) One radius is negative and the other is infinite, making the focal length negative. The lens is diverging. (f) One
radius is negative and the other is positive, but the negative radius of curvature is larger than the positive radius. This
1 1
tells us that + > 0 such that the lens is converging.
R1 R2
33-26 Chapter 33
−1 −1
⎡ ⎛ 1 1 ⎞⎤ ⎡ ⎛ 1 1 ⎞⎤
33.99. Using Equation 33.36 we have f = ⎢(n − 1) ⎜ + ⎟ ⎥ = ⎢(1.40 − 1.00) ⎜ + ⎟⎥
⎣⎢ ⎝ R1 R2 ⎠ ⎦⎥ ⎢⎣ ⎝ (300 mm) (500 mm) ⎠ ⎦⎥
= 469 mm.
−1 −1
⎛ 1 1 ⎞ ⎛ − 3.0 diopters 1 ⎞
33.100. Rearranging Equation 33.36, we have R2 = ⎜ − ⎟ =⎜ − ⎟ = −0.17 m.
⎝ f (n − 1) R1 ⎠ ⎝ (1.5 − 1.0) ∞⎠
−1 −1
⎛ 1 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 1⎞
33.101. Rearranging Equation 33.36, we have R2 = ⎜ − ⎟ =⎜ − ⎟ = 0.10 m.
⎝ f (n − 1) R1 ⎠ ⎝ (0.170 m)(1.6 − 1.0) ∞ ⎠
−1 −1
⎛ 1 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 1 ⎞
33.102. Rearranging Equation 33.36, we have R2 = ⎜ − ⎟ =⎜ − ⎟
⎝ f ( n − 1) R1 ⎠ ⎝ (0.300 m)(1.45 − 1.00) (1.50 m) ⎠
= 0.15 m.
−1 −1
1⎛ 1 1 ⎞ 1 ⎛ 1 1 ⎞
33.103. Rearranging Equation 33.36, we have n= ⎜ + ⎟ +1 = ⎜ + ⎟
f ⎝ R1 R2 ⎠ (4.5 mm) ⎝ (1.8 mm) (1.8 mm) ⎠
+ 1 = 1.2.
−1 −1
⎛ 1 ⎡ 1 ⎞⎤ ⎡ ⎛ 1 1 ⎞⎤
33.104. (a) Using Equation 33.36 we have f = ⎢( n − 1) ⎜ + ⎟ ⎥ = ⎢(1.50 − 1.00) ⎜ + ⎟⎥
⎢⎣ ⎝ R1 R2 ⎠ ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ ⎝ (0.15 m) (− 0.25 m) ⎠ ⎥⎦
= 0.75 m. (b) The focal length remains 0.75 m. The focal length does not change when the lens is turned around.
i ⎛ hi ⎞
33.105. We can determine the image distance using the magnification: m = − ⇒ i = −mo = − ⎜ ⎟o
o ⎝ ho ⎠
⎛ (21.5 mm) ⎞
= −⎜ ⎟ (500 mm) = −1.08 m, where we have kept one additional significant digit because this is an
⎝ (10 mm) ⎠
intermediate step. Inserting this into Equation 33.16 gives us the focal length
−1 −1
⎛1 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 1 ⎞
f =⎜ + ⎟ =⎜ + ⎟ = 0.935 m. Finally, we rearrange Equation 33.36 to yield
⎝i o⎠ ⎝ (− 1.075 m) (0.500 m) ⎠
−1 −1
⎛ 1 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 1 ⎞
R2 = ⎜ − ⎟ =⎜ − ⎟ = 0.20 m or 2.0 × 10 mm.
2
⎝ f ( n − 1) R1 ⎠ ⎝ (0.935 m)(1.50 − 1.00) ( − 0.350 m) ⎠
33.106. Equation 33.36 is derived for the specific case of a lens surrounded by air. One must work back through the
derivation inserting an index of refraction for the medium in which the lens is submerged/imbedded. Call this nmat ,
and call the index of refraction of the lens itself nlens . This changes Equation 33.25 to now read:
nlens sin(θ1 ) = nmat sin(θ r ), which changes the small angle approximation to read nlensθ1 ≈ nmatθ r . This changes
⎛ nlens ⎞
⎜ − 1⎟
⎛n ⎞ 1 ⎝ nmat ⎠ . Clearly Equation 33.31
Equation 33.27 to θ r − θ1 = ⎜ lens − 1⎟θ1 , and Equation 33.30 becomes =
⎝ nmat ⎠ f1 R1
⎛ nlens ⎞
⎜ − 1⎟
1 ⎝ nmat ⎠ . Combining them as before, we obtain a more general lens
changes in an identical way, such that =
f2 R2
maker’s formula:
Ray Optics 33-27
−1
⎡⎛ n ⎞⎛ 1 1 ⎞⎤
f = ⎢⎜ lens − 1⎟⎜ + ⎟⎥ (1)
⎣⎢⎝ nmat ⎠ ⎝ R1 R2 ⎠ ⎦⎥
We use equation (1) to write the ratio of the focal lengths in air and in water:
−1
⎡⎛ nglass ⎞⎛ 1 1 ⎞⎤ ⎛ nglass ⎞
⎢⎜ − 1⎟⎜ + ⎟⎥ ⎜ − 1⎟
f in air ⎢⎝ nair ⎠ ⎝ R1 R2 ⎠ ⎥⎦ n
= ⎣ −1
= ⎝ water ⎠
f in water ⎡⎛ nglass ⎞⎛ 1 1 ⎞ ⎤ ⎛ n ⎞
⎢⎜ − 1⎟⎜ + ⎟⎥ ⎜
glass
− 1⎟
⎝ nair ⎠
⎢⎣⎝ nwater ⎠⎝ R1 R2 ⎠⎦ ⎥
Or equivalently,
⎛ nglass ⎞ ⎛ (1.55) ⎞
⎜ − 1⎟ ⎜ − 1⎟
n ⎝ (1.00) ⎠ (0.500 m) = 1.66 m
f in water = ⎝ air ⎠ f
in air =
⎛ nglass ⎞ ⎛ (1.55) ⎞
⎜ − 1⎟ ⎜ − 1⎟
⎝ nwater ⎠ ⎝ (1.33) ⎠
−1 −1
⎡ ⎛ 1 1 ⎞⎤ ⎡ ⎛ 1 1 ⎞⎤
33.107. (a) Using Equation 33.36 we have f = ⎢(n − 1) ⎜ + ⎟ ⎥ = ⎢(1.50 − 1.00) ⎜ + ⎟ ⎥ = 80 mm.
⎢⎣ R
⎝ 1 R2 ⎠⎥
⎦ ⎢⎣ ⎝ (40 mm) ∞ ⎠ ⎥⎦
−1 −1
1⎛ 1 1 ⎞ 1 ⎛ 1 1⎞
(b) Rearranging Equation 33.36, we find n = ⎜ + ⎟ +1 = ⎜ + ⎟ + 1 = 1.4.
f ⎝ R1 R2 ⎠ (100 mm) ⎝ (40 mm) ∞ ⎠
33.108. We use Equation 33.36 to write the ratio of the two focal lengths:
−1
⎡ ⎛ 1 1 ⎞⎤
⎢ (nB − 1) ⎜ + ⎟⎥
fB ⎣⎢ R
⎝ 1 R (n − 1) (nA − 1)
⎥
2 ⎠⎦
= −1
= A =
fA ⎡ ⎛ 1 1 ⎞⎤ ( nB − 1) (2nA − 1)
⎢( nA − 1) ⎜ + ⎟⎥
⎣⎢ ⎝ R1 R2 ⎠ ⎦⎥
( n − 1) ((1.1) − 1.0)
So f B = A fA = f A = 0.083 f A .
(2nA − 1) (2(1.1) − 1.0)
33.109. (a) The lens is converging. One radius of curvature is positive and one is negative, but the positive radius is
⎛ 1 1 ⎞
smaller in magnitude. This means the quantity ⎜ + ⎟ is positive, so the focal length is also positive. (b) Neither
⎝ R1 R2 ⎠
⎛ 1 1 ⎞
converging nor diverging. The quantity ⎜ + ⎟ would be zero, which would make the focal length infinite.
R
⎝ 1 R2 ⎠
⎛ 1 1 ⎞
(c) The lens would be diverging. The quantity ⎜ + ⎟ would be negative, which would make the focal length
⎝ R1 R2 ⎠
negative.
−1
1⎛ 1 1 ⎞
33.110. We can rearrange Equation 33.36 to read n = ⎜ + ⎟ + 1, which in this case can be simplified to
f ⎝ R1 R2 ⎠
1 R
n= + 1. Here we have used the fact that the radius of curvature must be positive in order for the lens to form a
f 2
real image. The fact that the magnification is −2, also lets us write the image distance as i = − mo = 2 R. Now the thin
33-28 Chapter 33
−1 −1
⎛1 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 1⎞ 2R
lens equation lets us determine the focal length of the lens: f = ⎜ + ⎟ = ⎜ + ⎟ = . Inserting this into the
⎝i o⎠ ⎝ 2R R ⎠ 3
1 R 3 R
simplification of Equation 33.36 above, we find n = +1 = + 1 = 1.75.
f 2 2R 2
33.111. You can only see light when it is reflected off of some object. In the air, there is no mechanism by which
the laser light can be reflected to your eye. However, if you sprinkle powder into the path of the beam, the particles
can scatter/reflect light to your eyes and the beam becomes partly visible.
33.112. When light leaves the fish and exits the water, it bends away from the normal line at the interface. The light
rays thus bend such that they are closer to parallel to the water’s surface. Since the fisherman’s eyes trace those rays
back in a linear fashion (ignoring refraction), the fisherman perceives the fish to be closer to the surface of the water
(shallower than the fish actually is). Thus, the spear fisherman should aim below the image.
d dn (4.0 × 106 m)(1.6)

33.113. Δ t = = = = 0.021 s
c c0 (3.00 × 108 m/s)
33.114. We would want the parallel rays of light from the sun to be focused down to a point right on the sails of the
ship, 100 m away. So we would want a focal length of 100 m. This corresponds to a radius of curvature
R = 2 f = 2(100 m) = 200 m.
33.115. (a) This could be used to form a real image that is the same size as the original object. This follows from
−1 −1
⎛ 1 1⎞ ⎛1 1 ⎞ i 2f
i=⎜ − ⎟ =⎜ − ⎟ = 2 f , and m = − = − = − 1. (b) This could be used to make light emanating from a
⎝ f o⎠ ⎝ f 2f ⎠ o 2f
point source travel in a straight line without spreading. This can be seen by writing
−1 −1
⎛ 1 1⎞ ⎛1 1⎞ 1
i = ⎜ − ⎟ = ⎜ − ⎟ → ⇒ i → ∞. (c) This could be used to focus light down to a single point (from the
⎝ f o⎠ ⎝ f f ⎠ 0
definition of a focal point), such as for heating a small region of space.
33.116. (a) We first use the magnification to determine the image distance. We know
hi i ⎛h ⎞ ⎛ ( −80 mm) ⎞
= m = − ⇒ i = −o ⎜ i ⎟ = − ( 60 mm ) ⎜ ⎟ = 1.2 × 10 mm
2
ho o ⎝ ho ⎠ ⎝ (40 mm) ⎠
−1
⎛1 1 ⎞
(b) Now we can use the thin lens equation to determine the focal length: f =⎜ + ⎟ =
⎝i o⎠
−1
⎛ 1 1 ⎞
⎜ + ⎟ = 40 mm.
⎝ (120 mm) (60 mm) ⎠
33.117. A converging lens can form either a real or a virtual image. Let us first assume the image is virtual (and
upright). In that case the magnification tells us that i = − mo = − 3o. Inserting this into the thin lens equation, we find
1 1 1 1 1 2f 2
= + = + ⇒o= = (50 mm) = 33 mm. So, if the image is upright the object is 33 mm from the
f i o − 3o o 3 3
lens. Now let us consider the possibility that the image is real (and inverted). Then the magnification tells us
1 1 1 1 1 4f 4
i = − mo = 3o, and the thin lens equation yields = + = + ⇒o= = (50 mm) = 67 mm. If the image is
f i o 3o o 3 3
inverted, the object distance is 67 mm.
Ray Optics 33-29
λvacuum λvacuum c1 (550 nm)(2.4 × 108 m/s)

33.118. (a) The wavelength in this medium (call it medium 1) is λ1 = = =
n1 c0 (3.0 × 108 m/s)
c0 (3.0 × 10 m/s)
8
= 440 nm. (b) The frequency is given by f = = = 5.5 × 1014 Hz. (c) The frequency does not
λ0 (550 × 10−9 m)
change when the light goes from one medium to another. Thus the frequency is still 5.5 × 1014 Hz.
33.119. (a) Dispersion. (b) It can be minimized, but not removed completely. (c) No.
33.120. (a) The image is virtual. A diverging mirror cannot form a real image. (b) The image is upright. The image
distance is negative and the object distance is positive, making the overall magnification positive. This corresponds
to an upright image. (c) We obtain the radius of curvature using Equation 33.24, inserting Equation 33.23 along the
−1 −1
⎛1 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 1 ⎞
way: R = 2 f = 2 ⎜ + ⎟ = 2 ⎜ + ⎟ = − 4.0 m.
⎝i o⎠ ⎝ (− 0.75 m) (1.2m) ⎠
33.121.
33.122. The image distance can be obtained by the thin lens equation:
−1 −1
⎛ 1 1⎞ ⎛ 1 1 ⎞
i=⎜ − ⎟ =⎜ − ⎟ = 0.05009 mm (where we have kept some extra digits, for this
⎝ f o⎠ ⎝ (0.050 m) (29 m) ⎠
intermediate step; rounding to 0.050 gives us nonsense because that is the focal length). We now relate this to the
h i i (0.05009 m)
image height through the magnification: i = m = − ⇒ hi = − ho = − (1.7 m) = − 2.9 mm. Here the
ho o o (29 m)
negative sign indicates that the image is inverted.
33.123. (a) We find the critical angle for the interface between diamond and flint glass:
⎛ n ⎞ ⎛ (1.65) ⎞
θ c = sin −1 ⎜ flint glass ⎟ = sin −1 ⎜ ⎟ = 43.0 °. (b) Now we find the critical angle for the air-flint glass interface, and
n
⎝ diamond ⎠ ⎝ (2.42) ⎠
then use Snel’s law to find the incident angle in the diamond. For the air-flint glass interface, the critical angle is
⎛ nair ⎞ ⎛ (1.00) ⎞
θ c = sin −1 ⎜ ⎟ = sin −1 ⎜ ⎟ = 37.31 °. This is the largest angle at which light in the flint glass can strike the
⎜ nflint glass ⎟ ⎝ (1.65) ⎠
⎝ ⎠
air-glass interface and just barely make it through to the air. Now we assume light is indeed traveling at that angle
from normal in the flint glass, and apply Snel’s law to the diamond-glass interface:
⎛n ⎞ ⎛ (1.65) ⎞
θ diamond = sin −1 ⎜ flint glass sin(θ flint glass ) ⎟ = sin −1 ⎜ sin(37.31 °) ⎟ = 24.2 °.
⎝ ndiamond ⎠ ⎝ (2.42) ⎠
33.124. You tell your friend to dive to the lake bottom while pulling a fishing line from your hand. This allows you
to measure your friend’s vertical depth. You tell your friend to shine the laser point just behind the boat so that light
that exits the water hits the rear of the boat, just a few millimeters above the water line. While your friend remains
33-30 Chapter 33
stationary, you begin to paddle away from him, letting out fishing line attached to his floating marker as you go. As
you drift away from your friend you watch the side of the boat as the bright spot sinks lower, closer to the water line.
At the moment the bright spot disappears completely you stop letting out line and note the distance from you to your
friend. Knowing your friend’s depth and horizontal distance from you, you can calculate the incident angle of the
beam on the surface θincident = tan −1 (Δx/ Δh). At the moment the beam vanished, it started undergoing total internal
reflection, so the incident angle is also the critical angle. Hence we can write sin −1 (nair / nwater ) = θ c = tan −1 ( Δx / Δ h).
Equivalently, nwater = nair / sin(tan −1 ( Δx/ Δh)). All quantities on the right hand side are known, so your goal is
accomplished.
33.125. From the information given, we can determine the distance from the lens to the screen using the
hi i ⎛h ⎞
magnification: = m = − ⇒ i = − ⎜ i ⎟ o. At this point we note that a real image produced by a single lens is
ho o ⎝ ho ⎠
always inverted (the film is fed into the project with the scenes upside-down to correct for this), so the ratio of
⎛h ⎞ ⎛ −(1.450 m) ⎞
heights will be a negative number. Thus i = − ⎜ i ⎟ o = − ⎜ ⎟ (0.1000 m) = 7.250 m. This means the
h
⎝ o⎠ ⎝ (0.02000 m) ⎠
distance from the film to the screen is d = 7.350 m, and this distance is fixed. So, we require a magnification that is
⎛ h ⎞ ⎛ −(1.450 m) ⎞
three times greater than the initial magnification, or mfinal = 3mi = 3 ⎜ i ⎟ = 3 ⎜ ⎟ = − 217.5. We write
⎝ ho ⎠ ⎝ (0.02000 m) ⎠
the image distance in terms of the object distance and magnification: i = − mfinalo = − mfinal (d − i ) ⇒ i
− mfinal d −( −217.5)(7.350 m)
= = = 7.316 m, which corresponds to an object distance of
(1 − mfinal ) (1 − (− 217.5))
o = d − i = (7.350 m) − (7.3164 m) = 0.0336 m. We can now determine the best lens to use by applying the thin lens
−1 −1
⎛1 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 1 ⎞
equation: f = ⎜ + ⎟ = ⎜ + ⎟ = 0.0335 m. So, we must use a converging lens with a
⎝ i o ⎠ ⎝ (7.3164 m) (0.0336 m) ⎠
focal length of 33.5 mm. We must place the lens a distance 33.6 mm in front of the film holder. This will cause an
image to be cast on the screen 7.316 m in front of the lens, and the image will be three times larger than your initial
attempt, meaning the image will have a final height of 4.350 m.
33.126. Equation 33.36 is derived for the specific case of a lens surrounded by air. One must work back through the
derivation inserting an index of refraction for the medium in which the lens is submerged/imbedded. Call this nmat ,
and call the index of refraction of the lens itself nlens . This changes Equation 33.25 to now read:
nlens sin(θ1 ) = nmat sin(θ r ), which changes the small angle approximation to read nlensθ1 ≈ nmatθ r . This changes
Equation 33.27 to
⎛ nlens ⎞
θ r − θ1 = ⎜ − 1⎟θ1
⎝ nmat ⎠
and Equation 33.30 becomes
⎛ nlens ⎞
⎜ − 1⎟
1 ⎝ mat n ⎠
=
f1 R1
Clearly Equation 33.31 changes in an identical way, such that
⎛ nlens ⎞
⎜ − 1⎟
1 ⎝ mat n ⎠
=
f2 R2
Ray Optics 33-31
Combining them as before, we obtain a more general lens maker’s formula:

−1
⎡⎛ n ⎞⎛ 1 1 ⎞⎤
f = ⎢⎜ lens − 1⎟⎜ + ⎟⎥ (1)
⎣⎢⎝ nmat ⎠ ⎝ R1 R2 ⎠ ⎦⎥
The only thing about equation (1) that changes if nmedium > nlens is the overall sign of the focal length. This means that
a converging lens would suddenly behave like a diverging lens, and vice versa. Note also that for the special case that
nmedium = nlens , the focal length diverges as one would expect.

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RAY OPTICS

⎛ RSun − REarth ⎞ −1 ⎛ (7 × 10 m) − (6.738 × 10 m) ⎞

33.11. Consider the figure below.

33.42. (a) and (b)

c0 (3.00 × 108 m/s)

(c) The answer to (a) would be

⎝ f 2 o2 ⎠ ⎝ (63 mm) (50 mm) ⎠

⎛ i ⎞⎛ i ⎞ ⎛ (150 mm) ⎞⎛ (− 242 mm) ⎞

((400 mm) − (150 mm))(300 mm)

two lenses, using Example 33.9:

⎝ f ( n − 1) R1 ⎠ ⎝ (0.935 m)(1.50 − 1.00) ( − 0.350 m) ⎠

d dn (4.0 × 106 m)(1.6)

λvacuum λvacuum c1 (550 nm)(2.4 × 108 m/s)

Combining them as before, we obtain a more general lens maker’s formula:

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