Introduction to Food Science and Technology: Definition, Scope and Current Trends in Food

Science and Technology

Introduction To Food Science And Technology

India has great degree of social, economic and cultural diversity. the socio economic status of
different sections of population, food habits of people in different states, traditional methods and
practices of processing and preservation of food material very greatly in different geographical
areas.

Food is a basic requirement of human than even shelter and clothing. It is a mixture of different
chemical components. Civilized man does not eat all the food as it is available in nature because
of social, economic and cultureal diversity. Human cuts, crushes, cool, processes and modifies in
many ways before by adding to the diet. It is the source of nutrients and provides energy required
for all activities of a human body such as growth, repair of the damaged tissues, reproduction and
senescence. So finally food is defined as anything solid or liquid which when swallowed,
digested and assimilated, nourishes the body.

Food science and food technology are not two separate subjects but merely brought divisions of
continuous spectrum the relationship between food science and food technology are suitable and
complex. Food science help us to understand the theory, e.g. what methods can best be used to
store and preserve food to maintain quality and prevent spoilage. Food technology demonstrates
how the food is stored, preserved, processed and transported and has been responsible for the
development of new techniques for processing and preserving food on a commercial scale and
for packing it in such a way that it can be sold conveniently.

The study of different chemical components in a food is known as food science. Food science
can be defined as the application of the basic science and engineering to study the fundamental,
physical, chemical and biochemical nature of food and the principles of food processing. Study
of food science also deals with nutritive value of different foods. The information provides a
foundation of theory and methods on which to build the study of food processing.

Food technology is the application of principles of food science and engineering to the
processing and preserving large quantities of food. Food technology is the use of information
generated by food science in the selection, preservation, processing, packaging and distribution
as it affects the consumption of safe, nutritious and wholesome food. It is a broad discipline
which contains within it many specializations such as food microbiology, food analysis, food
engineering, food chemistry and food processing technology.

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In the field of Food science Margaret [1968] as the application of the physical, biological and
behavioral sciences to the processing and marketing of foods. Although the main emphasis in the
food science is on technology, the nutritional aspects should get the due attention as food is eaten
primarily to satisfy the needs of the body for nutrients.

 Early scientific research into food technology concentrated on food preservation. Nicolas
Appert’s development in 1810 of the canning process was a decisive event. The process
wasn’t called canning then and Appert did not rally know the principle on which his
process worked, but canning has had a major impact on food preservation techniques.
 Louis Pasteur’s research on the spoilage of wine and his description of how to avoid
spoilage in 1864 was an early attempt to apply scientific knowledge to food handling.
Besides research into wine spoilage ,Pasteur researched the preparation of alcohol,
vinegar, wines and beer, souring of milk. He developed pasteurization-the process of
heating milk and milk products to destroy food spoilage and disease producing
organisms. In his research into food technology, Pasteur became the pioneer into
bacteriology and of modern preventive medicine.

Scope of food science and technology:

Food requirements for increasing global population and consumer safety has necessitated
defining the objective of food science and technology. They are as follows:

1. Make available wholesome nutritious and appetizing at economical rates.

2. Improve nutritive value and minimum loss of essential nutrients during processing and
preservation.
3. Ensure long term storage stability even at elevated temperatures
4. Market the processed foods of high calories density in compact and easily reconstitutable
form in light weight and easily operable containers.
5. Prevent food poisoning, contamination, or adulteration.
6. Cater to the special dietary requirement of patients, sports persons, space nutrition and
children.
7. Improving mechanical processing operations such as harvesting to treplace or minimizing
labour.
8. Develop new varities of instant or convenience foods.
9. Understand the changes during food preparation and control them in order to obtain food
which has desirable characteristics.

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EMERGING TRENDS IN FOOD TECHNOLOGY

Today India is not only self-sufficient but also exports food and has a reserve because of
advances in food technology. During the last decade many indigenous developments have taken
place in the field of food technology reducing dependence on imported know-how. During these
years increasing industrialization and its social consequences accelerated by development of
food technology. As a result, food industries took birth and shape. The desire to spend less time
in kitchen, importance attached to leisure, higher living standards, urge for eating outside home
and weakening of family ties, create scope for precooked and pre packed food in convenient and
ready to eat forms. Special food for infants, growing children, convalescents, invalids, old
people, astronauts, defense forces and expeditions have also been designed and produced.

Natural food colors, bioactive principles from plant sources, value addition to the byproducts
from various food processing industries, environmentally accepted technologies, water
conservation in the processing are the newer areas of development taking place in food
technology.

Food processing is generally regarded as a traditional industry but advances in microelectronics,

instrumentation and control, new materials, bio processing and biotechnology beginning to
propel the industry at a faster rate. Food industry has been identified as priority industry in the
union budget 2006.

1. BIOTECHNOLOGY IN FOOD

Biotechnology centre around the microbes and cells taken from plants and animals and their
innate ability to synthesize wide range of valuable substances. The origin of biotechnology dates
back to ages when man mastered preparing bread, cheese and fermented beverages.

Biotechnology is multidisciplinary in approach involving chemical engineering, modern

biochemistry, microbiology, fermentation technology, genetic and enzyme engineering in which
the tasks are complex and the benefits are immense.

India and Brazil among the third world countries have the high potential for biotechnology
concept and application.

The important area of biotechnology application is the qualitative improvement in foods with
nutritionally superior proteins and less or no antinutritional constituents and raw material suitable
for processing and preservation. For example, the solid content of tomato has been improved by
somaclonal variations. The toxin content of lathyrus sativus is being reduced or eliminated by
somaclonal variation.

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Biotechnology is a tool that promises to help meet consumers demand for services, illustrating
how demand and technology interact to create new markets. The food sector will further
capatitalise on the growing interest in “ functional foods” , products differentiated by nutritional
(and perhaps medicinal) content and appeal to consumers concerns about diet and health. This is
the premise of “second generation” biotechnology products, following the “first generation”
innovations that reduced farmers production cost or boosted yields but did not otherwise change
the commodity. Designing, creating and monitoring these second generation products are
prominent opportunities for biotechnology research and increasingly offer the promise of new
and larger markets for the sector.

Technological innovation has played an important role in meeting human food needs since the
down of agriculture.

Technologies of the new century-biotechnology and information technology-will reinvigorate

productivity growth in food and agriculture production and to make agriculture more
environmentally sustainable.

It promises nutrition and health benefits for the developing world as demonstrated by the golden
rice project, which could significantly reduce blindness related to vitamin A deficiency.

In the not too distant feature, with biotechnology, vaccines, against cholera for example, could be
administered through dietary staples such as rice and bananas to overcome the many problems
with mass inoculations.

a. Genetically Modified Foods

The basic principle govering genetic engineering is that genetic material which is also known as
DNA can be transferred from a cell of one species to another unrelated species and made to
express itself in the recipient cells. This is also known as recombinant DNA technology.

There are three broad ways that GM crops can benefit consumers. First it provides new tools to
improve crop productivity, both by making conventional breeding faster and more efficient
through insertion of novel genes in a crop species. It means modifying for higher solids content
amino acids, sugar or fatty acids profiles or for delaying ripening.

Second, pesticide applications may be reduced. That is, all those food items obtained from
plants which have been modified for disease resistance, pest resistance, draught resistance etc.

Third, transgenic methods may be used to improve the micronutrient content and or
bioavailability of commonly eaten foods in developing countries. Grape fruit.

Currently available GM foods are mainly developed for the international commodity market for
crops such as soya bean, maize, canola for feed, oil and processed food.

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 While benefits are attractive, there are concerns that genetic modifications achieved through
transgenic techniques may result in harm. The introduction of GM foods into the food chain is
regulated and well controlled at various stages by both the governmental and international
regualatory systems such as technology patenting field testing of the crop; animal and human
consumption trials, approval for commercial use as a crop and for human and animal
consumption.

Several research in development institutions in India are engaged in developing GM-mustard,

rice, potato, tomato, cabbage, cauliflower, brinjal and sugarcane for pest resistance and improved
quality of the food item.

b. Biofortification

The introduction of bio fortified crops- varieties bred for increased mineral and vitamin content-
would compliment existing nutrition approaches. It offers a sustainable and low cost way to
reach people with poor access to formal markets or health care systems. Bio fortification can
provide ongoing benefits throughout the developing world at a fraction of the recurring cost of
either supplementation or post-production fortification.

Research funded by Danish International Development Assistance, DANIDA, and coordinated

by the International Food Policy Research Institute, IFPRI, has examined the feasibility of a
plant breeding approach for improving the micro nutrient content of staple crops.

The ability of crop research to screen for and improve the nutrient content of staple crops has
also been amply demonstrated by the Future Harvest International Agricultural Research
Institutes and their partners is given below

 Iron rich rice- International Rice Research Institute, Philippines

 Quality protein maize- International Maize And Wheat Improvement Centre,
Mexico
 High carotene sweet potato-International Potato Centre, Peru
 High carotene cassava-International Centre For Tropical Agriculture, Colombia

GOLDEN RICE: Nutritional Genomics have been applied to rice for the development of golden
rice. Golden rice is genetically engineered product. Golden rice is a transgenic variety of rice
with genes for the synthesis of -carotene taken from Narcissus pseudonarcissus(daffodil) and
inserted into the genome of a temperate strain of rice using Agrobacterium tumefaciens as the
vector, to effect the transfer. The gene construct also contains some genes for enzymes of the
biosynthetic pathway of -carotene from another bacterium Erwinia uridovora.

2. PROCESSED FOODS

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 Rapid urbanisation has meant that the association sociological changes is havoing its impact
on the life style of a large segment of the population. This has resulted in enhanced demand
for pre packaged and pre cooked ready to eat foods. The annual production of RTE foods in
the organised sectors in india is 3,45,411 tonnes(2004).

i. Retort processed foods :

Developments in polymer/packaging industry have enabled introduction of retort processed

foods, also known as ‘ready to eat foods’. These are in the form of sachets that can be stored
even for one year at room temperature and to be pre-warmed before consumption. Recipes like
palak-paneer, and fish curries are available processed in this way.

Retort processed foods have the advantage of being commercially sterile, possessing a high-
quality life and can be engineered to have no food additives. The cost of retort processed foods is
similar to that of fresh food products from any middle-class restaurant.

ii. Energy bars:

These are used in sports nutrition, weight loss programme , as quick meal or an energy
supplement or as meal replacement.

Energy bars provides protein, complex carbohydrates, fibre, friendly fats, healthy vitamins and
minerals and even phytochemicals. Grains used may include oat, barley, wheat, corn, rice, rye,
buckwheat, triticale and millets. Binding syrup not only provides sweeting, maintain appropriate
water activity and humectancy, provides brown colour and flavour upon cooking and baking,
modify texture by providing either chewiness or crispness and increases stability of the product.
Fruit pastes from prumes, raisins and apples also provides flavous, fibre, vitamins, minerals
besides sweetness and binding. Some varieties can also included like wheat, flaxseeds, cashew
nuts, almonds, walnuts and etc.

iii. Engineered foods:

An engineered food is composed of a variety of natural and or synthetic ingredients which have
been texturised and modified to simulate the appearance and taste of a particular food products.
E.g., non dairy coffee cream in place of cow’s milk cream. Engineered foods have the
advantages of being consistent in nthier year round availability, appearance, taste, and nutrient
content. They often have a long shelf life as a result of their p[ackaging and are east to prepare.

3. Space foods:

Space-feeding requires careful modifications of food, as there is weightlessness in space.

Restrictions imposed by the limitations of space requires suitable design for storage, preparation,
and serving of foods. Weight and fuel are also the limiting factors in space.

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Space food should be nutritious, appealing, and palatable. It should be light in weight, less in
volume and posses the property to resistance to crumbling. Any kind crumbs or liquids that
might get loose in the space-craft could float and become a hazard. Bite-sized particles solve the
problem of crumbling.

At zero-gravity, water will not pour out of the container, it has to be forced. When an astronaut is
thirsty, he will select a plastic cube containing soup, coffee, tea, milk, cocoa, or fruit juices from
the dehydrated food. On the space-shuttle, food is prepared at a galley—a modular unit that
contains a water dispenser and oven. The water dispenser is used for re-hydrating foods, and the
galley oven is used for warming foods.

Edible coatings are used to pack space foods. They provide protection against moisture and
oxygen and crumbles at the time of consumptions. Food materials such as amylase, starch, and
the proteins like zein, and casein when solubilised can be cast to give edible films upon drying.
On the addition of water, the edible film dissolves and releases the packaged ingredients. Some
food require water before ingestion, and the other fifty percent are bite-sized items to be
rehydrated in the mouth. The shuttle orbital fuel cells which produce electricity by combining
hydrogen and oxygen provide water for rehydrating and drinking.

4. Neutraceuticals

The word combines “nutrition” and “pharmaceuticals” to mean that food extracts can be used as
preventive drugs or food supplements. Science has added knowledge about the disease
preventing phyto nutrients present in food stuffs.

The major phytonutrients identified to have neutraceutical properties include terpenes,

phytosterols, phenols and theols. The identification is based on their protective functions, the
physical and chemical characteristics of their molecules.

Terpenes represent the largest class of phytonutrients. They are found in green foods, soya
products and grains.

Carotenoids and limonoids are the two major terpene sub classes. Carrots, tomatoes, parsley,
orange and spinach are rich sources of carotenoids. They act as vitamin A precursor and have
preventive action against many eye diseases. It can also prevent the oxidation of vitamin A and
E. limonoids act as antioxidants protecting lung tissues from free oxygen. Citrus peel can act as
neutraceuticals supplying limonoids.

5. FOOD FORTIFICATION

WHO has defined food fortification as the ‘process’ where by “nutrients are added to foods(in
relatively small quantities) to maintain or improve the quality of the diet of a group, a
community or a population” . food fortification is generally recognized as being the most

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efficient as well as the most cost effective measure of eliminating micronutrient deficiencies and
has been successfully used as a tool to fight these deficiencies in many developed countries. The
success story of commonly fortified food products to fight various micronutrient deficiencies
support the fact that food fortification is the most efficient as well as a cost effective means of
eliminating hidden hunger,for it reaches out to a larger population which would be suffering
from marginal deficiencies.

Fortified Common Salt

Based on the above criteria, common salt has been selected as a suitable vehicle for fortification
for iodine to control IDD, while no suitable vehicle has been found in India to fortify foods to
control iron deficiency anaemia and vitamin A deficiency. In recent years, the technology for the
fortification of common salt with iron and also with both iodine and iron was developed at the
National Institute of Nutrition, Hyderabad.

Questions:

1. Define food science and technology and write the aims or objectives of food science and
technology(5M)
2. Write in detail about biotechnology in foods(5M)
3. Write about fortification with examples (5M)
4. Explain emerging trends in field of food science and technology(10M)

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2. Food Processing: Definition, Principles of Food Processing, Effect of processing on
Nutrients.

FOOD PROCESSING is defined as the practices used by food and beverages. Bakery and
confectionery, meat processing industry ,dairy industry to transform raw (plants and animals)
materials such as grains , produce meat and dairy ,into desired products into the market. Nearly
al our food is processed in some way. Examples include frizzing vegetables, milling wheat into
flour and frying potato chips. Slaughtering animals for meat is also some times consider a form
of food processing form dairy industry so many milk products are producing for consumers.

The main AIM of food processing is to preserve the food with in the safe environment and
to distribute the processed foods to consumers with optimum quality with reasonable price

“PROCESS” may be defined as combination or sequence of operation which take place in

one or more pieces of equipments leads to physical , chemical or biological changes in the feed
material resulting in a desirable product. Food process engineering is about the operation of
number of processes in which food is manufactured modified , standardized ,filed, sealed and
package

The main purpose of food processing is to design the process and standardize the process ,
validation of the process and to operate the process which results in safe food products with
specific , desired properties and structure .before going to design a process it is more important
to understand the physical , chemical and biological properties of food .

WHY ARE FOOD PROCESSED ?

Food manufactures process the foods to increase the availability thought out year and to
increase the shelf life and to add value to food products , by adding dietary nutrients like
vitamins , minerals and to improve the appearance , taste and with different new technologies .
food products are preparing by different food industries to attract the people, to meet the
consumer demands, and there requirement with production of different food products like ready
to eat , ready to cook , ready to use , functional foods also known as designer foods medical
foods and fortified food, nutritional foods , nutraceutical foods , therapeutic foods and healthy
foods , extruded products . Nutraceuticals can be Intake as in the form of fortification ,
supplement are consume directly as genetically enriched foods. Functional foods play important
role in promoting health and reducing healthy risks . functional foods may be defined as those
with a traditional counter past ,while nutraceuticals or those derived from different edible source
but consumed in medical form like tablets or capsules or pills . nutraceuticals can be prepared
form chemical synthesis , fermentation and genetic engineering they include a range of agri food
ingredients or photochemical extracted from the edible plants or animals products .

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Food processing technologies like evaporation , concentration mixing ,homogenization,
dehydration , pasteurization, sterilization, irradiation , pulsed electric field processing , extrusion
technology , ultrasonication , ozonation ,omhic heating , aseptic processing , pulsed light , size
reduction place a major role in processing of different foods.

Processed foods are CATEGORIZED INTO THREE MAINLY minimally processed food ,
ingredient and highly processed food . even though there is no universally accepted method of
categorizing processed foods , it is helpful to make the distinction between foods like toaster
pastries , which are highly processed ; floor, which is processed , food ingredient ; and milk ,
which is generally consider minimally processed . these distinctions allow for a more nuanced
discussion of processed food . most of ours food has been processed to same degree , sometimes
using techniques that have been practiced for centuries .

Most of the peoples are suffering form vitamin deficiency and causes disease , and now a days
technologies are improved and to meet the consumer requirements and demands day by day new
products are coming into the market with quality and with reasonable price , but the foods which
are safe for human health we do not know because from which method it was prepared , what
type of chemical are present in that particular food whether it could be harmful for us or healthy
for consumption .

Some sounds of food packaging also pose health concerns . bisphenol A (BPA) is a chemical
commonly used in linings of metal cans and in the manufacture of heard plastics , such as some
bottles and food storage containers .studies have found links between BBA exposure and
cardiovascular disease diabetes , male sexual dysfunction , certain cancers and changes into
immune functions . A recent studies of products package in metal cans and plastic wart ,
including soups , vegetables and infant formula , detected low levels of BPA in those foods . as a
precautionary measure , some manufactures have stopped using BPA in bottles and packages .

In India food processing industry plays important role in Indian economy . APEDA and
MOFPI,CFTRI,ICRISAT- nutriplus knowledge center , directorate of sorghum research and
somany government and non government organizations and NIN are working for new products
development , in the manner of research and development and there analysis for there nutrient
content .

India is self sufficient in food grain production and second largest producer of fruits , vegetables
and milk in the world but the processing in the world but the processing and value addition to
various agricultural produce is meager . hence there is an urgent need to increase food
processing capabilities in India . ministry of food processing industries government of india has
mentioned in its strategic plan to increase level of food processing from 6 to 20 % . value
addition from 20 to 35% and skill development to the tune of 1.5 million. At present food
processing industries employ 16% of total work force in the organized sector i.e . 13 million
people and 32% in unorganized sector i.e. 35 million people indirectly . inspite of growth of

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many food processing industries , education and training for creating storing human resource is
missing .

PRINCIPALES OF FOOD PROCESSING

 To increases the availability of food products throughout the year with optimum
quality
 To maintain the quality of product during storage and distribution until it reach
the consumer
 To increase the shelf life of the products
 To increase the nutritive value of the products as by fortification an enrichment
 To increases the production of food products with number of varieties which are
suitable for customer with different shape , size ,utilization of different food
processing technologies
 To increases the Indian economy with food processing application in food
processing industry
 To reduces the microbial load by using different food processing and preservation
methods
 To prevent the self decomposition of foods
 To prevent the physical and mechanical damage of the food products
 To avoid the wastage of surplus food crops

EFFECT OF PROCESSING ON NUTRITIVE VALUE OF FOODS

Almost all foods consumed by man are subject to cooking, the exception being fruits and some
greens and vegetables, which are used raw for salads and chutneys. When one talks of nutritional
content of foods, it should be related to cooked foods that reach the table. However, cooking
practices vary from one region to another in the country and even from one household to another.
Hence, cooked food cannot be standardized and information on the effect of wide range of
cooking particles on nutritive value of foods is not available. Cooking has both adverse and
beneficial effects. The effects of some typical methods of cooking on nutritive value are
discussed.

The following processes are involved in cooking as practiced in India. Wet method of
cooking by boiling, steaming or pressure cooking; dry method of cooking at high temperature
like frying, roasting and baking. The loss of nutrients on cooking depends on the temperature,
duration of cooking and the nutrient.

The loss of nutrients during the ordinary cooking is not as much as it is generally believed.
Ordinary cooking causes little loss of protein fat or carbohydrate in cereals, pulses and meat.
Some protein may be lost if vegetables are cooked in water containing salt and the cooking water
is discarded. If the cooking water is thrown away, there is considerable loss of minerals,

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especially Na, K and Ca due to leach. It is therefore advisable either to cook in a minimum
amount of water or to use the cooking water in soups and gravies. Root vegetables do not suffer
much loss of nutrients by either wet or dry method of cooking since outer skin prevents leaching
out of nutrients. It is therefore recommended that the root vegetables are cooked with their skin
and peel them before using them in other preparations. Cutting vegetables into small pieces and
exposing them to air before cooking may result in loss of vitamins, particularly vitamin C. it is
advisable to cut larger size pieces and put into boiling water immediately and cook for a short
period. Steaming, however, prevents losses due to leaching.

Thus, cooking as practiced, has several advantages in improving the quality, digestibility and
palatability. At the same time, cooking also can reduce the vitamin and mineral content, but
taking certain precautionary measures like cooking in limited water and in presence of acids , it
can help preserve vitamins to a greater extent.

Questions:

1. Define food processing and its principles (5m)

2. Write a note on effect of processing on nutritive value in foods(5M)

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UNIT – 2 Cereals, cereal products and Millets: Rice Processing: Milling – commercial
milling, modern milling, CFTRI processing. ageing of rice, parboiling, byproducts – Flaked rice,
Noodles, Puffed Rice, Popped Rice Wheat: Milling, Flour treatment, flour grade, Byproducts –
Shredded products, Granular products, Gold Fingers, Vermicelli. Processing of Maize for
starch, Syrup and Poultry feed.

Processing of Rice and its by products

Rice refers to two species (Oryza sativa and Oryza glaberrima) of grass, native to tropical and
subtropical southeastern Asia and to Africa, which together provide more than one fifth of the
calories consumed by humans. Rice is an annual plant, growing to 1-1.8 m tall, occasionally
more, with long slender leaves 50-100 cm long and 2-2.5 cm broad. The small wind-pollinated
flowers are produced in a branched arching to pendulous inflorescence 30-50 cm long. The seed
is a grain (caryopsis) 5-12 mm long and 2-3 mm thick. The word rice derives from the Tamil
word arisi.

The common cereals and millets consumed in India are rice, wheat, maize, sorghum. Cereals are
the foods consumed in large and at greater frequency by a vast majority of population in the
world. In about 75% of the countries of tha world, cereals and millets from the staple food of
diets.

It is the most extensively grown in india and its forms the staple article of diet of a majority of
people in the country, carbohydrates in the forms of starch, which provides energy to the body,
constitute the bulk of the rice grains. Rice provides about 350 calories per 100gms dry weight.
The protein content of rice is only around 7% which is an appreciable amount, though the protein
content in rice low, as compared to wheat, the quantity of rice protein is superior to wheat
proteins. Rice protein however is deficient in lysine and theronine, as compared with a protein of
high-quality like egg protein. However, when rice is eaten with pulses, as is the common practice
in india, its protein quality improves due to the mutual supplementary effect between cereals and
pulses proteins, as a latter contain adequate quantities of these 2 amino acids.

Rice is poor source of fat and minerals, especially calcium and iron. Therefore, rice eaters must
depends on order sources such as green leafy vegetables for minerals supplementation. Rice is a
poor source of carotene or provitamin A, but is a important source of B-vitamin.since most of
these vitamins present in outer layer, polishing(removal of the bran) to produce the white rice for
sale, reduces the B-vitamin content of different degrees depending on the extent of polishing.
Highly polished rice has therefore very low level of B-vitamin. It is better to consume rice which
is not polished too much.

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Processing :

The rice kernel is composed of four primary components, viz. hull or husk, seed coat or bran,
embryo or germ and endosperm. The primary objective of milling rice is to remove the
indigestible hull or husk and additional portions of bran to yield whole unbroken endosperm.
Milling is a series of mechanical operations which remove the hull. Embryo and outer layer of
the rice kernel.

The mature rice grain is harvested as paddy,in which the caryopsis is enclosed in a tough
siliceous hull[husk].The rice caryopsis is enveloped by the hull,composed of 2 leaves
lamma&palea.Hulls are about 20%[range 16-28%] of rough rice weight.Endosperm of matured
rice is protected or covered by three layers.

1.Pericarp

2.Seedcoat[tegman] and

3.Nucellus[forms caryopsis coat]

What is commercial milling?

Commercial milling systems mill the paddy in stages, and hence are called multi-stage or multi-
pass rice mills. The objective of commercial rice milling is to reduce mechanical stresses and
heat buildup in the grain, thereby minimizing grain breakage and producing uniformly polished
grain. Compared to the commercial milling system is a more sophisticated system configured to
maximize the process of producing well-milled, whole grains.

 In conventional rice mills under-runner disk hullers are normally used.The clearance
between the two abrasive disks is adjusted according to the lenth of the paddy[around
50% of the length].The lower disk rotates either clockwise or counterclockwise.Rough
rice enters the machine through a central inlet and,by centrifugal force, is forced through
the clearance between the disks and is dehulled.Generally 75-80% huller efficiency at
minimum breakage level is obtained.

 In all Japanese rice mills,rubber-roll hullers are installed to dehull rough rice.The main
components of this machine are two rubber-rolls of identical diameter,one rotating
clockwise and the second counter clockwise.The clearance between the two rolls is
adjustable,to control the efficiency and to correct the clearance when it widens as a result
of wear on the rubber rolls.Hull aspiration systems and machines are applied..

In modern rice mills, many adjustments (e.g. rubber roll clearance, separator bed inclination,
feed rates) are automated for maximum efficiency and ease of operation. The whitener-polishers
are provided with gauges that sense the current load on the motor drives which gives an

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indication of the operating pressure on the grain. This provides a more objective means of setting
milling pressures on the grain.

The modern rice milling process

Modern rice milling processes consist of:

Stage Function

Pre-cleaning removing all impurities and unfilled grains from the paddy

Husking removing the husk from the paddy

Husk aspiration separating the husk from the brown rice/unhusked paddy

Paddy separating the unhusked paddy from the brown rice

separation

De-stoning separating small stones from the brown rice

Whitening removing all or part of the branlayer and germ from the brown rice

Polishing improving the appearance of milled rice by removing remaining ran

particles and by polishing the exterior of the milled kernel

Sifting separating small impurities or chips from the milled rice

Length grading separating small and large brokens from the head rice

Blending mix head rice with predetermined amount of brokens, as required by the
customer

Weighing and preparing milled rice for transport to the customer

bagging

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 Paddy
↓
Cleaning
↓
Hull removal “sheller”
↓
Separator (paddy machine)
↓
Brown rice
↓
Bran removal
(hullers & peelers)
↓
Milled rice
↓
Polishers (polishing)
↓
Sizing

Heads second heads screening brewers rice

The husk, pericrap and outer layer of aleurone are removed. Subsequently, inner aleurone layers
etc, are removed. This is called polishing of the rice.

AGEING:

Freshly harvested rice cooks to a sticky lumpy mass ,swells but a little and yield a thick gruel;
these drawbacks tend to disappear as the rice is stored for a few months.

The ageing process is characterized by an intal increase followed by steady decrease in the
powder of hydration . this is due to the slow but steady decrease in the solubility of amylose,
starch and proteins and in the physical loss of solids during cooking a slow but steady increase
in gelatinization temperature a decrease in the intrinsic viscosity of the starch and in the settling
rate of a rice flour suspension , and initial increase followed by a steady decrease in paste
viscosity and steady increase in the hardness and decrease stickiness of cooked rice .

This result suggest that the rice grain or its constituents become more organized or reinforced as
they age. The cell walls are disrupted earlier in new rice during cooking.the ageing process is

16
hastened by a high total insoluble amlose content , by a high storage temperature , by exposure to
light and by milling and vice versa.

Changes in fat and fatty acid composition also occur . the rice lipids are liable to oxidation and
/or hydrolysis during storage and thereby contribute to the flavour characteristics of aged rice.
Total saturated fatty acid increase steadily and unsaturated fatty acids decreases during storage.

Parboiling

It is originated in India. Parboiling rice is particularly good in the case of coarse and medium rice
of soft structure because such rices suffer excessive breakage when milled raw. The process
involves precooking of rice with the husk intact by application of a hydrothermal treatment to
paddy. The paddy thus treated is dried before milling. This result in gelatinization of the
endosperm starch of rice followed by its partial retrogration, causing significant changes in its
original, physical, physic-chemical, eating and cooking properties. Parboiling involves soaking
paddy in water for a short time followed by heating once or twice in steam and drying before
milling.

Conventional process: This consists of the following steps:

1. Steeping paddy in cold water for 2 or 3 days in large cement tanks.

2. Steaming of the soaked paddy for 5 to 10 minutes and
3. Drying in the sun.

During soaking of paddy in cold water for 2 or 3 days, fermentation sets in and off flavor
develops in the grain. The moulds present in the also grow and many produce toxic metabolites.
For example aflotoxin may be produced from aspergillus flavus.

Hot soaking process or CFTRI Method: The hot soaking process, developed at the Central
Food Technological Research Institute, Mysore consists of the following steps:

1. Soaking of paddy in water at 65-700C for 3-4 hours.

2. Draining of water and steaming of soaked paddy in the same vessel for 5-10 minutes,
and
3. Drying of the paddy in the sun or in mechanical driers.

In this method water is first taken into the heating steam to 85-90 0c , or hot water from a separate
storage tank is used. Rough rice previously lifted in an over head cabin is then discharged in to
the water; the floating chaff is removed, in the rice is allowed to soak for 3-3.5 hr at around
700c,with occasional recirculation of water within the tank to equalize the temperature. Some
millers prefer to put water and rough rice together in to the tank to avoid floating chaff, which,
they feel, traps and wastes some good grain. Still others ,of “doubling boiling” vintage, let rough

17
rice in to the tank, steam it , and then pump in cold water; the resulting temperature after
circulation is around 60-650c,which requires about 6hr for soaking .

After soaking , the rice is drained and steam is incorporated , while the outlet is kept open to
drain out the condensate. Steaming is stopped after excess steam starts coming out from the
bottom and the top. if the drying is done mechanically, rice is discharged into a belt or screw
conveyor and fed to the dryer through an elevator.

This a batch process but it can be made semi- continuous by using a number of tanks. The
process has been adopted fairly widely in India.

Advantages of parboiling:

1. Dehusking of parboiled rice is easy.

2. Grain becomes tougher resulting in reduced losses during milling. This benefits is due to
healing of all kernel defects like cracks and chalkiness by parboiling.
3. Milled parboiled rice has greater resistance to insects and fungus.
4. Loss of nutrients due to the removal of husk and bran in milling are decreased. During
harvesting the vitamins and minerals present in hull (outer covering of the paddy) and
bran coat dissolved and spread into the endosperm.
5. Loss of the water soluble nutrients due to washing of rice is less in parboilin rice
compared with the raw rice.\
6. Parboiling improves the digestibility and protein efficiency ration is higher compared to
raw rice.

Disadvantages:

Sometimes it has unpleasant smell and changes in colour and hence not preferred.

It requires prolonged cooking time and more fuel

Since the oil content is high the polishers may get choked

The heat treatment may destroy antioxidants. Due to high moisture content, mycotoxins may be
found.

Puffing / Popping *

i. Puffed rice :- (using rice)

This popular ready-to-eat snack product is obtained by puffing milled parboiled rice. In the
traditional process rice is gently heated on the furnace without sand to reduce the moisture
content slightly. It is then mixed with salt solution and again roasted on furnace in small batches

18
with sand on a strong fire for a few seconds to produce the expanded rice. Rice expands about 8
times retaining the grain shape and is highly porous and crisp.

ii. Parched paddy or puffed rice:- (using paddy)

Sun dried paddy is filled in mud jars and is moistened with hot water. After 2-3 min. the water is
decanted and the jars are kept in an inverted position for 8-10 hours. Next the paddy is exposed
to the sun for a short time and then parched in hot sand as in the preparation of parched rice.
Puffed rice is prepared by throwing pretreated paddy into sand heated to a high temperature in an
iron pan. During parching the grain swell and burst into a soft white product. The parched grains
are sieved to remove sand and winnowed to separate the husk.

iii. Puffed rice from parboiled rice

The rice is soaked in salt water to increase the moisture to about 20%. The moist rice is
introduced into a hot vessel at about 250-275 for 30-40 seconds. The rice puffs suddenly.

Popped rice

This is yet another traditional value added product prepared from raw paddy. The paddy at a
moisture content of 12-14% is directly roasted in iron pans using sand as a medium at a
temperature of 150-200 . The production of popped rice is comparatively less and the product
is mainly used in religious functions and ceremonies.

Flaking *

Flaked rice is another important value added product prepared from paddy. Traditionally, it is
prepared from soaked paddy, after heat treatment and immediate flattening using a flaking
machine (an edge runner).

19
Flaked rice is made from parboiled rice. Paddy is soaked in water for 2 -3 days to soften the
kernel followed by boiling water for a few minutes and the water is drained off. The paddy is
heated in a shallow earthen vessel or sand in iron pan till the husks break open. It is pounded by
a wooden pestle which flattens the kernel and removes the husk. The husk is separated by
winnowing. Flaked rice is thin and papery and of white colour.

Quick cooking rice is made by steeping polished rice in water to a moisture content of 35 per
cent, cooking under pressure and drying. Alternatively the rice may be subjected to freezing,
thawing and dehydration.

Derived products

Polished rice may be precooked and canned as rice pudding and also used to make dry breakfast
cereals.

NOODLES

A noodle is a thin strip of pasta, usually cut or extruded from some kind of dough. It is the
basic unit in dishes like spaghetti, linguine, soba. The term often refers to moist, cooked
pasta, since it has connotations of curviness and slipperiness, but also to dried noodles that

20
must be reconstituted by boiling or soaking in water. The word noodle derives from
Latinnodus (knot), via German Nudel (noodle, pasta).

The big difference between noodle varieties is in the fat and water content. The instant or
fried noodles contain only 3 to 6 g of water, compared to non-fried dried noodles, which
have a water content of 12 to 14 g. The proportions are reversed for fat content - instant fried
noodles have around 20 g, while non-fried dried noodles have as little as 3 to 5 g. Instant or
fried noodles are subjected to an additional process step compared to dried noodles, they are
deep fried in oil, hence part of the water is replaced by fat.

You can navigate to the following from here:

 Dried Noodles - Composition, Fortification & Packaging

 Instant Noodles - Composition, Fortification & Packaging

Raw material composition

 Noodles nutritional quality depends on wheat quality, basic flour specifications,

ingredient functions, and production variables according to the type of noodles
process. Flour color, protein content, ash content, yellow pigment and polyphenol
oxidase activity are important factors.

 Starch characteristics, protein content and quality are important as well, the relative
importance of starch and proteins varies considerably with noodle type.

 Oil type is important for instant noodles nutritional quality.

 Other factors, such as ingredients added (e.g. minerals an vitamins) in the noodle
formula and processing variables used during noodle preparation, also affect the cooked
noodle nutritional quality.

Effect of processing

 Dried noodles: steaming is a gentle process, which will induce minor losses of vitamins
due to temperature and humidity exposures. Drying induce further losses due to
exposure to temperature and oxygen.

 Instant noodles: in addition to losses due to steaming, the frying step will induce
achange in food composition - as during frying water will be replaced by frying oil.
Starch and non-starch carbohydrates are partly destroyed. The availability ofprotein is
reduced, some essential amino-acid are destroyed. Minerals and vitamins are
destroyed during frying. Antinutritional factors are destroyed.

21
Question:

1 Write about the Processing of Rice (10M)

2 Write a note on Parboiling of rice (5M)

3 Write a note on By-products of Rice (5M)

22
Wheat: Milling, Flour treatment, flour grade, By products – Shredded products, Granular
products, Gold Fingers, Vermicelli.

WHEAT MILLING:

The degree of milling of wheat is known as extraction rate. Whole meal flour, which contains all
the bran , germ, scutellum and endosperm of the wheat grain has extract rate of 100%

Wheat flour forms the basis for much of the world’s food supply. Worldwide, wheat is the most
abundant food crop, based on area planted and is essentially equal to rice in the amount
harvested. The reason for the almost universal appeal of wheat as a food is the unique taste and
the light –leavened texture after products produced. The light texture is not found in other
cereals. Products made from wheat include bread, cakes, cookies, biscuits, pretzelis, doughnuts,
muffins, pasta gruels, breakfast cereals; semolina etc. Each of the above could be subdivided into
many forms.

Wheat needs to be pulverized or ground into fine powder (flour)before preparing different
products. The quality of wheat flour determines the suitability for a particular end-use. therefore;
milling plays an important role in the utilization of wheat for various products different
operations are included in the milling process.

Wheat Selection and Blending: sound, dry and sprout less wheat gives maximum flour yield
Wheat grains with uniform and desirable quality should be selected for milling. Flours of desired
characteristics can be obtained by blending different varieties of wheat in definite methods:

Cleaning: cleaning is done by different methods.

a. Wheat washing: wheat is conveyed through a trough containing water to the base of a
centrifugal machine vigorously agitated and sun-dried. This operation is effective in
removing dirt from crease of kernels.

Screens: in screen separation, impurities are separated on the basis of difference in size and
shape. Screens are perforated metals with a selected size and shape. Screens are perforated
metals with a selected size and shape of apertures mounted on frames. The screens move
horizontally by gyrating or reciprocating.

Milling separators: these separators work on the principle of particle separation by width with
aspiration. These separate fine impurities such as dust, stones, sands, etc.

Magnetic separators: metal pieces of Iron or steel are separated on the basis of their
electromagnetic properties.

23
Aspirations: light materials such as chaff, straw, small seeds can be separated from wheat grain
by ascending air current because of their differences in terminal velocity.

Specific gravity separators: the machine consists of a triangular shaped table which is
adjustably inclined to the horizontal, both from side to side. Reciprocation rate is adjustable. a
current of air is directed up through the table. Heavy particles tend to remain close to the surface
of table and move towards the higher side of the machine and vice versa.

Dry scourens: This process removes hair and dirt adherent to the grain by friction. Wheat is fed
to machine having a perforated metal cylinder. It is impelled against rapidly revolving beaters,
which also propel the grain towards the exit from the machine. Superficial dirt and beeswing are
removed by aspiration and are blown away by air currents.

Tempering: This is a process where water is added to the grain to raise the water content to 15-
19% in hard wheat and to 14.5-17% in soft wheat. Tempering improves the physical state of
grain for milling. Wheat is allowed to LIFE in tempering bins for periods from 18 to72hrs with
little or no temperature control. Water enters the bran and diffuses inward.

Conditioning: This involves use of heat for quick diffusion of water into endosperm and barn. It
improves milling properties with saving of time. Three methods of conditioning include:

i. Warm conditioning: wheat is conditioning for 60-90mins. At 46 0c and

allowed for 24hr before milling.
ii. Hot conditioning: The procedure is similar to the warm conditioning except
that the temperature raises to 600c or higher.
iii. Steam conditioning: transfer of heat is more rapid from steam than from hot
air. It requires less power and gives higher yield of flour.

Flour treatment:

Flour treatment includes Bleaching, Maturing, Malting, and Enriching agents. Bleaching
removes yellow endosperm pigments using oxidizing agents like benzoyl peroxide. Chemical
maturing improves flour strength and tolerance using oxidizing like potassium bromated,
ascorbic acid, or azodi-carbonamide. Standarding amylase activity in flour is accomplished by
adding malted wheat or barley or fungal alpha-amylase. Enriching replaces a protion of the
nutrients lost during milling and in the united states includes thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, iron
and calcium(optional).

24
Factors affecting gluten formation and development:

a. Variety of wheat; as mentioned earlier, hard wheat are better suited for making bread as
they have more gluten than soft wheat. Thus choice of variety will depend on the
characteristics desired in the final prepared product.
b. amount of water added to make the dough/batter: Generally, gluten should be well
hydrated to develop completely. If the liquid content is insufficient, a hard dough is
formed and the gluten development may be poor. However addition of excess water may
produce a runny batter which may be difficult to manipulate.
c. Kneading time and keeping time: Generally, greater the kneading or manipulation of
the dough or batter, greater is the gluten development. However, over-mainpulation may
break the gluten net-work. In cake and muffin batter and in the preparation of biscuits,
manipulation is minimal, as complete gluten development is undesirable, where as
chapathi and bread dough are manipulated well. Keeping time ensure complete hydration
of the gluten in the dough. If keeping time of the dough is extended beyond a certain
optimal value it does not have any effec5t on the texture of the final product. Thus
chapathi and bread doughs are allowed to rest after being kneaded.
d. Presence of fat / oil: Fat or oil added to the dough in large quantities hinders
development of gluten. A small amount of oil is added to the dough. Refined oil, butter or
vanaspathi are used in cakes and biscuits.
e. Fineness of milling: wheat flour that has been milled finely has a greater gluten
development capacity than coarsely milled flour. Coarsely milled grains have less surface
area than finely milled flour, and thus are hydrated to a lesser extent.

Flour Quality / Flour Grade:

Flour performance depends on its composition, which in turn depends on wheat characteristics
and milling. The quality of bread flour is determined by its ability to produce a consistent
finished product with these characteristics:

 High loaf volume

 Symmetrical loaf shape
 Attractive and even crust color
 Fine and uniform crumb structure
 Smooth texture
 Light crumb color
 High absorption(moisture content )
 Tolerance to processing variations
 Tolerance to ingredient variations.

25
By products of wheat:
SHREDDED PRODUCTS:

Mostly, wheat is used to prepare this product. Wheat is cooked in water to gelatinize starch. The
conditioned grain is fed into shredders and material emerging as long –parallel shreds is received
on a slowly travelling band, a thick mat is built up by super imposition of several layers. The mat
is then cut into desired shapes and baked at 2600 c for 20min.

GRANULAR PRODUCTS:

These are prepared from wheat. Dough is made of yeasted whole meal, wheat flour and malted
barley flour. The dough is fermented for about 5hrs and the bread is baked. The bread is then
broken up, dried and ground to desired fineness.

GOLD FINGERS:

In addition to extensive use for baked products, wheat and its products can be used to prepare a
variety of snack products like gold fingers and vermicelli etc.

Gold fingers are similar to extruded pasta products like vermicelli. It is processed at high
temperature, high pressure for short time, under controlled conditions of moisture (uma reddy
and jaya shree, 1990).the raw material mostly Maida is conveyed through a barrel with necessary
pressure and consequently heat generated. The material under goes structural modifications and
emerges as a texturized material. They are crisped crunchy and like potato chips and are popular
among children.

HAND-MADE VERMICELLI: Hand-made vermicelli is made with Maida into very fine
threads and is very as the vermicelli. Delicious payasam (kheer) is made. It is a very fast process
and does not require any costly machinery equipment.

QUESTIONS:

Write in detail about the processing of Wheat (10M)

1. Write a note on flour treatment (5M)
2. Explain in detail about the by products of wheat (5M)

26
Processing of Maize for starch, Syrup and Poultry feed

MAIZE OR CORN

In India , maize is consumed in the from of boiled or roasted as popcorn. In countries like south
America, central America and Africa ,it is converted in to food products grinding , alkali
processing, boiling, cooking and fermentation.

PROCESSING

Maize is milled by a dry or wet process. In both process the germ is separated from the grain to
extract and recover germ oil. The germ oil is a valuable product, but if allowed to remain a
constituent of maize meal would lead to the development of rancidity. After degermination, the
dry milling employs roller mills and the process is somewhat similar to wheat milling. Wet
milling involves a steeping stage and complete disintegration of the endosperm to recover starch
and protein. In dry milling, the object is to recover the maximum amount oof grits with the
minimum amount of flour, with the least possible contamination of germ. The grains are cleaned
and conditioned by addition of cold or hot water or steam, which results in loosening and
toughening of the germ and bran.

Cleaning shelled corn

Tempering

Impact cracking

Germ removal

Grinding

Sieving

Corn flour Corn meal Grits.

1. DRY MILLING:
27
Grinding of the whole grain stone or roller mill to produce flour or meal is a simple method used
world wide when the ground products are to be consumed shortly after processing . The stability
of such products is limited owing to the presence of crust germ in the flour. Oil from broken
germ cells is easily oxidized to produce rancid odour and flavour .

The large as well as small grits are used in production of cornflakes and breakfast cereal.dry
milled germ can be pressed or solvent extracted to recover the valuable oil. The major advantage
of maize dry milling are the lower capital cost as compared to wet milling.

2. WET MILLING:

In developed countries like USA, the major utilization has been wet milling. That to most
important products of wet milling are high fructose corn syrup and ethanol.

ALKALI PROCESSING:

In this ,process the maize is mixed with water and lime cooked at 90 0c for 50 minutes.the
cooked maize is then steeped for 14 hr before being washed with fresh water to remove residual
alkali and other waste material from maize.the washed maize is milled to agritty textured product
called “masa” . this is rolled into flat cakes and baked in an oven for 1-2 minutes to produce the
traditional tortilla.Masa can also be deep fried to produce tortilla chips or maize chips or it can be
dried and finally milled to produce a mass flour .

PRODUCTS OF MAIZE

Corn starch:

It is most widely used . it is made by a process of wet milling in which the hull and germ are
removed ,the corn ground and mixed with water . the semi –liquid material is seperated by
passing it over sieves or centrifuging it. The starch settles out while most of the protein remain
suspended . the starch is then washed, dried , powdered . corn starch is widely used because it is
inexpensive , lacks characteristic flavours and cooks to a smooth and almost clear paste in water
or other clear liquid and superior to wheat flour or potato starch. corn starch flavoured with
vanilla and containing edible colours is sold as custard powder.

Converting corn starch into corn syrup

Corn starch is converted into ordinary corn syrup through a process called acid hydrolysis. In this
process, the wet starch is mixed with a weak solution of hydrochloric acid and is heated under
pressure. The hydrochloric acid and heat break down the starch molecules and convert them in to
a sugar. The hydrolysis can be interrupted at different key points to produce corn syrup of
varying sweetness. The longer the process is allowed to proceed, the sweeter the resulting syrup.

28
This syrup is then filtered or otherwise clarified to remove and objectionable flavour or color. It
is further and evaporated to reduce the amount of water.

To produce a corn syrup powder, also called corn syrup solids, the liquid corn syrup is passed
through a drum or spray dryer to remove 97% of the water. This produces a crystalline corn
syrup powder.

Pulses and Legumes: Processing of commonly used legumes, Milling of pulses, Dry milling,
Wet milling, Dhal making

PULSE PROCESSING
29
Legumes are second to cereals as an important source of human food. Legumes are considered
as meat of the vegetable world and are close to animal flesh in protein food value.
Approximately 100 species of legumes are considered to be edible from among the over 13,000
legumes species found in the world. The nutrient composition of edible legumes depends on the
species.

Proteins: Legume proteins are chiefly globulins but albumins are also present in a few species.
Their nutritional importance depends not only on the quantity of protein but also on its quality
which in turn depends on the amino acid composition. Legume proteins are deficient in sulphur
containing aminoacids, particularly in methionine, and in tryptophan. All the pulses contain
sufficient amount of leucine and phenylalanine. Lysine and threonine contents are low only in
groundnuts.

Carbohydrates: Legumes contain 55 – 60% of total carbohydrates including starch, soluble

sugars, fiber and unavailable carbohydrates. The unavailable sugars in pulses include substantial
levels of oligosaccharides of the raffinose family of sugars, which are notoriously known for the
flatulence production in man and animals. These sugars escape digestion, when they are
ingested, due to lack of α-galactosidase activity in the mammalian mucosa. Consequently, the
oligosaccharides are not absorbed into the blood and are digested by the micro flora of the lower
intestinal tract resulting in the production of large amounts of CO2 and H2 and a small amount
of methane.

Lipids: Lipids form about 1.5% of dry matter in pulses except in ground nut, soy bean and
winged bean. Most of the pulse lipids contain high amounts of polyunsaturated acids.

Minerals: Legumes are important sources of calcium, magnesium, zinc, iron, potassium and
phosphorous. A major portion (80%) of phosphorous in many legumes is present as phitate
phosphorous.

Vitamins: Legumes contain small amounts of carotene, the provitamin A. Many legumes contain
50 – 300 IU of vit-A. The thiamine content of legumes is approximately equal to 0.4 – 0.5mg /
100gms. They are poor in riboflavin and dry legumes are almost devoid of ascorbic acid.

PROCESSING or MILLING OF PULSES

Pulses are mostly consumed in the form of dehusked splits, commonly known as dhal. The outer
layer of the grain (husk) is attached to the protein and starch bearing cotyledons of the pulse
grains. The outer husk layer ie required to be separated from the cotyledons and subsequently
split in two halves before consumed as dal. The process of removal of husk from the cotyledons

30
is called dehusking and the entire process of dehusking and subsequent splitting of cotyledons,
its cleaning, polishing and grading is known as milling. Dehusking improves product
appearance, texture, product quality, palatability and digestibility.

Pulse milling is the third largest food processing industry after rice and flour milling. There are
about 15,000 mills scattered all over the country. An estimated 75% of pulses produced are
processed for making dal in mills of different capacities.

The major steps involved in pulse milling are discussed below;

1. Cleaning & grading:

It involves removing dust, dirt, foreign materials, off sized, immature and damaged grains and
grading in two or more fractions to process separately.

2. Pitting:

Use of emergy – coated roller is a common practice in commercial dal mills. The emergy coating
is used for abrasive or refractory action. Whole pulses are passed through abrasive roller
machine for scratching of seed to facilitate the entry of oil/ water in the grain during pre milling
treatment.

3. Pre milling treatment:

Milling of pulses involves two major steps; (i) loosening of husk and (ii) removal of husk and
splitting into cotyledons with the help of suitable machine. All kinds of pulses require some pre
milling treatment of ease of husk removal. However, processes and equipments for loosening of
husk, separation of husk from cotyledons and its splitting differ from crop to crop, cultivar to
cultivar and place to place. Dehusking is an age old practice, which originated at home and later
developed into cottage industry and now has grown into a large scale organized industry.

The treatment is given for loosening of husk from cotyledons, which is attaché through a gum
layer is called pre milling treatment.(decortications). Mostly pre treatment milling is developed
for pigeonpea.

4. Milling: Different methods are employed in different regions depending upon type of
grains. This also varies from mill to mill.
a. Wet Process

In this wet method of treatment soaking and drying are considered as effective technique to
loosen the husk. The wet process has been specially used for dehusking pigeon pea, as the skin
of pigeon pea is difficult to remove. The process consists of (a)soaking the grain in over night,
(b)smearing the soaked grain with red earth mixed with water and keeping the grain moist as a

31
heap by sprinkling water for 12 to 16 hours,(c)drying the grain under the sun, and (d) dehusking
the grain using granite or wooden hullers, dried red earth is removed by sieving.

Pigeonpea

Cleaning and grading

Pitting

Water soaking(4-6hrs)

Drying (8%- 10% moisture)

Milling Husk & Powder

Finished product.

b. (i) Dry Process (Conditioning With Water)

This process is suitable to legumes such as chickpea, lentil,l athyrus, pea and dried pea. The
grains are cleaned sprayed with water 5 to 10% by weight of the grain and kept in a closed vessel
for the water to be fully absorbed by the skin. The material is the dried under the sun. The dried
legume is passed through a roller mill. About 70 to 80% of grains are dehusked and split
simultaneously.

(ii) Dry Process (Conditioning With Oil)

This method is applicable to pigeon pea or black gram and green gram. ,as the skin in these
legumes strongly adheres to the endosperm. The grains are passed through the roller mill for
pitting the skin. Vegetable oil (about 1 to 2%) is applied to the skin. In green gram, grains are
coated with oil straight away without preliminary pitting. The grains are dried under the sun and

32
then conditioned by spraying water (about 4 to 5%). The conditioned grains are again dried
under the sun and dehusked using roller mill or Engelberg type of rice huller.

(ii) Dry Process (Conditioning With Oil/water)

Dry milling treatment is reported to produce dal that cooks faster, however, losses due to broken
and powdering are high. In dry method, oil/water application followed by drying are important
steps in processing of pulses. In this process, after cleaning and grading, grains are pitted and
then mixed with about 1% oil (linseed), thoroughly and spread for sun drying in thin layer for 2-
3 days. At the end of drying, 2-5% of water is spraying, mixed thoroughly and tempered for
overnight. Tempered grains are duhusked in roller machines to give dehusked grains and dhals.

Pigeonpea

Cleaning and grading

Pitting

Oil(0.7% & water (1:30)

Conditioning 14hr & drying

Milling husk & powder

Finished product

c. Advance in milling technology:

Traditionally water/ oil treatment are ginven for loosening of husk. These traditional pre
milling techniques are labour intensive, wasteful and weather dependent. Attempts have been

33
 made by various research and development institutions to develop improved processes for
treatment of pigeonpea in order to achieve and economic milling of pulses.

In this method, cleaned and graded pigeonpea frains are treated with 6% sodium bicarbonate
solution mixed in the ratio of 30:1. These grains are then heaped for 5 hours at 30 0C followed
by drying under the sun. The tempered and dried grains are passes through rollers. Pantnagar
process utilizes traditional milling machinery. The milled product is cleaned and graded with
a blower, cyclone separator and grader. It is claimed that if pre milling treatment is properly
given, 91-95% dehusking achieved in single pass having 4-5% whole grains. The husk,
broken and powder are with 2-2.5% water and kept for 4hrs for tempering. These grains are
passed through splitter for dhal making. It has also been observed during the tests conducted
that 80-90% of total sodium content is removed with husk and powder.

Pigeonpea

Cleaning & grading

Pitting

Mixing NaHCO3 (6% Soln.) Mixing (1:30)

Conditioning (5h) & drying

Milling Husk& Powder

Finished product

d. CFTRI Process

The technology developed at CFTRI overcomes the majnor problems of weather dependent
nature of pulse milling industry and gives high dhal yield in lesser time. The process is

34
independent of weather condition and eliminates the use of oil. The loosening of husk is
achieved by heating of grains in hot air current followed by tempering. Removal of husk and
splitting of grains is achieved by improving processing machines. This conditioning techniques
through heat treatment and moisture adjustment of the cleaned, size graded grains loosens the
husk, while making it fragile and brittle besides hardening the kernels. The process involves 2
passes in a drier with 1600C hot air, followed by tempering for 6 hours. The operation is
continuous, replaces sun drying and carried out indoors. It is claimed that this method gives
average yield of 80% dhal. Many dhal miller have not adopted this technique due to high
electrical energy consumption, non- availability of sufficient and continuous supply of
electricity, high cost of machinery, and non utilization of traditional milling machinery. However
this method has definite advantages like less requirement of manpower, no need of drying yard,
no requirement of edible oil etc., which demands due considerations.

Pigeonpea

Cleaning & grading

Pitting

Heating with hot air 1600C for 4 min – I pass

Tempering (6hr)

II pass

Tempering (6hr)

Milling Husk & Powder

35
 Finished product.

METHODS OF ELIMINATION OF ANTINUTRITIONAL FACTORS:

Soaking, heating and fermentation can reduces or eliminate most of the toxic factors of the
pulses. Correct application of heat in cooking legumes can eliminate most toxic factors without
impairment of nutritional value. Cooking also contributes to legumes digestibility. Het causes
denaturation of the protein responsible for trypsin inhibition, haemagglutination and the enzyme
responsible for the hydrolysis of cyanogenic glycosides. The mode of application of heat is
important. Autoclaving and soaking followed by heating are effective. Another way of
eliminating toxic factors is fermentation, which yields products more digestible and higher
nutritive value than the raw pulses (Shakunthala and Shadaksharaswamy, 1987)

SOAKING

Soaking in water is the first step in most methods of preparing pulses for consumption. As
indicated above, soaking reduces the oligosaccharides of the raffinose family. Soaking also
reduces the amount of phytic acid in pulses.

GERMINATION

Germination improves the nutritive value of food pulses. The ascorbic acid content of pulses
increases manifold 48 hours for germination. Germinated and sprouted pulses are being used to
prevent and cure scurvy since the 18 th century. The riboflavin, niacin, choline and biotin contents
of all pulses increase during germination.

FERMENTATION

The processing of food pulses by fermentation increases their digestibility, palatability and
nutritive value. Soybean is a very valuable pulse whose proteins approach the quality of animal
protein. However, it cannot be directly used as food because of the toxic substances present in
the pulse. The toxic substances can be eliminates by fermentation.

The common example of fermented product id idli (blend of fermented blackgram and rice). The
fermentation process improves the availability of essential aminoacids and, thus, the nutritive
quality of protein of the blend. In general, the nutritive value of the legume-based fermented
foods is to be higher than their raw counterparts.

FLAKING

36
Soybean flaking machine consists of 3 rollers and 1HP electric motor. The differential speed is
maintained by a set of gears. The processed soya dhal at 25-30% moisture content on wet basis is
prepared and stretched in between rollers to get flakes.

Soy flakes will be another popular dietary item which falls within the existing food habits. A
single process was developed for making soya flakes at rural level.

Similarly, fruits cereal flakes and vegetable cereal flakes also can be prepared. Cereal vegetable
and cereal fruit flakes also can be prepared in the similar manner.

DHAL MAKING:

Making dhal (split legumes without husk) from legumes is a specialty of the Indian sub
continent. Methods of improving palatability and suitability for versatile use and reducing the
cooking time of pulses have been worked out. Even then commercial methods in vogue followed
a similar procedure. A dry conditioning technique for drying of the pulse to a low critical
moisture level for thorough loosening of the skin has been developed at the CFTRI.Details of
drying and milling procedures appropriate to all legumes have been worked out. Even difficult -
to –mill legumes such as horse gram, field bean, gur bean etc.Can be processed by these
procedures. Milling methodology and machinery for each pulse have also been standardized.
These procedures although efficient and hygienic have not found wide commercial application
because of economic and investment considerations. A combination of modern dry conditioning
procedure coupled with existing or slightly modified milling machinery may be advantages in
the popularization of new technology

Another feature in the Indian sub continent is the low level of use of soya bean as an edible
pulse. Although one million tons are produced, only a small fraction is used for edible purposes.
After the extraction of oil the meal is almost all exported for fed purposes. in view of the existing
pulse shortage , all available soya bean should be used for edible purposes as an extender of
supplement to the indigenous pulses. Although soya bean dhal cannot be easily cooked to a soft
texture dhal, processed soya flour had great potential for making all the popular sweet and
savoury snacks normally made from Bengal gram flour. Soya dhal could be used for making
fermented products like idli and dosa.

Fruits and Vegetables: Physico Chemical properties, textural components, Enzymatic and Non
Enzymatic browning reaction, Pigments and flavors components, Effect of processing on
pigments, Dietary fiber

Physico Chemical properties:

37
Fruits are the mature ovaries of plants, which contain the seeds. Fruits are produced from a
flower or flowers. The edible portion of most of the fruits is the fleshy part of the pericarp
surrounding the seeds. Fruits on ripening soften with distinct desirable changes in colour and
flavour. Fruits are pulpy, often juicy with a blend of sweet and sour taste, fragrant aroma
and flavour. Ripe fruits have good aroma, colour and flavour. Usually fruits are sweet with a
wide range of flavours, colours and textures.

Vegetables are plants or their parts served with the main course of a meal. Apart from the
nutritive value, vegetables probably do more than any other group of foods to add appetizing
colour, texture and flavour to our daily food. With a wide choice of colour of vegetables, it is
possible to select a vegetable with desired colour to heighten the appearance of a meal. The
texture of a vegetable varies depending upon whether it is served raw or cooked. The texture and
appearance of a meal can be varied by the vegetable served in it. There is wide range of
characteristic flavours of vegetables. By proper choice of vegetables, the desired flavour of a
meal can be obtained.

Indian population are mostly vegetarians. Vegetables form an essential item of food for
both rich and poor. The intake of the vegetables has been too low in our daily diet. Vegetables
are cultivated in about 5 million hectares with an annual production of 32.5 million tonnes.

Classification: Vegetables are classified on the basis of the parts consumed from plants such as
roots, stems, leaves, flowers etc. Vegetables can also be divided into two main groups such as
rabi and summer or kharif vegetables according to their growing season.

Plant part Vegetable

Flowers Cabbage, Cauliflower, Knol-khol
Root vegetables Carrot, parsnip, radish, turnips, beetroot, yam,
colacacia
Fruit vegetables Tomato, cucumber, pumpkin.
Leafy vegetables Spinach, amaranth, gogue, colacacia leaves, mint
etc.
Tubers Potato, Sweet potato, tapioca etc.
Bulbs Onion, garlic etc.
Leguminous vegetables. Peas, beans.

Fruits may be classified according to the number of ovaries and flowers from which it develops.
Some of the classes of fruits are citrus fruits, multiple fruits, drupes, pomes and aggregate fruits.

Type of fruit Name & description

Citrus fruits Oranges, lemons, limes, grape fruit etc.
Multiple fruit Develops from a cluster of several flowers e.g: Pineapple, custard
apple
Drupes Which have stone or pit to hold the seed e.g: mangoes, amla, apricots,

38
 cherries, peaches, plums.
Pomes Which have sac that holds the seeds e.g: apples, pears.
Aggregate fruits Which are developed from several ovaries in one flower such as
strawberries, black berries, rasp berries etc.

COMPOSITION AND NUTRITIVE VALUE OF FRUITS:

Fruits contains 80 to 90% of water. They have only a small amount of proteins and are also
less in fats. Butter fruit contains fat up to 25%. The polysaccharides, celluloses, hemicelluloses
and pectic substances are the structural components of fruits. These make fruits important
sources of roughage of bulk in the diet. Various sugars are found in fruits whose content varies
in different fruits. Fruits also contain some free organic acids such as malic acid citric acid.
Tartaric acid is a prominent constituent of grapes. Oxalic acid when present usually combines
with calcium to form calcium oxalate.

Fruits are good sources of vitamins. Citrus fruits are excellent sources of vitamin C.
Strawberries, melons and tropical fruits are also good sources of ascorbic acid. Yellow fruits like
papaya and pumpkin contain carotenoids which are the precursors of vitamin A. Vitamin B
occurs in relatively low concentration in fruits. Minerals are not particularly high in fruits.
However, sulphur, phosphorus, iron and calcium are found in many fresh fruits.

Various pigments are present in fruits. The yellow and orange carotenoids and the red
purple and blue anthocyanins predominate in fruits. Some fruits contain combination of various
pigments oranges for example in addition to carotenoids contain some chlorophyll. Oranges also
contains anthocyanins. Caroteniod pigments are almost insoluble in water and are not much
affected by acids and alkalis. On the other hand anthocyanins are water soluble and change their
colour with alkali. The colour of fruits containing these pigments ranges from deep blue to bright
red. Combination of fruit juices can lead to undesirable colour changes. The colour of the fruit
mixture may also change when they come in contact with metals. Flavonoids contacted with
aluminium, iron and tin form a complex with metals and undesirable colour change occurs.

The flavour characteristics of a fruit in many cases is due to the characteristic blending of a
number of compounds. Acids contribute to the flavour of fruits in the free or combined form as
salts and esters. Many aldehydes, ketones and esters contribute to the flavour of fruits. Sugar and
phenolic compounds present in fruits also contribute to flavour. Some fruits contain essential oils
which are also important flavour contributors.

Textural Components:

Texture is an important component of fruit quality. Texture is related to those attributes of

quality associated with the sense of fell, experienced by the fingers, the hand, or in the mouth.
Included in texture are such sensations as hardness, softness, crispness, meatiness, juiciness and
toughness. Among instruments developed for evaluating texture of fruits are pressure testers,

39
penetrometers, compression testers, shear devices and tensile testers. The measurement used
depends primarily on the commodity being tested and on the particular aspect of texture
important to the commodity.

Texture textural parameters of fruits and vegetables are perceived with sense of touch, either
when the product is picked up by hand or placed in the mouth and chewed. In contrast to flavour
attributes, these characteristics are fairly easily measured using instrumental methods. Most plant
materials contain a significant amount of water and other liquids-soluble materials surrounded by
a semi-permeable membrane and cell wall. The texture of fruits and vegetables is derived from
their turgor pressure, and the composition of individual plant cell walls and the middle lamella
‘glue’ that holds individual cells together. Cell walls are composed of cellulose, hemicelluloses,
pectic substances, proteins, and in the case of vegetables, lignin. Tomatoes are an example of a
fruit vegetable that is approximately 93-95% water and 5-7% total solids, the latter comprised of
roughly 80-90% soluble and 10-20% insoluble solids. The greatest contributor to the texture of
tomato product are the 20%insoluble solids. The greater contributor to the texture of tomato
products are the cell walls is still unresolved, but is a topic of great interest to scientists in that to
a large degree it dictates the perception of consistency, smoothness, juiciness etc. In fruits and
vegetables tissues. According to Bourne (1982)the textural properties of food are he ‘group of
physical characteristics that arise from the structural elements of the food ,are sensed by the
felling of touch, are related to the deformation, disintegration and flow of the food under a force,
and are measured objectively by functions of mass, time and distance’. The terms
texture ,rheology, consistency, and viscosity are often used interchangeably, despite the fact that
they describe properties that are somewhat different. In practice the term texture is used
primarily with reference to solid or semi-solid foods; however, most fruits and vegetables are
viscoelastic, implying that they exhibit combined properties of ideal liquids, which demonstrate
only viscosity (flow), and ideal solids, which exhibit only elasticity(deformation).

Browning reaction:

Browning ia a common colour change seen in food during pr preparation, processing or storage
of food. It occurs in varying degrees in some foods materials. The colour produced range from
cream or pale yellow to dark drown or black, depending on the food item and the extent of the
reaction.

ENZYMATIC BROWNING:

The rapid darkening of the cut surface of apple, (brinjal and potato) and banana are examples of
enzymatic browning. Normally the natural enzymatic compounds present in intact tissues and do
not come into contact with the phenol oxidases present in some tissues. When the tissues are cut
or injured and the cut surface is exposed to air, phenol oxidase enzyme released at the surface,

40
act on the poly-phenols present, oxidising them to Orthoquinones. The Orthoquinones rapidly
polymerise to form brown pigments. Tyrosine, chlorogenic acid, the various catechins and
several mono and dihydroxyphenols are among the many compounds that can serve as substrate
for oxidation b y poly phenoloxidase to cause browning or other discolouration in these foods.
Phenolase is also known by other names as polyphenol oxidase, tyrosine or catecholase; each is
specific for certain substrate. The optimum pH for the activity of the enzyme polyphenolase is
between 5 and 7.

The schematic diagram 8-h gives the sequence of reactions of enzymatic browning.

Cut fruits containing catechins, tyrosine,

Chlorogenic acid mono and dihydroxy phenols

O2 polyphenolase

DOPA (dihydroxy phenyl alanine)

Orthodiphenol

O2 polyphenolase

Orthoquinones

Polymerised

Melanins

Prevention Of Enzymatic Browning:

Enzymatic browning can be prevented either by inactivating the enzyme or cutting off the
oxygen.

By inactivating enzymes

Temperature: The most commonly used method is blanching. This method has several
limitations. The enzyme is fairly heat stable and requires to be heated at 100 0c for 2-10 min for
complete inactivation. This may not be possible in practice as cooking for long periods will
affect the flavour and texture of the fruits. The optimum temperature for browning is 43 0c-50oc.
If food is kept at higher or lower temperature browning is reduced. Coagulation of protein occurs

41
during blanching, thereby inactivating the enzyme. When fruit is canned or made into jams or
jellies, the browning reaction stops as soon as the fruit is heated sufficiently to denature the
enzyme.

Change In PH : The optimum pH for polyphenolase activity is between 6.0 and 7.0, lowering of
the pH to 4.0 by the addition of citric acid inhibits the phenolase activity. It is also possible citric
acid reacts with the copper present in the enzyme. Malic acid also has been found to be effective.
Lemon juice contains both citric acid and ascorbic acid and both are effective.

Addition of salt: vegetables may be immersed in a solution of sodium chloride to retard

enzymatic browning. The chloride ion in NaCl inhibits enzyme activity. However, this is a
temporary measure to retard browning, as amount of salt required to prevent browning
temporarily would make the food unpalatable.

Chilling a food below temperatures optimum for enzyme activity: optimum temperature for
enzymes to act is 430C (1090F).In cold storage , the browning reaction slows down, but even
fruits stored in frozen storage brown unless they treated.

By avoiding contact with oxygen: oxygen should not come in contact with the substrate. This can
be achieved by any of the following measures.

Coating fruit with sugar: coating fruits with sugar or covering ir with syrup keeps atmpspheric
oxygen away from the surface. Intercellular oxygen is present in fruits, but sugar reduces the
concentration of oxygen dissolved in the syrup and at the same time suppresses enzyme activity.

Immersing vegetables in water: contact with atmospheric oxygen can be avoided by immersing
cut vegetables in water. Since water contains dissolved oxygen, it is more effective if it is first
boiled to remove dissolved air.

Vacuum packing: protecting food from contact with oxygen as in vacuum packing prevents
enzymatic browning since it is an oxidation reaction.

By elimination of substrate: this method of prevention is not practical. A variety of peach

called ‘sun bean’ is an exception because it is deficient in substrate.

Sulphuring of fruits prior to dehydration: sulphur prevents oxidative browning due to enzyme
activity. Fruits is treated to sulphur fumes prior to drying. Treatment with sulphur dioxide(SO 2)
gas or sulphurous acid solution(H2SO3) or 0.25 percent sodium sulphite for 45 seconds is
adequate to prevent browning. Bisulphite and metabisulphites are also used. sulphurous acid is a
strong reducing agent and prevents discolouration.

Use Of Antioxidants: Chemical additives like sulphur dioxide and vitamin C serve to inhibit
enzymes, alter enzyme substrates or limit entrance of oxygen. Sulphur dioxide, sulphites and

42
bisulphites inhibit effectively browning. Ascorbic acid retards browning by virtue of its reducing
power. It is used along with citric acid to reduce browning.

Prevention Of Contact With Oxygen:

Contact with oxygen can be reduced by immersing the fruits in water, or liquids like milk, curd,
fruit juice or honey or by covering with a wet cloth after cutting.

In a large scale, this is technically difficult to implement and costly. This is used when other
methods are not applicable or effective in controlling browning. A typical example is browning
in avocado products. Packaging the product under nitrogen prevents surface browning
effectively.

De-oxygenation and vacuum closing are also used to diminish oxidation. High concentrations of
sodium chloride or sugar solution depress the activity of plant oxidises, including phenolases.

NON-ENZYMATIC BROWNING:

1. Maillard reaction

Maillard was the first to describe the development of a brown colour in mixtures containing
amino acid and reducing sugars. The reaction between certain free groups of amino acids such as
the NH2 group and a carbohydrate, affects the product in many ways in addition to the colour
change. The aroma and flavour of the ready product is also affected. The reaction is also known
as car bonylamine reaction or protein sugar reaction.

The brown pigment formed contributes to the aroma, flavour and colour of many ready-to-eat
cereals, toffees, malted barley, and bakery products such as bread, cakes, and biscuits. If the
dough containsless reducing sugar then the colour of the crust is light. The more the percentage
of reducing sugar, the darker the crust in bakery products such as dinner rolls.

Condensation of amino group of protein

Carbonyl group of sugar

Brown pigment

2. Caramelization:

43
Sugars are caramelized at 163 to 1700C or 325 to 3380F because of action of heat. Darkening of
syrups, brown colour of candies such as caramels, taffy, and brittle are because of caramelization
reaction. Caramelization or sugar browning reaction occirs with sugar alone. Sugar is broken
down into number of compounds because of intense heat.

3. Ascorbic acid browning :

Kokum and strawberry preserves undergo a change in colour during storage. The original bright
red/crimson of the anthocyanin pigment in the fresh fruit becomes dull and develops a rusty
brown colour. A similar change in colour is also seen in citrus fruit juices and squashes.

The ascorbic acid present in these fruits oxidation with the formation of a compound which
produces a brown pigment and causes discolouration. The oxidized ascorbic acid hastens the
degradation of the red pigment of anthocyanin giving the product a dull brownish colour. Factors
which hasten this reaction are

a. Presence of oxygen
b. Reducing sugars present
c. High pH
d. Warm storage temperatures.

Lime juice cordial loses its lemon colour to become darker and brown. This type of browning is
seen in preserves. To prevent this discolouration, strawberries are kept as frozen stock and made
into preserves only as and when required, low storage temperatures and addition of disulphites
retard the reaction.

Lipid browning:

This type of browning is seen in fats and fatty phases of food. The amino groups of
phospholipids and lipoproteins can react with aldehydes and reducing sugars resulting in
browning.

This type of browning is quite uncommon and may be observed in fats stored for long periods. It
is an undesirable reaction.

Non-enzymatic browning in lime juice is accompanied by an increase in off flavour, which

also limits shelf life. During evaporative of lime juice, rise in temperature leads to browning
pigment formation. Clarified lime juice remains free from non-enzymatic browning when
subjected to vacuum evaporation at a temperature range of 30-500c.

Ascorbic acid is responsible for the development of browning reactions in fruit juices and
concentrates and in canned vegetables. Mixtures of ascorbic acid and amino acids develop brown
colour more rapidly than mixtures of reducing sugars and amino acids. Dehydro ascorbic acid is

44
highly reactive and can react with amino acids. In decomposition of ascorbic acid or Dehydro
ascorbic acid furfural and ozone of L-xylose are formed which are highly reactive.

The tamarind fruit peri carp (pulp) contains several phenolic compounds most of which are pro-
anthocyanidins. In addition tamarind pulp contains tartaric acid and a small amount of ascorbic
acid. All these compounds are easily prone to oxidation.

Oxidation of phenolic compounds leads to darkening of tamarind pulp. Darkening due to ageing
and exposure to air also occurs in some kinds of wine and ketchup preparations. The speed at
which they turn dark depends on the chemical composition of phenolic compounds present in the
fruit ingredients.

In the case of tamarind darkening due to age, oxidation occurs primarily as a non-enzymatic
chemical reaction. Refrigeration would significantly reduce the rate of oxidation and thus
darkening of tamarind pulp.

Water soluble

PIGMENTS Water insoluble

The bright colours of many vegetables contribute much to their appeal. The colours result from
the various pigments contained in their tissues. Most of the pigments occur in plastids—
specialised bodies lying in the protoplasm of the cell. Sometimes, the water-soluble pigments are
dissolved in the vacuoles and not generally distributed throughout the cell. The chief pigments of
vegetables and fruits can be classified as water insoluble and water soluble.

WATER-INSOLUBLE PIGMENTS

1. CHLOROPHYLL

The green pigments of leaves and stem are usually held closed to the cell wall in some bodies
called chloroplasts along with some carotenes and xanthophylls. Two chlorophylls have been
isolated.
Chlorophyll-a is intense blue green in colour and chlorophyll-b is dull yellow green in colour.
They occur in plants in the ratio of 3a:1b. Chlorophyll-a is present in florets or blue-green
broccoli and chlorophyll-b is present in stalks. Chlorophylls are mostly insoluble in water and
dominate in unripe fruits. Other pigments present are masked by dominating chlorophyll. This
pigment is present in green leafy vegetables, capsicum, beans, peas and chillies.
Fruits: guava, gooseberry, country apple.

2. CAROTENOIDS

45
These are groups of yellow, orange, red and fat-soluble pigments widely distributed in nature. In
green leaves they occur in chloroplasts. In greens though carotenoids are present the colour is
masked by chlorophyll. In plants, carotenoids are present as α-carotene, β-carotene, γ-carotene,
xanthophyll and cryptoxanthin. Of all carotenoids β-carotene is valuable in the synthesis of
vitamin A. Depth of colour does not always indicate vitamin A value as many carotenoids
pigments cannot be converted to vitamin A.
Fruits: mango, papayta, oranges, watewrmelone(lycopene), muskmelone(βcarotene), jack fruit,
peaches,(violaxanthin) tomatoes, grapes pink(lycopene, βcarotene) pine apple (violaxanthin,
βcarotene)

WATER SOLUBLE PIGMENTS

These pigments are not membrane- bound molecules but are dissolved in the cell sap of
epidermal cells of these parts. Flavonoids are classified into anthocyanins and anthoxanthins.
Anthocyanins are highly water soluble pigments that range in colour from red to purple. The
anthoxanthins are colourless or white. Anthocyanins and anthoxanthins are important cyanidin-
based compounds.

1. ANTHOCYANINS

Anthocyanins have cyanidin with attached sugars. These like other flavonoids are contained in
the vacuole of plant cells where their solubility in water makes them disperse freely. Cherries,
red apples, various berries blue and red grapes, pomegranates, and currants achieve their colour
appeal because of predominance of anthocyanins. The red colour in the skin of radishes and
sweet potato and the leaves of red cabbage is due to anthocyanins too. Anthocyanin pigment in
purple brinjal is water insoluble. Fruits: grapes, apple, blueberries, plumes cherries
Anthocyanidins are anthocyanins without sugar in their structure. They are pelargonidin(red),
cyanidin(reddish blue) and delphinidin(blue).

2. BETALAINS

Anthocyanin pigments are absent in some families and are replaced by highly different
compounds, betacyanins and betaxanthins. These two pigments together are known as betalains
which consist of heterocyclic nitrogen containing rings and have quit distinct metabolic path
ways of synthesis. High ratio of betacyanin to betaxanthin lead to violet, medium to red and low
to orange tuber colours. A some what yellow pigment is contributed by the betaxanthins. The
water soluble pigments present within the betacyanin group are betanidin and betanin. Betalains
are present in beet root.

3. ANTHOXANTHINS

46
These are colourless or pale yellow pigments closely related to anthocyanins. Like anthocyanins
they are water soluble and occur in the vacuoles of plant cells. They are so widely distributed
that it is exceptional to find a plant in which anthoxanthins are not present. They are frequently
present in complex mixtures.

They are colourless or white to yellow depending on the pH. Anthoxanthins give colour to
cauliflower, onions and spinach or other leafy vegetables. In green leafy vegetables the colour is
masked by chlorophyll. Fruits: guava, apple, custerapple, banana.

FLAVOUR COMPOUNDS:

The flavour of the fruit and vegetables are extremely important to their acceptance in the diet.

The overall flavour impression is the result of the taste perceived by the taste buds in the mouth
and the aromatic compounds detected by the epithelium in the olfactory organ in the nose. In
fruits and vegetables, this means that sugars, acids, salts and bitter quinine like compounds are
tasted while the food is chewed in the mouth.

Sweetness may result from the presence of the glucose, gala lactose, fructose, ribose, arabinose
and xylose. Glucose, the most abundant of the sugars may be found in the free sugar form or may
be in the phosphate esters or other forms.

All fruits and vegetables naturally contain a small amount of salt, which is detected in the overall
taste impressions contributing to flavour. The natural flavours of vegetables are due to mixtures
of aldehydes, alcohols, ketones, organic acids and sulphur compounds. Some fruits and
vegetables have an astringent taste attributed to phenolic compounds or tannins.

2 types of vegetables have strong flavours resulting from the presence of various sulphur
containing compounds. Allium is the genus that includes onion, garlic and leeks. Brussel sprouts,
broccoli, cabbage, turpins, cauliflower, kale and mustards are members of the family cruciferae,
which also contain prominent sulphure compounds. They are described as strong flavoured.
Vegetables of onion family are usually strong flavoured in the raw state and tend to lose some of
the strong flavours when cooked in water. Vegetables of the cabbage family are relatively mild
when raw but develop strong flavours when overcooked or improperly cooked.

Curcurbitacins and oxygenated tetracyclic triterpenes which may occurs in both the free form
and as glycosides in cucumber may impart bitterness.

Effect of cooking on pigments:

Chlorophyll:

47
All green leaves and green colour vegetables like beans and peas contain chlorophyll. The
complex strucute and conjugation of proteins makes chlorophyll very susceptible to chemical
changes in cooking and consequently the pleasant green colour is difficult to retain.

 When greens is put in boiling water, the green colour becomes brighter. This is due to
grater translucency of plant tissue due to expulsion of intercellular air collapse of the
intercellular space.
 A limited amount of chlorophyllide produced during storage of certain green vegetables
prior to cooking accounts for the light green tint of the cooking water from them.
 Destruction of chlorophyll increases with cooking time. Chlorophyll –a is more readily
converted to pheophytin than chlorophyll-b. green vegetables should cooked for a very
short time, less than 7 mintues to retain the colour. Effect of cooking time on chlorophyll.
Magnesium present in the structure of chlorophyll is rather easily displaced by hydrogen
molecule when it is heated in the presence of organic acid. A pale greenish grey
compound known as phenophytin- a or an olive- green pheophytin-b results.
 When sodium bicarbonate reacts with chlorophyll the phytyl and methyl groups are
displaced and a bright green water soluble chlorophyll is formed.
 Addition of a small amount of calcium acetate or other calcium salt prevents the
mushiness by blocking the breakdown of the hemicelluloses.

Carotenoids:

Ordinary cooking conditions have little effect on the colour or the nutritiove value of
carotenoid. The colour is little affected by acid, alkali and the volume of the water. The
nutritive value is protected during cooking by the insolubility in water.

 Effect of heat and oxidation: the high degree of unsaturation of the carotenoids
makes them susceptible to oxidation with the resulting loss of colour after the food
containing them has been dried. The loss in intensity of colour is not only due to
oxidation of the unsaturation of carotene but also shift from trans form to cis form.
 Effect of cooking in fat; appreciable amount and enough to effect the colour will
dissolve in ghee, when carrot kheer or halwa is made.

Anthocyanins;

 As ph changes, the colour of anthocyanin changes as ph 3 Crimson, ph 7- purple, ph

8- grayish purple, ph 10- grey, ph 12- greenish grey, ph 14- bright green. The acidity
of the cell in which nthese compounds are formed causes the molesculs to have a
positive charge on the oxygen atom. This form, which is the common form at a pH of
3.0 or less, maintains or shifts the hue towards red.
 Special enamel linings in the cans are used when canning anthyocyanins containing
fruits and vegetables. Unusual colour raning from green to slate blue, develop when
anthocyanins contact iron, aluminium, tin, copper ions. The presence of ascorbic acid

48
 with copper or iron accelerates the oxidation and undesirable colour changes of
anthocyanins compounds.
 Anthocyanins are water soluble cell sap pigments which can be leached from a
vegetables by the cooking water. Cooking in a steamer or in a pressure pan which
linit the contact of the vegetab;le with water are better methods than boiling in water.

Betalains:

Although these pigments are held tightly within cells in the raw vegetables, they diffuse rather
rapidly into the cooking water resulting in the highly pigmented water associated with boiling
beets. This problem is aggravated by cutting beet into small pices and cooking leading to dull
colouration in the boiled product. Since this colour is highly soluble in water, the best method of
cooking beet root is to cook aalong with the skin, so that much of the colour does not leach out.

Anthoxanthins

The colour of the vegetables will be whiter if little acid such as lime juice or vinegar is added
during cooking. If the water in which cauliflower is cooked is slightly alkaline, it will have a
distinctly yellow colour to it. They turn yellow or orange in the presence of alkali. This is used as
a confirmatory test.

Phenolic content:

Method of processing has no effect on phenolic content in spinach and other vegetables like
onion and tomato. Boiling, pressure cooking and microwave cooing significantly decreased
phenolic content in amaranth. In brinjal there is a significant increase by all the methods as
compared to the raw brinjals. In French beans processing increased phenolic content.

Sulphur containing vegetables:

The eye irritating substance in onion is an acid derived specifically from (+) –S-(prop-1-enyl) –
L-Cysteine sulphoxide as a resu;lt of the action of an enzyme. The irritant is propenyl sulphenic
acid, which decomposes rather rapidly. This compound and many of the sulphur compounds
contributing flavours to various members of the allium genus are quite volatile and escapes
during cooking unless the cooking time is short. When onions are chilled in the refrigerator or
ina bowl of cold water the enzymes int eh onion slow down at a molecular levels and watering of
eyes reduced.

What is dietary fiber?

Dietary fiber, also known as roughage or bulk, includes the parts of plant foods your body can't
digest or absorb. Unlike other food components, such as fats, proteins or carbohydrates — which

49
your body breaks down and absorbs — fiber isn't digested by your body. Instead, it passes
relatively intact through your stomach, small intestine and colon and out of your body.

Fiber is commonly classified as soluble, which dissolves in water, or insoluble, which doesn't
dissolve.

 Soluble fiber. This type of fiber dissolves in water to form a gel-like material. These
includes pectins, gumes and mucilages.It can help lower blood cholesterol and glucose
levels. Soluble fiber is found in oats, peas, beans, apples, citrus fruits, carrots, barley and
psyllium.
 Insoluble fiber. Structural parts of plant cell walls(cellulose, Hemi –cellulose and lignin),
which are not soluble in water, are classed as insoluble fiber. This type of fiber promotes the
movement of material through your digestive system and increases stool bulk, so it can be of
benefit to those who struggle with constipation or irregular stools. Whole-wheat flour, wheat
bran, nuts, beans and vegetables, such as cauliflower, green beans and potatoes, are good
sources of insoluble fiber.
Most plant-based foods, such as oatmeal and beans, contain both soluble and insoluble fiber.
However, the amount of each type varies in different plant foods. To receive the greatest health
benefit, eat a wide variety of high-fiber foods.

Benefits of a high-fiber diet

A high-fiber diet has many benefits, which include:

 Normalizes bowel movements. Dietary fiber increases the weight and size of your stool and
softens it. A bulky stool is easier to pass, decreasing your chance of constipation. If you have
loose, watery stools, fiber may help to solidify the stool because it absorbs water and adds
bulk to stool.
 Helps maintain bowel health. A high-fiber diet may lower your risk of developing
hemorrhoids and small pouches in your colon (diverticular disease). Some fiber is fermented
in the colon. Researchers are looking at how this may play a role in preventing diseases of
the colon.
 Lowers cholesterol levels. Soluble fiber found in beans, oats, flaxseed and oat bran may
help lower total blood cholesterol levels by lowering low-density lipoprotein, or "bad,"
cholesterol levels. Studies also have shown that high-fiber foods may have other heart-health
benefits, such as reducing blood pressure and inflammation.
 Helps control blood sugar levels. In people with diabetes, fiber — particularly soluble fiber
— can slow the absorption of sugar and help improve blood sugar levels. A healthy diet that
includes insoluble fiber may also reduce the risk of developing type 2 diabetes.

50
 Aids in achieving healthy weight. High-fiber foods tend to be more filling than low-fiber
foods, so you're likely to eat less and stay satisfied longer. And high-fiber foods tend to take
longer to eat and to be less "energy dense," which means they have fewer calories for the
same volume of food.
Another benefit attributed to dietary fiber is prevention of colorectal cancer. However, the
evidence that fiber reduces colorectal cancer is mixed.

How much fiber do you need?

The Institute of Medicine, which provides science-based advice on matters of medicine and
health, gives the following daily fiber recommendations for adults:

Fiber: Daily recommendations for adults

Age 50 or younger Age 51 or older

Institute of Medicine

Men 38 grams 30 grams

Women 25 grams 21 grams

Your best fiber choices

If you aren't getting enough fiber each day, you may need to boost your intake. Good choices
include:

 Whole-grain products
 Fruits
 Vegetables
 Beans, peas and other legumes
 Nuts and seeds
Refined or processed foods — such as canned fruits and vegetables, pulp-free juices, white
breads and pastas, and non-whole-grain cereals — are lower in fiber. The grain-refining process
removes the outer coat (bran) from the grain, which lowers its fiber content. Enriched foods have
some of the B vitamins and iron back after processing, but not the fiber.

51
Fruits and Vegetables Processing: Maturity indices of different fruits, Post harvesting changes
of fruits and vegetables, Factors effecting growth of micro organisms and the control measures,
Principles of preservation of fruits and vegetables

Maturity for harvesting

Maturity is defined as the stage of development of fruits and vegetables that gives their minimum
acceptable quality to ultimate consumers. Harvesting maturity is the point at which fruit has
reached a minimum level of development such that it has sufficient life to withstand
transportation and ripening. Harvesting at the right stage if maturity influences overall quality of
products. Depending upon the purpose of the utilization after harvest of the commodities,
maturity can be classified into two stages-decided on the stage of the development of the
vegetative growth and the stage of utilization by consumers (Moris, 1986)

Physiological maturity: Stage in the development of the fruit and the vegetable when
maximum growth and maturation has occurred.

Horticultural maturity: Stage of development when a plant or a plant part possesses the pre-
requisite for utilization by the consumer for a particular purpose.

Maturity Indices for Fruits and Vegetables

Maturity index for a commodity is a measurement or measurements that can be used to
determine whether a particular commodity is at the right maturity. It depends on the
(i) Fruit Size
(ii) Position Of The Fruit On The Tree
(iii) Climate And Season
(iv) Fertilizers And Manures
(v) Soil Type

52
 (vi) Soil Moisture
(vii) Pruning Methods
(viii) Use Of Hormones And Other Chemicals.

In spite of all limitations, it is possible still to combine various indices of maturity to assess stage
at which commodity may be harvested. Generally, it is decided on the basis of the total soluble
solids (TSS) and acid ratio at different stages of development of fruits and vegetables.

Maturity Indices for Fruits: Maturity indices are objective and non destructive; the indices
used vary among fruits and often among cultivars within a specific fruit.

Banana: its harvesting is generally decided by its expected end-use and distance of transport
before the final consumption. When the bananas are transported, they are picked slightly
immature at about 75 to 80% maturity with plainly visible angles; and they generally ripen in
about 3 weeks.
Bananas for inter-islands shipment are harvested at about 85 to 90% maturity, when they have
attained full development and fruit angles are still well-defined; these fruits ripen from 1 to 2
weeks after harvest. For local or nearby markets more mature fruits are harvested, which ripen in
less than a week. For judging maturity, pulp to peel ratio, days from emergence of inflorescence,
disappearance of angularity of fingers, drying leaves, brittleness of floral ends are some of
indices used in India. Angularity or fullness of fingers seems to be the standard practice. To
determine proper time of harvesting, it is best to supplement “fullness of fingers” with size and
number of days it takes from inflorescence to maturity.

Grapes: Physical characteristics like texture of pulp peel colour, easy separation of berries from
bunch and development of characteristic flavour and aroma are useful indices.

Mango: Four important changes associated with maturity of mangoes are (i) fullness of
shoulders (ii) changes in the colour of pedicle (iii growth of stones and (iv) development of
lenticels.
Several growers wait for changes of peel from deep-green to olive green. Specific gravity
measurements are also found a reliable index for deciding right stage of maturity. The gravity
between 1.01 and 1.02 is suitable for picking. It may be affected by seed cavity size, rainfall of
the area and cultural practices.
Besides, days from flowering to maturity, change in colour, specific gravity, solids to acids/
sugar to solid ratio appear good indices. Starch to acid ratio (4 or more) can be used as an index
for maturity in Langra variety; starch 5% at the time of harvest can be reliable index.

Papaya: For papaya as soon as the streaks of yellow appear on the apex or between the ridges,
fruit should be removed. It takes around 140 days normally from flowering to harvest. Other
indices are TSS of 6% and one-third coloured surface.

53
Maturity Indices for Vegetables:

Tomato: Its harvesting depends on the purpose for which it is to be used. Three maturity stages
generally recognised are: mature-green, pink or beaker red ripe stages. For long distance
transport, fruit should be harvested at mature-green stage. In fruits at mature-green stage, pulp
surrounding seeds are in jelly-like formation and seeds slip away from the knife. At the breaker
stage, blossom ends of the tomatoes turn pinkish or reddish. Fruits for local or nearby markets
and for canning should be harvested at pink or ripe stage. For canning, fruits should be medium
large, smooth, of uniform rich red flesh, evenly ripened without green shoulders and be
possessing large proportion of solid flesh of good flavour. For juice-making, tomatoes should be
rich in colour and flavour and should be juicy rather than pulpy.
Okra: Its fruits are harvested when pods are still young, tender and exhibiting maximum growth
rate. At this stage, pods readily snap when bent. Mature pods are fibrous, tough and unfit for
human consumption. Best maturity is decided by breaking tip of the fruit; it should be easily
detached from the main part.

Cucumber: Slicing cucumber must be medium-sized, dark-green, and immature with small
seeds. Most of the varieties harvested are from 16 to 23cm long.

POST HARVEST CHANGES

Virtually all synthesis of organic compounds halts after harvest, but numerous physiological
changes continue in fruits and vegetables during storage. Bulbs, roots, tubers and seeds become
relatively dormant during storage whereas the fleshy tissues of fruits and vegetables normally
undergo ripening after maturation and then continue to senescence. Senescence occurs quite
rapidly with an accompanying loss of palatability. Certain types of bio chemical activities occur
in all fruits and vegetables , including respiration, protein synthesis and changes in some
constituents of cell walls.
Respiration rate varies with the stage of maturity and ripening in many fruits, with the rate
increasing to a maximum just prior to full ripening the phase called the climacteric. Those fruits
that exhibit this increase in respiratory rate just prior to senescence are termed climacteric fruits.
They are distinguished by their ability to continue to ripen when they are harvested at the time
that they are horticulturally mature but not yet ripe. Peaches, peas, mangoes are climacteric
fruits. Citrus fruits and grapes are non climacteric. Their respiration rate does not accelerate after
harvesting. Non climacteric fruits are best when ripened before harvesting.

PECTICSUBSTANCES

54
Pectic substances are a group name for the derivatives of carbohydrate. They are methylated
polymer of galacturonic acid. They are present in the primary cell wall and the middle lamella of
fruits and vegetables.

Protopectin is the water insoluble form of pectic substances occurring in immature fruits and to a
less extent in vegetables. Protopectin gives firm texture to unripe fruits. As fruit ripens, some
demethylation and hydrolysis occur along the protopectin molecules due to the enzymes
pectinesterases.

The transition takes place from a methylated water insoluble polymer—protopectin – to a shorter
methylated compound capable of dispersing easily in water—pectin. Pectin forms gel on heating
with acid and sugar.

As the degradation of pectin continues the molecules gradually become shorter and lose all of
their methoxyl groups. These shorter polymers of galactouronic acid are desiginated as pectic
acid. Pectic acid is found in over ripe, very soft fruits and vegetables. This type of pectic
substances has lost the gel forming ability characteristic of the longer methyl esters of
galacturonic acid polymers.

During ripening protopectin→pectinic acid→pectin→pectic acid occur due to demythylation

of pectinesterases.

Pectic substance Occurrence Chemical characteristic Capacity to form gel

Protopectin Raw fruits and Insoluble methylated Cannot form gel

vegetables polymer of galacturonic
acid
Pectinic acid Slightly ripened fruits Polygalacturonic acids Form a gel with very
containing more than a little sugar
negligible proportion of
Methyl-Ester groups

Pectin Optimum ripe fruits Water-soluble shorter Forms firm gel with
Methylated compound acid and sugar

55
 Pectic acid Over ripe fruits Polygalacturonic acids Cannot form gel
free from Methyl-Esters

Cell wall components undergo changes after harvest a consequence of the action of various
enzymes the pectic substance in cell walls and the middle lamella undergo degradation as a result
of the increasing levels of two types of enzymes, pectinesterases and polygalacturonases. Other
enzymes include hemi cellulase and cellulose. As a consequence of the reactions catalysed by
these enzymes, some sugar are released from the complex polysaccharides constituting the cell
walls. The result is ripened fruits increase in sweetness despite the fact that they may have little
or no starch to serve as a potential source of sugar.

Ripening of fruits:

Fruits ripening is a genetically programmed highly co-ordinated physiological process. The

process of fruit ripening is chiefly regulated by a gaseous plant hormone called ethylene. Most
fruits have elevated ethylene levels during ripening. Ethylene regulates the expression of several
genes involved in fruit ripening so as to modulate the activity of various enzymes involved in the
process of ripening. Enzymes observed to increase during ripening of fruits include amylase,
lipase, pectic enzymes, invertase, chlorophyllase and peroxidise. The following changes occurs
during ripening due to the presence of enzymes present in the plant tissue.

The colour changes from green to yellow or orange red in colour. There is breakdown of
chlorophyll. Synthesis or exposure of carotenoids and anthocyanin pigment occurs.

Softening of the flesh occurs during ripening. Proto pectin is converted to pectin and in over
ripening fruits, pectin is converted to pectic acid. The hydrolytic enzymes bring structural and
chemical texture during ripening. At later stages of fruit ripening hydrolysis of hemi cellolose
occurs resulting in softening of the fruit and contributing to the pool of soluble reducing sugars.
During ripening, hydrolysis of hemicelluloses occurs resulting in softening of the fruits.

There is a decrease in acidity, increase in volatile substances and increases in essential oils.
Increase in sugar and decrease in starch causes changes in the soluble solids. Enzymes
breakdown large organic molecules into smaller ones that can be volatile, aroma can be detected.
Esters, lactones, mono and sesquiterpenes, mono terpene hydrocarbons such as cis-ocimene
alpha and beta pirene, myrcene and limomene contribute to flavour. When harvested, a banana
contain about 20% starch and only 1% sugar. By the time the fruit is ripe, the proportions are
reversed. All these changes produce a pleasant flavour.

56
Tannins are mainly responsible for the astringent taste of banana. Stickiness of raw banana
decreases, stickiness is due to poly terpenes and some other compounds. Upon completion of
maturity, tannin content starts to decrease and continues until fruit complete. Unripe bananas
contain about 100-250mg tannins/100g fruit. Other latex constituents are also broken down
during ripening.

The optimum temperature and humidity for ripening are about 20 0C and 90-95% relative
humidity. Repining of fruits can also be done artificially by smoking.

Chemical fruit ripening:

Natural process of fruit ripening is accelerated by using certain chemicals. The chemical
commonly to ripen fruits commercially is ethephon (2- Chloro ethyl phosphonic acid) which
penetrates into the fruit and decomposes to ethylene. Incidentally, chemical like calcium carbide
that produce acetylene, an analogue of ethylene, are also used in some places posing danger of
explosion and carry over of toxic material to consumers.

One can distinguish the artificially ripened fruits by the uniform skin colour in fruits like
tomatoes, mango, papaya and in the case of banana, yellow colour fruit with dark green stem.

Microbiological Spoilage of Fruits and Vegetables

Consumption of fruit and vegetable products has dramatically increased in the United States by
more than 30% during the past few decades. It is also estimated that about 20% of all fruits and
vegetables produced is lost each year due to spoilage.

During the period 1970–2004, US per capita consumption of fruits and vegetables increased by
19.9%, to 694.3 pounds per capita per year (ERS, 2007). Fresh fruit and vegetable consumption
increased by 25.8 and 32.6%, respectively, and far exceeded the increases observed for
processed fruit and vegetable products. If US consumption patterns continue in this direction,
total per capita consumption of fresh fruits and vegetables would surpass consumption of
processed fruits and vegetables within the next decade. This shift toward overall increased
produce consumption can be attributed, at least in part, to increased awareness in healthy eating
habits as revealed by a broad field of research addressing food consumption and health and
promoted by the National Cancer Institute with the 5-A-Day Challenge along with the USDA-
revised Food Pyramid.

Most microorganisms that are initially observed on whole fruit or vegetable surfaces are soil
inhabitants, members of a very large and diverse community of microbes that collectively are
responsible for maintaining a dynamic ecological balance within most agricultural systems.
Vectors for disseminating these microbes include soil particles, airborne spores, and irrigation
water. Most bacteria and fungi that arrive on the developing crop plant either are completely
57
benign to the crop’s health or, in many instances, provide a natural biological barrier to
infestation by the subset of microorganisms responsible for crop damage (Janisiewicz & Korsten,
2002, Andrews & Harris, 2000). The even smaller subset of bacteria and fungi responsible for
causing spoilage to the edible portion of the crop plant is the subject of this section.

Spoilage microorganisms can be introduced to the crop on the seed itself, during crop growth in
the field, during harvesting and postharvest handling, or during storage and distribution. Those
same types of soil-borne spoilage microbes that occur on produce are the same spoilage
microorganisms that are present on harvesting equipment, on handling equipment in the
packinghouse, in the storage facility, and on food contact surfaces throughout the distribution
chain. Therefore, early intervention measures during crop development and harvesting through
the use of good agricultural practices (GAP) will provide dramatic reductions in yield loss due to
spoilage at all subsequent steps in the food-to-fork continuum (Eckert & Ogawa, 1988).
Examples of GAPs include foliar fungicide application in the field, cross-contamination
prevention measures (stringent sanitation standard operating procedures) in the packinghouse
and storage facility, and use of postharvest fungicides. These practices also will enhance
substantially the food safety and shelf life of fresh-cut produce

In 1998, FDA published the Guide to Minimize Microbial Food Safety Hazards for Fresh Fruits
and Vegetables, recommending GAPs that growers, packers, and shippers implement to address
the common microbiological hazards that may be associated with their operations (FDA, 1998).
These GAPs are organized in eight categories:

I. Water
II. Manure and municipal biosolids
III. Worker health and hygiene
IV. Sanitary facilities
V. Field sanitation
VI. Packing facilities sanitation
VII. Transportation
VIII. Traceback

Unusual Characteristics of Spoilage Microorganisms

Many fruits and vegetables present nearly ideal conditions for the survival and growth of many
types of microorganisms. The internal tissues are nutrient rich and many, especially vegetables,
have a pH near neutrality. Their structure is comprised mainly of the polysaccharides cellulose,
hemicellulose, and pectin. The principal storage polymer is starch. Spoilage microorganisms
exploit the host using extracellular lytic enzymes that degrade these polymers to release water
and the plant’s other intracellular constituents for use as nutrients for their growth. Fungi in
particular produce an abundance of extracellular pectinases and hemicellulases that are important
58
factors for fungal spoilage. Some spoilage microbes are capable of colonizing and creating
lesions on healthy, undamaged plant tissue. Spoilage microorganisms also can enter plant tissues
during fruit development, either through the calyx (flower end) or along the stem, or through
various specialized water and gas exchange structures of leafy matter. Successful establishment,
however, requires the spoilage microbe to overcome multiple natural protective barriers. Fruits
and vegetables possess an outer protective epidermis, typically covered by a natural waxy cuticle
layer containing the polymer cutin. A diverse community of epiphytic microorganisms that
present a further competitive barrier to the spoilage organism also typically colonizes the
outermost fruit surface. Overcoming these barriers requires an exquisite set of biochemical tools
that allow the spoilage microorganism to

(1) Identify and recognize the plant surface;

(2) Employ one or more strategies to achieve irreversible attachment to the plant surface; and
(3) Initiate steps leading to internalization of the tissue.

On plant structures other than the fruit, internalization can be achieved through a number of
specialized vessels and surface structures employed by the plant to absorb and release water and
to provide CO2 and O2 exchange.

Two wound pathogens, Penicillium expansum and Botrytis cinerea, if not scrupulously cleaned
from fruits prior to storage or if fruits with infected wounds have not thoroughly been culled
from the lot, can cause significant crop loss as these spoilage fungi eventually degrade the wound
sites, create lesions, and cross-contaminate adjacent fruits. If fruits receive improper preharvest
fungicide application, poor washing, and/or inadequate culling, an expanding infestation of
spoilage microorganisms can destroy a substantial portion of a stored lot of fruits P. expansum
and B. cinerea are pathogens of apples, pears, and a number of other pectin-rich fruits. B. cinerea
is an especially sophisticated and selective plant pathogen that possesses multiple cutinases and
lipases that are capable of degrading plants rich in pectin.

The bacterium Erwinia carotovora subsp. carotovora is a highly effective spoilage microbe that
causes soft rot across a broad host range of vegetables and some fruits (Lund, Baird-Parker, &
Gould, 1983; Table 4). One of six known genera of soft-rot bacteria (including Xanthomonas,
Pseudomonas, Clostridium, Cytophaga, and Bacillus), E. carotovora subsp. carotovora is one of
several species of Erwinia that infect and destroy plant tissues both pre- and postharvest and is
the species that causes the greatest damage to harvested vegetables. Soft rot is a form of decay
characterized by a watery transparency in infected leafy plant parts and watery disintegration of
nonleafy plant materials.

Pseudomonas tolaasii, another fluorescent pseudomonad and fresh produce spoilage bacterium,
has a much narrower range of host-specificity than P. fluorescens and P. viridiflava. P. tolaasii
59
causes spoilage of the white mushroom, Agaricus bisporus. Similar to P. fluorescens and P.
viridiflava, P. tolaasii produces siderophores that fluoresce under ultraviolet light. However,
unlike the soft-rot pseudomonads, P. tolaasii does not cause soft rot on plants (i.e., it does not
produce pectin depolymerases) but instead creates unsightly blemishes on the caps and stems of
the Agaricus fruiting body as a result of localized infection and decay of those parts of the
mushroom. Wells, Sapers, Fett, Butterfield, Jones, Bouzar, & Miller (1996) identified three
pathotypes of mushrooms based on pathology and fatty acid analysis: P. tolaasii and P. gingeri
which cause severe and yellowed lesions and P. reactans which causes a mild discoloration of
the infected area.

Prevention and Control Measures

Fresh fruits and vegetables are among the more challenging of food products to commercially
produce and distribute. Fresh produce remains metabolically and developmentally active as it
proceeds from the commercially appropriate time to harvest (horticultural maturity), to
physiological maturity, to senescence and complete deterioration. During this period of
development, several physiological and compositional changes occur. This process can be
summarized chronologically as growth, maturation, physiological maturity, ripening, and
senescence. Although infection and microbiological spoilage can proceed at any time during this
developmental continuum, the period of greatest susceptibility to decay onset is during ripening
and senescence. Prior to ripening, fruits and vegetables are equipped with defensive barriers to
infection including active wound healing and the production of phytoalexins which are phenolic
substances that are toxic to fungi.

Losses due to postharvest spoilage or pathological decay are a result either of latent infections in
the field that become active following harvest or of crosscontamination during harvest, cleaning,
storage, and distribution. Presence of the pathogen on a susceptible host fruit or vegetable,
combined with suitable environmental conditions such as high temperature, provides the three
components required for disease expression such as host, environment, and pathogen . Therefore,
spoilage management should begin in the field using an integrated
strategy of GAPs. Balanced crop nutrition influences susceptibility to spoilage. For example,
Sugar, Righetti, Sanchez, and Khemira (1992) determined that adjusting pear orchard nutrition,
specifically for low nitrogen and high calcium, reduced fruit decay postharvest. High nitrogen in
plant tissues generally increases susceptibility to decay, whereas high calcium content reduces
postharvest decay on several crops. Removing dead and decaying plant matter and other organic
material from the crop plant and soil surface will eliminate a major harborage for spoilage
microbes as well as other crop pests. To the extent possible, isolating the agricultural field from
wild and domestic animals will not only reduce total microbial pressure on the crop, but also
reduce food safety risks. Aerial fungicide applications preharvest also will reduce postharvest
spoilage in storage. For example, a single application of the fungicide ziram to pome fruit
60
reduced postharvest decay by 25–50%. Other preharvest fungicides are also available (e.g.,
iprodione and cypronidil) and several new fungicides are under development . In addition, insect
pest management will reduce insect damage to crops and also will reduce microbial cross-
contamination by the insect vector. This is especially important for chewing insects that create
wounds on the fruit or vegetable and can simultaneously inoculate the wound site. At time of
harvest and throughout handling before storage and distribution, it is important to minimize
wounds and bruising and to cull all damaged and diseased product. A few spoilage microbes,
primarily fungi, can infect healthy tissues by forming appressoria, external structures that enable
the pathogen to penetrate the cuticle and epidermis. The developing appressorium ramifies
through these protective layers and into the pulp through a combination of mechanical pressure
and tissue destruction by extracellular enzymes. However, most spoilage microbes infect and
initiate decay at punctures and splits in the epidermal layer or, in far fewer cases, through natural
openings such as stomata and lenticels.

Principles of preservation of fruits and vegetables:

The modern methods of food preservation in general and of fruit and vegetables preservation in
particular may be broadly classified as follows

4. Physical methods of preservation

5. Chemical methods of preservation

Physical method of preservation :

a. By removal of heat(preservation by cold) : refrigeration, freezing preservation, dehydro

freezing preservation, carbonation.
b. By addition of heat (thermal processing): stationary pasteurization, agitating
pasteurization or sterilization, flash pasteurization or HTST processing etc.
c. By removal of water(evaporation or dehydration): sun drying, dehydration, low
temperature evaporation or concentration, freeze drying. Accelerated freeze drying, foam
drying, puff drying etc.
d. By irradiation: dosing with UV or Inozing radiation etc.

Chemical methods of preservation:

a. By addition of acid as vinegar or lactic acid: pickled vegetables, fish and meat.
b. By salting or brining: vegetables or fruit pickels, salted fishes, salt cured meat, pork, etc.
c. By addition of sugar and heating: fruit preservation- jam, jellies, marmalads etc
d. By addition of chemical preservation: using water- soluble salts of sulphur - dioxide
benzoic acid, sorbic acid and a few like hydrogen peroxide etc. which are permitted as

61
 harmless in foods. By means of substance of bacterial origin such as tylosin, resin etc,
etc. which are permitted to a limited extent, in some cases as harmless additives.
e. By fermentation: alcoholic and acetous fermentation as in the case of fruit wines, apple
cider, fruit, vinegar, etc.

Fats and Oils: Processing of nuts and oilseeds, Mechanical pressing, Screw pressing, Prepress
solvent extraction direct solvent extraction and refining, Milk substitutes and infant foods,
Changes in fat during Heating, Rancidity.

NUTS AND OIL SEEDS

To prepare foods into a variety of palatable and tasty preparations like vegetable curries,
cutlets, pakodas, samosas, puris, halwa etc, fats or oils are needed. We use fats or oils for
cooking and frying and to give richness and flavour to our food. They are also an important
concentrated source of energy and certain essential nutrients. A number of fats and oils are
available in the market. They are extracted from their natural source and then refined. Some are
expensive than others. Ghee and vanaspathi are solid in the temperature range of 18 – 24 0C and
are called fats, whereas vegetable oils are liquids (known as oils).

Selection of fats and oils: Oils and fats should have a natural flavour and colour.

They should be clean and free from any solid particles, dirt, dust and bad odour.

Fat or oil of a reputed company has to be purchased. Loose oils and fats should not be purchased,
as they are likely to be adulterated. Sealed tins or polyjars have be purchased. Butter should be
wrapped in hygienic package. It should be firm and have fresh flavour. Ghee should have its
natural delicate flavour.

Role of fats and oils:

1. Fats and oils are the most concentrated sources of food energy (9k.cal).
2. Function as carriers for fat soluble vitamins.
3. They contributes to the flavour and palatability as weel as to the feeling of satiety after
eating.
4. Lipids in the form of triglycerides, phospholipids, cholesterol and its esters are important
to the structure and permeability of membranes and cell walls.

62
 5. Lipids are the major components of adipose tissue which sserves as thermal insultion for
body as protection against shock to internal organs and as a contributor to body shape.
6. Food fats are a source of essential fatty acids ie Omega -3 and omega-6, play significant
role in immune system function and vision.
7. In synthesis of phospholipids and cholesterol.
1. They are excellent sources of fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E and K. Butter contains 15,000
I.U of vitamin A. Vegetable oils are good sources of vitamin E.
2. They play an important role in biosynthesis of several long chain fatty acids
3. Nuts and oilseeds as source of antioxidants example: groundnuts are rich in the
antioxidant flavonol.

PROCESSING OF OILS AND FATS

Nuts and oilseeds are in general rich sources of proteins, with the exception of coconut and of
fat. Oilseeds are the major sources of edible oil. Edible oilseed meals obtained from oilseeds are
rich in proteins and have been used for the preparation of infant foods and protein foods for
feeding infants and preschool children in developing countries. The major oilseeds produced in
the country include groundnut, rapeseed and mustard, castor seed, sesame, niger seed, linseed,
safflower, sunflower and soybean.

Oil is obtained commercially from quite a number of plant sources. Sometimes the oil is a by
product, e.g. as with maize, and at other times the oil is the main product (e.g.sunflower).
Important sources of plant oils with their percentage oil content (at natural moisture content) are
given.

Plant source % Plant %

Maize 5-10 Olive 15

Groundnut 40-45 Sesame 45-50

Soybean 15 Sunflower 30-40

Cotton seed 20-25 Oil palm 45

Linseed 35 Coconut flesh 65

Rapeseed 35-40 Castor bean 45-50

Oils and fats do not occur free in nature. They occur in animal tissues and in seeds and fruits
from which they are isolated, refined and processed for specific use. Fats are extracted from

63
oilseeds and animal tissues chiefly by rendering and from other sources by pressing and solvent
extraction.

General Oil Extraction Processing steps:

(i). Selection and cleaning: for quality assurance, the processor monitor seed maturity,
sprouting, degree of heat damage and the oil and protein content of seeds which are inversely
related.

(ii). Drying and storage: the moisture content of seeds is reduced to prevent spoilage, storage,
temperature, degree of movement and general transfer of old and new feed stock throughout the
storage area are some important considerations.

(iii). Cracking and drehuling: soyabeans are broken into 6-8 parts which the hull is removed.

(iv). Conditioning and flaking: Moisture is controlled to yield pliable beans for flaking.

(v). Solvent extraction: Soyabean flakes (18% oil) are brought into contact with hexane at 120-
1400F in counter current flow. The residual edible oil is usually reduced to 0.3-0.4%.

(vi). Desolventization of seed flakes: Soyabeans (30% hexane) are subjected to sparging with
steam to vaporize hexane. The moisture content of seed flakes is reduced to 20% w/w. Some
desolventization machines perform toasting and drying functions at the same time. The soyabean
oil is then subjected to refining operations as illustrated below.

Selection and cleaning

Drying and storage

Cracking and drehulling

Conditioning and flaking

Solvent extraction

64
 Oil for refining

Desolventizaion

General processing of oilseeds

Oil is recovered from the oil tissue by 3 general methods

1. Rendering
2. Pressing
a. Traditional pressing
b. Mechanical pressing
c. Modern Screw pressing
1. Solvent extraction
a. Pre pressing solvent extraction
b. Direct solvent extraction

Rendering : this method is used in the processing of fleshy fruit example: palm oil. The fruit are
boiled in water and the oil extracted is skimmed from the surface. The main principle involved is
the application of heat.

Note: for the extraction of animal fat rendering process is commonly used. This method is
mainly used for extracting animal fat from fatty tissues. The tissue from which fat is to be
extracted is carefully removed from the carcass and chopped or minced. Renfering is of 2 types
wet and dry methods.

Pressing: in case of oil seeds, oil is extracted by pressing. In this process, the cellwalls are
broken by grinding, rolling, or pressing under high pressure to liberate the oil. The most
primitive method of pressing is with the use of mortars.

a. Traditional method: it is commonly known as Ghani technology, In India, oil has been
obtained by processing oilseeds in village ghanis (made of pestle and motar), driven by
bullocks, from time immemorial. The ghani consists of a large mortar and pestle, the
mortar being fixed in the ground and the pestle being moved within the mortar by animal
traction( bulls, donkey or mule) a motor. Oilseeds are placed in the mortar and the pestle
grinds the material to remove the oil. The oil runs of a hole in the bottom of the mortar
and the cake is scooped out by the hand. This method is slow and requires two animals,
replacing the tired one with another after about 3-4 hours of work. Later on motorized
ghanis are replaced instead of the animal ghanis. Motorized ghanis are faster than manual

65
 or animal types but are more expensivce and their higher capital and operating costs will
require a large scale of production for profitability.
b. Mechanical pressing : this method is commonly known as Hydraulic method. The
modern method of oil extraction by pressing is by the use of high pressure expellers. In
this process, the oil-bearing material is cleaned, tempered and dehulled. The material is
cooked in steam at 65.6-93.3°C, the period of cooking varying from 15-30 min depending
on the material. The moisture content of the cooked material will be about 15%. The
cooked material is formed into a cake by a special mechanical device in a press cloth.
The hydraulic press consists of 12-16 boxes each box receiving 1 cake of the oilseed to
be crushed. The maximum pressure applied is 2000 psi for 20-50 min. The oil content of
press cake may vary from 5-8%, depending on the material. De-oiled cake is a good
cattle feed. About 80% of the oil is produced by this method.
c. Modern screw pressing: hydraulic presses have been replaced by modern screw pressing. This
being a continuous processes, requires less labour, and has greater capacity of oil production. The
pressure applied is also much higher, i.e., 10,000 -80,000 lb/ square inch can be applied by the
equipment used these days. Hence, the oil remaining under optimum conditions in the cake is
only 3- 4.5%.

The general sequence of modern operations in pressing oil seeds and nuts is follows.

 The seeds are passed over magnetic separators to remove any stray bits of meatls.
 The shells are removed, if necessary
 The kernels are coverted to coarse meal by grinding them between grooved rollers.
 The kernals are pressed in screw press with or without premilinary heating, depending on the
type of oil bearing material and the quality of oil desired. Oil extracted without heating contains
the least amount of impurities and is often of edible quality without refining or further
processing. Such oils are knowns as cold pressed oils example: olive oil.

Solvent extraction: cakes obtained by pressing operations still retain 3-15% residual oil. When
the value of the oil is greater as oil than as part of the meal, it is desirable to obtain complete
extraction with solvent. Solvent used for commercial methods of solvent extraction are
petroleum, ether, commercial hexane etc. In large scale operations solvent extraction is a more
economical means of recovering oil than is mechanical pressing. Many kinds of solvent
extraction may be used.

i. Prepress-solvent extraction: Prepress solvent extraction method is used for oilseeds

containing more than 35% oil. Extraction of oil from oilseeds and nuts by prepress
solvent extraction method using food grade solvents is practised in USA and other
advanced countries of oilseeds such as peanut, cotton seed and sesame. The process
consists of the following steps: (i) cooking the oil seed in steam and expressing oil in a
screw press by single pressing, (ii) solvent extraction of the meal (containing about 20-
25% oil) using food grade hexane, and (iii) desolventizing the material. The

66
 desolventizing process is carried out at temperature of 93.3-104.3 °C. The protein quality
in the meal obtained by the above procedure is not adversely affected.
ii. Direct solvent extraction: A typical extraction system contains the (i) cleaning to
remove dirt foreign material, etc. (ii). Removal of hull or cortex in cracking, aspirating or
screening operations. (iii). Cracking or rough grinding the kernels, meals or prepressed
cakes. (iv). Steaming. (v). flaking the small pieces between small flaking rolls. (vi).
Extracting the oil with solvent. (vii). Separating the meal from the oil solvent solution
called ‘Miscella’. (viii). Removing the solvent from, both, the miscella and the meal. The
meal is pelletized, and used in animal feeds. Most extracted meal contains less than 1%
residual oil.

Making of refined oils:

Oils extracted by the above methods are crude and contain many other
constituents like free fatty acids, unsaponifiable matter, metallic contaminants, un desirable
odouriferous constituents etc. In refining, the suspended particles are removed by filtration or
centrifugation. The free fatty acid are removed by alkali treatment. When the free fatty acid
content is high as in palm oil (5%) it is removed by neutralization. Pigments are removed by
bleaching using adsorbents like activated earth or carbon or, in special cases, chemical bleaching
agents. Finally, the oil is deodourized by injecting steam through the heated fat kept under
reduced pressure. Techniques for continuous bleaching and dedourizing are available.

Vegetable oils are removed from oil containing seed fruits or nuts by various pressing processes,
by solvent extraction and by combination of these. A seed cake that is relatively high in protein
remains after fat extraction and is often used for animal feed. The steps involved in refining oil is
given in,

Oil seeds or Nuts

Cooked in steam

cell structure breaks fat melts

solvent extraction

Addition of food grade hexane

Oil is extracted solvent is removed

Wetted with water , phosphoric acid. 800C

67
 Degummed

Alkali is added, NAOH. 600C-700C

Centrifugation

Soaps are formed with free fatty acids removed by centrifuging

Bleaching (activated clay 95-1100C)

removal of plant pigments like chlorophyll and charcoal heated in vacuum

Filtration

Deodorization (204 -2460C. 5-10MM, Hg.1-2hrs)

Fully Refined oil

Steps involved in making refined oil

Many vegetable oils do not lend themselves to conventional refining techniques. Rice bran oil
ends up with a refining loss factor of nearly four as against 2 for normal oils. A lot of solvent
extracted mustard oil, rape seed oil, ground nut oil end up at FFA above 10% . Such oils cannot
be refined by alkali treatment. It is only by distillative deacidification that they could be refined
and used as cooking oils.

After extraction, the crude oils are refined. The first step is usually to react the oil with an
alkaline material to remove the free fatty acids that are not attached to a glycerol molecule. Free
fatty acids in excess can detract from the oils flavour and decrease its effectiveness when used
for frying. The unwanted products of this reaction are then removed by centrifuging and
washing, with a final drying process. This is followed by bleaching and deodourizing to remove
colour pigments and further purify the oil.

SUBSTITUTES AND INFANT FOODS MILK

Milk prepared from soya bean has long been used in china and other asian countries for feeding
of infants. Improvements have been made recently in the process by several workers. Methods

68
for the preparation of fluid milk from soya bean foolows PAG have published specifications for
milk substitutes (swaminathan 1987).

1. Soyabean milk: the boiling water technique for the preparation of soya bean milk yields a
product without any beany odour. The method consists of the following steps:

1) Cleaning and dehuling of soya bean in a milk;

2) Soaking dehulled split bean in water for 5-10hrs;

3) Steaming the soaked bean for 30 mins to destroy lipoxidase, trypsinand growth in hibitors;

4) Grinding the cooked beans in boiling water;

5) Filtration, addition of sugar, minerals and vitamins; and

6) Homogenizing, steaming and bottling.

Soya bean milk can be dried in a spray drier. The resulting powder can be packed in
the same way as milk powder in tins and used for feeding infants.

2. PEANUT MILK: Preparation of peanut milk is as follows:

Cleaning and light roasting of peanut kernel

Decuticling and removal of germs and spoilt seeds

Grinding, addition of calcium hydroxide and butter salts

Filtration and fortification with vitamins and minerals and

Homogenization, steaming and boiling.

RANCIDITY:

Spoilage of fats may occur or storage, particularly if the fats are highly unsaturated and the
conditions of storage are conducive to chemical change in the fats. Rancidity is of two types –
hydrolytic and oxidative.

69
 1. Hydrolysis:

Hydrolysis is brought about by enzymes that decompose fats into free fatty acids and glycerol.
Butyric and caproic acids which are the volatile fatty acids predominating in butter are largely
responsible for the odour and flavour of rancid butter. These acids may render butter inedible
even when they are present in low concentrations.

Long-chain fatty acids such as stearic, palmitic and oleic acids do not usually produce a
disagreeable flavour unless other changes such as oxidation also occur.

Heating thoroughly to destroy the lipase enzyme that catalyses the hydrolysis of triglycerides
should prevent hydrolytic rancidity. Contaminating micro-organisms may also produce lipase
and these can similarly be destroyed with sufficient heating.

2. Oxidation:

Only unsaturated fats and foods which have lipoxygenase are susceptible to oxidative changes.
Highly hydrogenated and saturated fatty acids are relatively resistant to oxidation.
Hydroperoxides that are formed, break readily producing smaller volatile substances that give
the characteristic odours of rancid fat. The reaction is a chain reaction that is self – perpetuating.

The development of rancidity is objectionable not only because of the undesirable changes in
odour, flavour, colour and consistency of fat but because, it is accompanied by the inactivation of
vitamin A and E. Oxidative rancidity may be a problem in dry foods containing only small
quantities of fat, such as prepared cereals.

Fats subjected to either or both of these types of changes may contain fatty oxy and hydroxyl-
acids, ketones and lactones may include trimethylamine, with its fishy odour.

PREVENTION OF RANCIDITY:

Fats can be protected against the rapid rancidity by controlling the conditions of storage.

1. Storage at refrigerator and freezing temperatures prevent rancidity by reducing auto

oxidation.
2. Rays of light catalyse the oxidation of fats. By the use of coloured glass containers that
absorb the active rays, fats can be protected against spoilage. Certain shades of green
bottles and wrappers and yellow transparent cellophane wrappers are effective in
preventing rancidity.
3. Vacuum packaging also helps to retard the development of rancidity by excluding oxygen
4. Antioxidants naturally present in the food such as vitamin C, beta carotene and vitamin E
protect against rancidity.

70
 5. Antioxidants can also be added like butylated hydroxy anisole (BHA) butylated
hydroxytoulene (BHT), tertiary butyl hydroquinone (TBHQ) and propyl gallate.
6. Substances like citric acid may be used along with antioxidants in foods as synergists. A
synergist increases the effectiveness of an antioxidant but is not as effective an agent
when used alone. Some synergists may be effective because of their ability to bind or
chelate the metals and prevent them catalyzing the oxidation process. Chelating agents
are sometimes called sequestering agents.

EFFECT OF HEATING

Fat gradually soften on heating, they do not have a sharp melting point. Since fats can be
heated substantially above the boiling point of water they can brown the surface of foods.

SMOKE POINT, FLASH POINT AND FIRE POINT: Smoke point of a fat is the
temperature at which smoke comes continuously from the surface of the fat. Because fats differ
in their smoke points, fats to be used for frying should be chosen on the basis of their resistance
to smoking at the temperature used.When heated further smoke point they flash and burn. The
temperatures at which these occur are known as the Flash point and Fire point.

FACTORS THAT LOWER SMOKING POINT:

 The development of free fatty acids by some hydrolysis of the fat during frying
causes a decrease in the smoke point.
 A fat that has had repeated or prolonged use will begin to smoke at a temperature too
low for frying.
 Suspended matter such as flour or batter particles also lower the smoke point.
And the greater the surface of the fat exposed, the lower is the smoke point.
Fats heated in shallow wide pans with slightly sloping sides begin to smoke at lower
temperatures than do those heated in smaller pans with vertical sides.

Smoking temperatures of fats

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 Fat oil Smoking Temperature O0C

Butter fat 208

Cotton seed oil 230

Coconut oil 138

Groundnut oil 149-162

Hydrogenated oil 221-232

lard 194

Olive oil crude 176

Olive oil refined 234

Soya bean 230

The smoke point of a fat is partly a matter of its natural composition and partly a matter of the
processing it has received. Soyabean, cotton seed, peanut and corn have smoke points of about
2300c (4460F). Hydrogenated fats smoke at 2210 to 2320c.shortenings containing monoglyceride
as emulsifier smoke a lower temperature about 1760c. First, smoke is given off by the emulsifier
and later the smoke point may raise from 1900 to 193oc (375oF to 3800F).

CHANGES IN FAT ON HEATING:

There are four main ways in which the oil decomposes and all of these pathways lead to
a diminution of smoke point and operating temperature. Cooking oil is chemically decomposed
in the cooking process and this decomposition leads to deterioration in cooking quality if the oil
is kept in use for a long time.

Triglycerides

Hydrolysis / pyrolysis

Glycerol Free Fatty acid

72
 Acrolein Pyrolysis of chain

Thin blue haze at smoking point volatile hydrocarbon short chain fatty acid

Polymeric decomposition product Rancid flavour

Increase in viscosity

Deterioration of cooking quality

 Deteriorated fat / oil foams easily, smoke at a lower temperature, darkens in colour,
absorbs excessively by the food and smells unpleasant.

Questions:

1. What is the role fat in biological system(5m)

2. Write a note on pressing method for oil extraction(5m)
3. Define rancidity and how to prevent it(5m)
4. What are the changes during heating fat/ oil(5m)
5. Write a note on processing or extraction of oil form nuts and oilseeds(10m)

73
Sugars: Nutritive Value, Properties of sugar, Types of sugars. Use in Cookery,
Manufacturing of sugar.

Sweeteners have been used in food since prehistoric times, probably beginning with the
discovery of honey. Desire for sweet taste is an inherent quality in every individual. Sugar and
jaggery are used in beverages and other foods to increase palatability.

NUTRITIVE VALUE:

Sugar provides only energy to the body. Therefore, foods that contain relatively large
amounts of sugar generally have low nutrient density – proportionately less protein, minerals and
vitamins. Sugar is a pure carbohydrate in nature. Carbohydrates are energy giving substances. It
is an easily digestible source of energy. Besides providing energy the other function of sugar in
the diet is to provide sweetness. This plays an important role in the diet of young children.

Nutritive value of sugar per 100g

Energy K.Cal Carbohydrate g Calcium mg Iron mg

Sugar 398 99.4 12 0.15

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 Jaggery 383 95.0 80 2.64
Honey 319 79.5 5 0.69

Molasses which contains the natural ash of the plant juice from which it is made, furnishes
some nutrients other than carbohydrate such as a small amount of calcium and iron.

PROPERTIES:

1. Solubility: It is highly soluble in water. During heating more amount of sugar is dissolved.

2. Absorption of moisture Sugars are hygroscopic. Fructose is more hygroscopic than the other
sugars.

3. Fermentation: Most sugars, except lactose, can be fermented by yeast to produce carbon
dioxide gas and alcohol. This is an important reaction in making bread and other baked products.
The carbon dioxide leavens the product and the alcohol volatilises during baking.

4. Acid hydrolysis: Sucrose is easily hydrolysed by acid but maltose and lactose are slowly
acted on. Heat accelerates the action of acid.

5. Enzyme hydrolysis: The enzyme sucrase also called invertase is used in the candy industry to
hydrolyse some of the sucrose in cream fondants. This is done to produce soft semi-fluid centres
in chocolates. The enzyme is commonly added to the fondant layer around the fruit in chocolate-
coated cherries.

6. Melting point and decomposition by heat: With the application of sufficient dry heat, sugar
melts or changes to a liquid state. Heating beyond the melting point brings about a number of
decomposition changes. As sucrose melts around 1600C, a clear liquid forms that gradually
changes to a brown colour with continued heating. At about 170 0C caramelisation occurs with
the development of a characteristic caramel flavour along with the brown colour.

Caramelisation is complex reaction, involving the removal of water and eventual

polymerisation. It has a pungent taste, often bitter and much less sweet than the original sugar
from which it is produced. It is non crystalline and soluble in water. Fructose caramelises at
1100C, maltose caramelises at about 1800C and galactose at 1700C.

Granulated sugar caramelises on heated in a heavy pan. When hot liquid is added, the
caramelised sugar dissolves and can be used as flavouring substance to puddings, custards, ice
creams, cakes and sauces.

7. Decomposition by alkalies: The monosaccharides are markedly decomposed by alkalies and

flavour may become strong and bitter. Sucrose is least affected by alkalies.

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8. Sweetness: Of the sugars, lactose is the least sweet, followed by maltose, galactose, glucose
and sucrose with fructose being the sweetest. A maximum sweetness from fructose is most likely
to be achieved when it is used with slightly acid, cold foods and in beverages.

TYPES OF SUGAR:

There are different varieties of sugar and sugar products in the market. Usually they are
used for special purposes in the food preparations.

Sugars, their characteristics and uses:

No Type Characteristics Uses

1 Castor Fine white crystals Bakery
2 Granulated Crystals of medium size Sweetening agent
3 Cube Crystals compressed to cubes Tea service

4 Icing Fine powder with or without starch Cake icings

5 Golden syrup Processed to yellow syrup Cooking and baking

confectionery
6 Molasses Dark by-product of sugar Cooking and
confectionery
7 Diamond sugar Small rectangular crystals Used with beetle nuts,
confectionery
8 Rock sugar Big slabs Used on festive occasions
9 Brown sugar Contains molasses, glucose and fructose, Baked products.
has pleasing and distinctive flavour.
10 Sugar powder Pulverised granulated sugar Doughnuts, hard puris

11 Jaggery Solid light golden coloured, soft and dark Sweets preparation
coloured

SUGAR COOKERY:

Testing the doneness of sugar mixtures by measuring the temperature of the boiling
solution is a method of estimating the concentration of sugar in the mixture. The final
concentration of sugar is related, in general to the consistency of the product when it is
completely prepared the more concentrated the sugar solution, the firmer the consistency of the
finished product.

Stages of sugar cookery:

76
 0 0
Product C F Doneness Description of test
Syrup 110-112 230-234 Thread Syrup spins a 2 –inch thread between
gulbjamun, thumb and first finger.
jelabi
Fondant 112-115 234-240 Soft ball Syrup when dropped in cold water
Fudge forms ball that flattens on removal
from water.
Boondi laddoo 118-120 244-248 Firm ball Syrup when dropped into very cold
water forms a ball that does not flatten
on removal from water.
Divinity 121-130 250-256 Hard ball Syrup when dropped into very cold
Marshmallows water forms a ball that is hard enough
to hold its shape.
Butterscotch 132-143 270-290 Soft crack Syrup when dropped into very cold
Toffees water, threads that are hard but not
brittle.
Brittle Glaze 149-154 300-310 Hard Crack Syrup when dropped into very cold
water threads that is hard and brittle.

Barley Sugar 160 320 Clear Liquid Sugar liquefies.

Caramel peanut 170 338 Brown liquid Liquid becomes brown

brittle

PROCESS or MANUFACTURE:

It involves extraction of cane juice, clarification, evaporation, crystallisation, centrifuging and re

boiling of liquid.

1. Extraction of sugar cane juice : The cane is passed through two sets of revolving knives that
cuts the stalks into pieces. The cane pieces enter mills consists of rollers, where extraction of
juice takes place. In the best mills 95% of sugar goes in to the juice.

2. Clarification: The juice is strained to remove particles before sending it for process. The dark
green juice from mills is acidic and turbid. The process employed to remove both soluble and
insoluble impurities is to use lime and heat it. Milk of lime 0.5 kg calcium oxide per tonne of
cane neutralizes the natural acidity of juice, forming insoluble lime salts, mostly calcium
phosphate. Heating the juice to boiling point coagulates albumin, waxes and gums. The
precipitate formed entraps suspended solids as well as finer particles. The entire thing goes to
continuous clarifier where mud separates from clear juice by sedimentation.

77
3. Evaporation: The clarified juice in which precipitated impurities are removed contains 85%
water. 75% of this water is evaporated in four vacuum boilers arranged in series so that each
succeeding boiler has a higher vacuum, therefore boils at a lower temperature. The clear juice
having about 15% solids is concentrated here to 65% solids and 35% water. This syrup is passed
through a tower where sulphur dioxide gas bleaches the syrup. This syrup goes to crystallisation
unit.

4. Crystallisation: Crystallisation takes place in single effect vacuum pans, where the syrup is
evaporated until saturated with sugar. At this point ‘seed grain’ is added to serve as nuclei for the
sugar crystals and more syrup is added as the water evaporates. Continuing the above process the
pans are filled up till the desired size crystals are built up and dropped in mixers called
crystallisers. The sugar and syrup from a dense mass known as ‘massecuites’.

5. Centrifuging: The massecuite from crystallisers where sugar deposits on crystals due to
cooling is drawn into revolving machines called centrifugals. The cylindrical basket suspended
on a spindle has perforated sides, linked with wire cloth inside of which are metal sheets
containing 400 to 600 perforations per square inch. The basket revolves at a speed varying from
1000 to 1800 revolutions per minute depending on the grade of massecuite. The perforated liners
retain the sugar crystals which are washed with hot water. The mother liquor called molasses
passes through the lining due to centrifugal force exerted. The sugar drops when machine is
stopped. Sugar is subjected to hot and cooled air treatment in the conveyor to remove moisture
and high temperature. It is graded in a grader as per ISI specification, weighed and bagged.

6. Re boiling of liquid: The aim of sugar boiling is to remove more sugar and send less purity of
molasses as by-product. In short the molasses travels in forward direction to remove more sugar
from molasses and sugar travels in the backward direction to be converted into high grade sugar.

Raw cane sugar

syrup

Washing and
centrifugation

Hot water
Melter Lime and co2

Filtration Caco3 +impurities

78
 Bone Char Filtration Impurities

Vacuum boiling Water

Refined sugar

Schematic Representation of Refining Sugar

Questions:
6. Write about properties of sugar (5m)
7. What are different types of sugar available in the market(5m)
8. Write a note on manufacture or processing of sugar (10m)

79