TOPIC 1: INTRODUCTION TO FOOD SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

WHAT IS FOOD SCIENCE AND FOOD TECHNOLOGY?

1. FOOD SCIENCE
A general definition for Food Science obtained from Wikipedia, the free encyclopaedia is:
- a study concerned with all the technical aspects of food beginning with harvesting or
slaughtering, and ending with its cooking and consumption. It is considered one of the life
sciences, and is usually considered distinct from the field of nutrition.

Food science is however defined by some renowned food scientists as:

- the discipline in which biology, physical sciences and engineering are used to study the
nature of foods, the causes of their deterioration and the principles underlying food
processing. (Institute of Food Technologists, Chicago)

What food science involves

In terms of activities food Scientists are involved with the development of new food products,
design of processes to produce these foods, choice of packaging materials, shelf-life studies,
and sensory evaluation of the product with trained expert panels or potential consumers as well
as microbiological and chemical testing. At universities food scientists may study more
fundamental phenomena that are directly linked to the production of a particular food product
and its properties. Some of the disciplines (areas of study) of food scientists include:
 Food safety – the causes, prevention and communication dealing with foodborne illness.

 Food microbiology – the positive and negative interactions between micro-organisms

and foods.

 Food preservation – the causes and prevention of food quality degradation

 Food engineering – the industrial processes used to manufacture food

 Food chemistry – the molecular composition of food and the involvement of these
molecules in chemical reactions

 Food packaging – the study of how packaging is used to preserve food after it has been
processes and contain it through distribution

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  Food technology – the technological aspect

 Food physics – the physical aspects of foods (such viscosity, creaminess, and texture)

 Molecular gastronomy – the scientific investigation of processes in cooking, social and

artistic gastronomical phenomena

 Product development – the invention of new products

 Sensory analysis – the study of how food is perceived by the consumers’ senses

Therefore food science is a highly interdisciplinary applied science. It incorporates concepts

from many different fields including microbiology, chemical engineering, biochemistry and many
others.

2. FOOD TECHNOLOGY
Food technology or food tech for short is the application of food science to the selection,
preservation, processing, packaging, distribution and use of safe, nutritious and wholesome food.

Early history of food technology

Research in the field now known as food technology has been conducted for decades. For
instant as early as 1810, Nicolas Appert developed the canning process of food. This was a
decisive event as far as the field of food technology is known today. The process then was not
known as canning and Appert did not really know the principle on which his process worked, but
canning has had a major impact on food preservation techniques.
Another renowned 17th century researcher in the field of food technology was Louis Pasteur
whose research on the spoilage of wine and his description of how to avoid spoilage in 1864
was an early attempt to put food technology on a scientific basis. Besides research into wine
spoilage, Pasteur did research on the production of alcohol, vinegar, wines and beer and the
souring of milk. In the process he developed what is known as today pasteurization – the
process of heating milk products to destroy food spoilage and disease producing organisms. In
his research into food technology, Pastuer became the pioneer into bacteriology and of modern
preventive medicine.
By 1940s to 1950s the original four departments that had taught the subject under different

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names (including those at the University of Massachusetts and the University of California) had
their names retitled “Food Science”, “Food Science and Technology” or something similar.

Developments in Food Technology

Today several companies in the food industry have played a role in the development of food
technology. The developments have contributed greatly to the food supply, some of which are:
1. Instantized milk powder (dried milk powder) – D.D Peebles developed the first instant
milk powder, which has become the basis for a variety of new products that are
rehydratable in cold water or milk.

2. Freeze drying – the first application of freeze-drying was most likely in the
pharmaceutical industry; however, a successful large scale industrial application of the
process was the development of continuous freeze-drying of coffee.

3. High-Temperature Short Time (HTST) Processing – these processes for the most part are
characterized by rapid heating and cooling, holding for a short time at a relatively high
temperature and filling aseptically into sterile containers.

4. Decaffeination of coffee and tea – Decaffeinated coffee and tea was first developed on a
commercial basis in Europe around 1900. Green coffee beans are treated with steam or
water to around 20% moisture. The added water and heat separate the caffeine from the
bean Coffee bean) to its surface. Solvents are then used to remove the caffeine from the
beans. In the 1980s new non-organic solvent techniques have been developed for the
decaffeination of coffee and tea. Carbon dioxide under supercritical conditions is one of
these new techniques.

5. Process optimization – food technology now allows production of foods to be more

efficient, also oil saving technologies are now available on different forms. Production
methods and methodologies have also become increasingly sophisticated.

In short therefore, food scientists and food technologists are both concerned with the physical,
microbiological, and chemical makeup of food. They are actually the same in terms of their
concern, the difference only coming in through their areas of specialization. Hence depending on
their areas of specialization, food scientists may develop ways to process, preserve, package, or
store food according to industry and government specification and regulations. They indeed
have a great impact not only on food availability and health of its citizenry, but also on economic

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development.

SCOPE OF FOOD SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

The scope or focus of food science and technology is in three parts:

(a) To assemble more food for growing populations

(b) To make food agreeable to consumers – keeping up with popular demands
(c) Maintain and where possible improve the nutritional value of food all year round and ensure
quality and uniformity.
TOPIC 2: FOOD SANITATION

A three word definition of Food Sanitation is Protection from Contamination.

With this in mind, all functions and operations must be included in a sanitation program. All food
products must be protected from contamination from receiving (and before) through distribution.
Sanitation is dynamic and ongoing function and cannot be sporadic or something that can be
turned on once a day, once a week, etc. therefore another definition could be “sanitation is a way
of life”.

GOOD FOOD SANITATION PRACTICE MEASURES

i) Temperature control

Control of temperature is recommended for all food staffs so as to avoid development of

micro-organisms in food.
 Avoid prolonged holding of all foods in the danger zone (5-65oC) especially unpreserved
foods that are prone to microbial infestation.

 Avoid thawing food such as meat or fish at room temperature for too long a time. Usually
thaw frozen food at a cool temperature e.g. under refrigeration or cool place

 Storage conditions: Temperature and humidity controls where appropriate and applicable,
the temperature and humidity of storage rooms for raw materials, ingredients, packaging
materials and food should be maintained and monitored.

ii) Hygiene and personnel

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 Regardless of type of processing or food handling operation, the number one
consideration in food sanitation is people. It is people who set the rules, follow the rules
and also break the rules of sanitation. A sanitation program is as good as the attitude,
willingness and efforts of people. That is why the most important aspect of a sanitation
programme is ongoing personnel training. It is essential that the full meaning of sanitation
and its wide economic scope be accepted by everyone concerned in the food system
including management.

- Personnel training on sanitation principles and food handling practices

Personnel training should instil and nature an understanding of the
processing steps and technologies employed for each product e.g in the
processing of peanut butter or jam produced or handled and where potential
problems of sanitation exist and also create a keen desire to satisfy and
guard the consumers’ interest.
iii) Restriction from food areas of all persons known to be carriers of communicable
diseases / injuries

Persons known to be suffering from, or known to be carriers of a disease likely to be

transmitted through food must be restricted from any food handling area. Likewise,
persons afflicted with infected wounds, skin infections, sores, etc. must also be restricted
from these areas. Any persons with open cuts or wounds should not handle food unless
the injury is completely protected by a secure, waterproof covering.

iv) Traffic control / controlled access

Personnel and visitor access to specific food product handling areas must be restricted.
Personnel involved in raw product handling e.g. farm track drivers must not be allowed in
processing or finished product areas. Foot baths and hand dips, where required must be
properly maintained and used. Colour coding of clothing, maintenance and other
equipment must be used to distinguish areas of operation and use.

v) Returned food items

Foods returned from retail outlets must be clearly defined and stored in a designated are

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 for appropriate disposition. Storage conditions need be such that the safety of the
returned food is not compromised.

vi) Hand washing

Facilities with hot water for hand washing must be provided and must be convenient to
food handling areas.
- Washing hands: All personnel involved in food handling must thoroughly
wash their hands with medicated soap or hand soap under running water.
Hands must also be washed after handling contaminated materials and after
using toilet facilities. Where necessary employees must use disinfectant hand
dips.
- Hand washing facilities

Hand washing sink(s) with hot and cold potable water, soap, sanitary hand
drying supplies or devices, must be provided in washrooms. A sufficiency of
suitably located hand washing sinks is necessary in the food processing and
handling areas. Hand washing sinks should be separate from sinks used for
equipment cleaning and other operations.

vii) Personal cleanliness

Personal cleanliness must be maintained in all food handling areas, e.g;

 Sanitary protective cloths

 Hair covering

 Footwear must be worn and in a clean sanitary manner

 Clean and sanitary gloves if worn

 Remove objects like watches, jewellery, rings which may fall or contaminate the
food

 Tobacco, gum and food are not permitted in food handling areas.

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viii) Non-food chemicals

Non-food chemicals must be stored in a dry, well-ventilated area which is separate from
food handling areas. Detergents, sanitizers or other chemicals must be documented,
properly labelled, stored and used in a manner to prevent contamination of food,
packaging materials and food contact surfaces.

ix) Food handling equipment

The overall requirement for food handling equipment is that it be cleanable and
maintained in such a manner as to prevent contamination. It does little good to have
equipment which is designed to be cleanable, but which is installed in such a manner or
location as to preclude its clean ability. Adequate space must be provided within and
around equipment, and equipment must be accessible for cleaning, sanitizing,
maintenance and inspection.

x) Preventive maintenance

A sanitary operation facility has a preventive maintenance program which monitors

equipment maintenance procedures. Such a programme specifies necessary servicing
intervals, replacement parts or equipment, etc.

xi) Pest control and outside surrounding

Outside surroundings should be evaluated for the sources of contamination such as

vermin, bird harborage areas, drainage problems, odour problems, debris, refuse and
pollution-smoke, dust and other contaminants. Appropriate steps must be taken to
contain and control any potential sources of contamination.
Pest control programme: An adequate pest control programme is necessary for sanitary
operation of a food processing or handling facility. Effectiveness of the pest control
program should be verified on a regular frequency.

xii) Buildings and facilities

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 The two most important overall elements of any food processing and /or handling facility
is that:
- It must be cleanable and so designed: The facility should have floors, walls and
roofing constructed of suitable, approved materials which are durable, smooth,
impervious and easily cleaned. Walls should be light coloured and well joined, and
floors should be adequately sloped for drainage to trapped outlets.
- Must be constructed in a way that prevents entrance or harbourage of pests or
other sources of contamination: Openings to outside and / or to non-food
processing or handling rooms or facilities must be sealed. Windows and doors
must be tight and close-fitting and doors especially in food handling areas self-
closing. Unfortunately many existing facilities do not readily meet these essential
elements.

xiii) Overhead structures and lighting

Overhead structures should be situated and constructed to prevent contamination of the

food products and lighting is to be adequate with properly sealed, safety type overhead
fixtures.

xiv) Heating, ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC)

Systems must be designed and installed to prevent build-up of heat, steam, condensation
or dust and to remove contaminated air. Positive air pressure is required in
microbiologically sensitive areas. HVAC system should be designed to be cleanable, and
air intakes located to prevent intake of contaminated air.

xv) Drainage, sewage system and toilets

Appropriate traps and vents are to be used throughout. There should be no potential of
cross-connections exist between human waste effluent and other wastes in the plant. If
latrines are to be used, better be located in the western part of the plant and at least a
hundred meters away.

xvi) Waste facilities

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 Facilities designed to prevent contamination should provide for the sanitary storage of
waste and inedible material prior to their removal from plant or surroundings. Waste
containers are to be clearly identified.

xvii) Water quality program

A potable water, steam and ice supply is imperative for sanitary food processing and
handling.

TOPIC 3: HAZARD ANALYSIS AND CRITICAL CONTROL POINTS

Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP) is a systematic preventive approach to food
safety and pharmaceutical safety that addresses physical, chemical, and biological hazards as a
means of prevention rather than finished product inspection.
It is therefore a tool to assess hazards and establish control systems that focus on prevention

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rather than relying mainly on end-product testing.

IMPORTANCE OF THE HACCP APPLICATION

The application of HACCP in food handling and processing is important for a number of reasons:
1. It ensures food safety e.g. free from any form of physical, chemical or biological
contamination. It ensures human health is protected throughout the food chain, from
production to consumption levels. The mandatory HACCP programs for any food handling
and processing industry e.g. milk, juice, meat, etc processing companies, are an effective
approach to food safety and protecting public health.

2. It enables the production of the best quality food according to consumers’ demands e.g.
in terms of texture, viscosity, colour, test, etc. This method (HACCP) of quality control,
which in effect seeks to avoid unsafe practices, differs from the traditional "produce and
test" quality control methods which are less successful and inappropriate especially for
highly perishable foods like milk, beef and juice processing.

Note: produce and test = end-product testing = traditional type of quality control method

HOW IT WORKS
HACCP tests for food quality throughout the food chain = preventive in nature and uses scientific
testing, e.g. testing for microbes, viscosity, moisture content, composition, etc. in the laboratory
as well as other physical and sensory tests (smell, test, palatability, etc.) on selected people and
any population group(s). For example:

HACCP is used in the food industry to identify potential food safety hazards, so that key actions,
known as Critical Control Points (CCPs) can be taken to reduce or eliminate the risk of the
hazards being realized. The HACCP system, which is science based and systematic, identifies
specific hazards and measures for their control to ensure the safety of food.
HACCP can be applied throughout the food chain from primary production through processing to
final consumption, as such, its implementation should be guided by scientific evidence of risks
to human health. This means there should be use of scientific tests to show proof that the food
is free from any health hazard throughout the food chain, from production to consumption levels.
Hence the system is used at all stages of food production and preparation processes including
packaging, distribution, etc.

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Note: In many countries HACCP compliance is regulated by statute

PRINCIPLES OF THE HACCP SYSTEM

The HACCP system consists of the following seven principles:

PRINCIPLE 1

Conduct a hazard analysis.

PRINCIPLE 2

Determine the Critical Control Points (CCPs).

PRINCIPLE 3

Establish critical limit(s).

PRINCIPLE 4

Establish a system to monitor control of the CCP.

PRINCIPLE 5

Establish the corrective action to be taken when monitoring indicates that a particular CCP is not
under control.

PRINCIPLE 6

Establish procedures for verification to confirm that the HACCP system is working effectively.

PRINCIPLE 7

Establish documentation concerning all procedures and records appropriate to these principles
and their application.

APPLICATION OF THE HACCP PRINCIPLES

The application of HACCP principles consists of the following tasks as identified in the Logic
Sequence for Application of HACCP

1. Assemble HACCP team

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The food operation should assure that the appropriate product specific knowledge and expertise
is available for the development of an effective HACCP plan. Optimally, this may be
accomplished by assembling a multidisciplinary team. Where such expertise is not available on
site, expert advice should be obtained from other sources. The scope of the HACCP plan should
be identified. The scope should describe which segment of the food chain is involved and the
general classes of hazards to be addressed (e.g. does it cover all classes of hazards or only
selected classes).

2. Describe product

A full description of the product should be drawn up, including relevant safety information such
as:

- Composition, physical/chemical structure (including Aw, pH, etc.),

- Microcidal/static treatments (heat-treatment, freezing, brining, smoking, etc.),

- Packaging,

- Durability and storage conditions and

- Method of distribution.

3. Identify intended use

The intended use should be based on the expected uses of the product by the end user or
consumer. In specific cases, vulnerable groups of the population, e.g. institutional feeding, may
have to be considered.

4. Construct flow diagram

The flow diagram should be constructed by the HACCP team. The flow diagram should cover all
steps in the operation. When applying HACCP to a given operation, consideration should be
given to steps preceding and following the specified operation.

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5. On-site confirmation of flow diagram

The HACCP team should confirm the processing operation against the flow diagram during all
stages and hours of operation and amend the flow diagram where appropriate.

6. List all potential hazards associated with each step, conduct a hazard analysis, and consider
any measures to control identified hazards

The HACCP team should list all of the hazards that may be reasonably expected to occur at each
step from primary production, processing, manufacture, and distribution until the point of
consumption.

The HACCP team should next conduct a hazard analysis to identify for the HACCP plan which
hazards are of such a nature that their elimination or reduction to acceptable levels is essential
to the production of a safe food.

In conducting the hazard analysis, wherever possible the following should be included:

 the likely occurrence of hazards and severity of their adverse health effects;
 the qualitative and/or quantitative evaluation of the presence of hazards;
 survival or multiplication of microorganisms of concern;
 production or persistence in foods of toxins, chemicals or physical agents; and,
 Conditions leading to the above.

The HACCP team must then consider what control measures, if any exist, which can be applied
for each hazard.

Note: More than one control measure may be required to control a specific hazard and more
than one hazard may be controlled by a specified control measure. For example:

- The two control measures of washing food and then heat application to food may

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 be used to minimize microbes (one hazard) in food and the two hazards of
enzymic reaction and microbial development in food (especially vegetables) can
be stopped by the use of simply one control measure, that is, heat treatment.

7. Determine Critical Control Points

There may be more than one CCP at which control is applied to address the same hazard. The
determination of a CCP in the HACCP system can be facilitated by the application of a decision
tree, which indicates a logic reasoning approach. Application of a decision tree should be flexible,
given whether the operation is for production, slaughter, processing, storage, distribution or
other. It should be used for guidance when determining CCPs. This example of a decision tree
may not be applicable to all situations. Other approaches may be used. Training in the
application of the decision tree is recommended.

If a hazard has been identified at a step where control is necessary for safety, and no control
measure exists at that step, or any other, then the product or process should be modified at that
step, or at any earlier or later stage, to include a control measure.

8. Establish critical limits for each CCP

Critical limits must be specified and validated if possible for each Critical Control Point. In some
cases more than one critical limit will be elaborated at a particular step. Criteria often used
include measurements of temperature, time, moisture level, pH, Aw, available chlorine, and
sensory parameters such as visual appearance and texture.

9. Establish a monitoring system for each CCP

Monitoring is the scheduled measurement or observation of a CCP relative to its critical limits
(level of acceptance of hazard). What the monitoring process should do:
- The monitoring procedures must be able to detect loss of control at the CCP.
Further, monitoring should ideally provide this information in time to make
adjustments to ensure control of the process to prevent violating the critical limits.
Where possible, process adjustments should be made when monitoring results
indicate a trend towards loss of control at a CCP. The adjustments should be done
before a deviation occurs.
- Data derived from monitoring must be evaluated by a designated person with

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 knowledge and authority to carry out corrective actions when indicated. If
monitoring is not continuous, then the amount or frequency of monitoring must be
sufficient to guarantee the CCP is in control.

Note:
 Most monitoring procedures for CCPs will need to be done rapidly
because they relate to on-line processes and there will not be time for
lengthy analytical testing.
 Physical and chemical measurements are often preferred to
microbiological testing because they may be done rapidly and can often
indicate the microbiological control of the product.
- All records and documents associated with monitoring CCPs must be signed by the
person(s) doing the monitoring and by a responsible reviewing official(s) of the
company.

10. Establish corrective actions

This is in case of expected mistakes occurring leading to sub-standard products at any of the
CCP. Specific corrective actions must be developed in advance for each CCP in the HACCP
system in order to deal with deviations (sub-normal products) when they occur. The actions
must ensure that the CCP has been brought under control (to avoid mistakes). Actions taken
must also include expected proper disposition (eradication) of the affected product/s. Deviation
and product disposition procedures must be documented in the HACCP record keeping.

11. Establish verification procedures

Establish procedures for verification (confirmation of standards). Verification and auditing

methods, procedures and tests, including random sampling and analysis, can be used to
determine if the HACCP system is working correctly. The frequency of verification should be
sufficient to confirm that the HACCP system is working effectively. Examples of verification
activities include:

 Review of the HACCP system and its records;

 Review of deviations and product dispositions;
 Confirmation that CCPs are kept under control.

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Where possible, validation activities should include actions to confirm the efficacy (capacity to
produce desired products) of all elements of the HACCP plan.

12. Establish Documentation and Record Keeping

Efficient and accurate record keeping is essential to the application of a HACCP system. HACCP
procedures should be documented. Documentation and record keeping should be appropriate to
the nature and size of the operation.

Documentation examples are:

 Hazard analysis; what and how hazards are to be analysed

 CCP determination; where and how CCP are to be identified
 Critical limit determination: how levels of acceptability should be determined.

Record examples are:

 CCP monitoring activities;

 Deviations and associated corrective actions;
 Modifications to the HACCP system.

GUIDELINES FOR THE APPLICATION OF THE HACCP SYSTEM

Management commitment is necessary for implementation of an effective HACCP system.

1. Prior to application of HACCP to any sector of the food chain, that sector should be
operating according to the accepted (Codex) General Principles of Food Hygiene.

During designing and applying of the HACCP systems, consideration must be given to:

2. The impact of raw materials, ingredients and food manufacturing practices: the raw
materials, ingredients and food manufacturing practices need to be checked for any
undesired characteristics or defects before processing to avoid any compromise on
human health or quality of product.
3. The role of manufacturing processes to control hazards: the manufacturing

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 process(processes) also need to be checked and followed closely so as to ensure quality
products throughout the various stages of the production line/s
4. The likely end-use of the product: consider the likely end use of the product

Categories of consumers of concern, e.g. babies, school children, etc., so as to ensure

requirements in terms of the users’ needs are taken into consideration and also any
possible unhealthy outcome avoided.

5. Epidemiological evidence relative to food safety e.g. gather any information related to
safety measures required as well as type of illness/es that come as a result of unsafe
measures of handling and processing of that particular food that might occur or have
occurred before.

NOTE:

- The intent of the HACCP system is to focus control at CCPs. Redesign of the
operation should be considered if a hazard which must be controlled is identified but
no CCPs are found.
- HACCP should be applied to each specific operation separately. CCPs identified in
any given example in any Codex Code of Hygienic Practice might not be the only
ones identified for a specific application or might be of a different nature.
- The HACCP application should be reviewed and necessary changes made when any
modification is made in the product, process, or any step.
- It is important when applying HACCP to be flexible where appropriate, given the
context of the application taking into account the nature and the size of the
operation.

TRAINING

PERSONNEL TRAINING

Training of personnel in industry, government and academia in HACCP principles and

applications, and increasing awareness of consumers are essential elements for the effective
implementation of HACCP. As an aid in developing specific training to support a HACCP plan,

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working instructions and procedures should be developed which define the tasks of the
operating personnel to be stationed at each Critical Control Point.

Cooperation between primary producer, industry, trade groups, consumer organizations, and
responsible authorities is of vital importance. Opportunities should be provided for the joint
training of industry and control authorities to encourage and maintain a continuous dialogue and
create a climate of understanding in the practical application of HACCP.

ADVANTAGES OF THE HACCP SYSTEM

2. It brings about brand confidence in the food industry through quality food
production leading to acceptability of products both locally and internationally. It
therefore leads to increased market and export.
3. HACCP has been recognized internationally as a logical tool for adapting
traditional inspection methods to a modern, science-based, food safety system. It
adds values through improved food inspection procedures that use scientific
procedures to determine quality. As a result, high quality products are produced.
4. As well as enhancing food safety, implementation of HACCP can provide health
benefits to its consumers through the consumption of quality food and minimising
food borne diseases.
5. Based on risk-assessment, HACCP plans allow both industry and government to
allocate their resources efficiently in establishing safe food production practices.
Hence serves resources and ensures profits since losses are minimized.

6. Any HACCP system is capable of accommodating change during its application,

such as:
- advances in equipment design,
- advances in processing procedures or

Hence improved technological developments of a nation and general wellbeing of

its food situation.

7. In addition, the application of HACCP systems can aid (promote) inspection by

regulatory authorities. Well-designed quality food processing procedures are made
available to be reinforced by food inspectors, which promotes quality food
production and promote international trade by increasing confidence in food

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 safety. Etc.

Hence, HACCP has been increasingly applied to industries other than food, such as cosmetics
and pharmaceuticals.

DEFINITIONS OF TERMS

Control (verb): To take all necessary actions to ensure and maintain compliance with criteria
established in the HACCP plan.

Control (noun): The state wherein correct procedures are being followed and criteria are being
met.

Control measure: Any action and activity that can be used to prevent or eliminate a food safety
hazard or reduce it to an acceptable level.

Corrective action: Any action to be taken when the results of monitoring at the CCP indicate a
loss of control.

Critical Control Point (CCP): A step at which control can be applied and is essential to prevent or
eliminate a food safety hazard or reduce it to an acceptable level.

Critical limit: A criterion which separates acceptability from unacceptability.

Deviation: Failure to meet a critical limit.

Flow diagram: A systematic representation of the sequence of steps or operations used in the
production or manufacture of a particular food item.

HACCP: A system which identifies, evaluates, and controls hazards which are significant for food
safety.

HACCP plan: A document prepared in accordance with the principles of HACCP to ensure control
of hazards which are significant for food safety in the segment of the food chain under
consideration.

Hazard: A biological, chemical or physical agent in, or condition of, food with the potential to
cause an adverse health effect.

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Hazard analysis: The process of collecting and evaluating information on hazards and
conditions leading to their presence to decide which ones are significant for food safety and
therefore should be addressed in the HACCP plan.

Monitor: The act of conducting a planned sequence of observations or measurements of control

parameters to assess whether a CCP is under control.

Step: A point, procedure, operation or stage in the food chain including raw materials, from
primary production to final consumption.

Validation: Obtaining evidence that the elements of the HACCP plan are effective.

Verification: The application of methods, procedures, tests and other evaluations, in addition to
monitoring to determine compliance with the HACCP plan.

TOPIC 4: FOOD PACKAGING AND LABELING

8. FOOD PACKAGING

The industries concerned with the supply of all the diverse mater¬ials that are used in packaging
foods also come within the scope of food technology and those people who work in food
packaging industries must under¬stand the principles involved. The packaging of foods is not
only restricted to protecting them from deteriorations (as a barrier), although this is its most
important function. Food packaging also serves several, other purposes.

Functions of food packaging

(a) BARRIER PROTECTION

Keeping the food contents clean, fresh, and safe for the intended shelf life is a primary function
of food packaging. A barrier from oxygen, water vapor, dust or dirty, etc., is often required.
Permeation of any unwanted substances e.g. liquids or gasses is a critical factor in designing
packaging materials. If not prevented, it may lead to a quick deterioration process of food. This
may not only reduce the shelf life of food and reduce food availability, but is also a serious

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health hazard. As such some packages contain desiccants in them or Oxygen absorbers to help
extend shelf life. Some foods are packed in packaging materials made of a combination of paper
and polythene. Others still are packed under what is referred to as modified atmosphere or
controlled atmosphere packaging (which is maintained in the food package after sealing), e.g.
packing under a vacuum atmosphere (modified or controlled atmosphere) so as to avoid air from
remaining in the food after sealing and prevent microbial development, hence help prolong its
shelf life. The packaging material should be made in such a way that it does not allow any further
entry of air.

(b) CONVENIENCE

One of the great advantages of the mass-production of uniform articles of food packed in
standard packages is their convenience. This element of convenience comes in many forms. For
example:

- Features attached - Packages can have features which add convenience in distribution,
handling, stacking, display, sale, opening and reclosing, use, and reuse. Such features
may include handles, shapes that allow for packing or display, leads which allow for
safe keeping, etc.

- Containment or simply the act of containing- containing avoid spreading or spilling

during movements, which makes handling of food really convenient. For the
technologist himself, packaged foods can be conveniently stored and transported and
distributed accurately. The retailer obtains similar benefits and the consumer also
knows exactly what he or she is getting and how to handle it from the shop and how to
store it. Most foods require containment. Especially such foods as liquids, powders, and
granular materials need containment.

- Agglomeration (for easy collection of many small objects) – though small item
packaging makes it good for portion control especially by small family consumers, small
items are also typically grouped together in one package (secondary package) to allow
for efficient handling. This makes it convenient for bulk buying by retailers or big
families. As such packaging does not only end at primary level but also caters for bulk

21
 buying type of packaging thereby making it easy for every situation.

(c) AVOIDANCE OF LOSS

Before efficient packaging became part of the technology of food, there was a significant
wastage, not only due to deterioration of the outer layers of bulk packages or through moisture
or contamina¬tion, but also wasting during the course of the dispensing of such foodstuffs as
tea, sugar, milk, butter, etc. Milk when distributed unpackaged pro¬vided an extreme example of
contamination and waste which were almost completely avoided when up-to-date methods of
bottling were introduced.

A further benefit arising from the packaging of foods is the avoidance of dishonest shortweight,
which, often occur red when the portion for sale was weighed out or measured by hand.

(d) INFORMATION TRANSMISSION

Packages and labels communicate how to use, transport, recycle, or dispose of the package or
product as well as details of the content, ingredients, weight, etc. Information is not only meant
for the benefit of the consumers, some types of information are required by governments or by
law.

(e) BRAND CONFIDENCE

It has been abundantly demon¬strated that consumers like to purchase standardized food when
it is packaged in a uniform manner and designated by a brand title which is instantly
recognizable. For example, a well-packaged food item in sizeable uniform packs with a well
written brand title such as:

- cornflakes

- peanut butter,

- margarine

- or any canned food like baked beans

- any bottled food like sunflower oil, soya oil, tomato jam, etc

All the above can be readily and economically marketed and is willingly accepted by consumers.
If such packaging is done in the same manner by any food processor whether at small or large
scale production it attracts similar attention from consumers. It becomes immaterial whether the

22
branded, packaged foodstuff is a product of a commercial farmer or whether a carton or can
distributed by a farmer co-operative or a single peasant farmer, the value of good packaging
remains the same. It provides similar confidence to both producers and consumers.

(f) MAKING PRODUCT ATTRACTIVE (MARKETING STRATEGY)

Every person would always associate good packaging with good food and as such tend to buy
that which catches their eyes most. The packaging and labels can be used by marketers to
encourage potential buyers to purchase the product. Package design has been an important and
constantly evolving phenomenon for several decades. Marketing communications and graphic
design are applied to the surface of the package and (in many cases) the point of sale display.
Good packaging comes therefore with increased economic advantage especially to the
producers. In the present scope of food science and technology it does not matter whether the
branded or packaged foodstuff is a product of a commercial firm/farmer or peasant farmer or
whether it is a can or carton of dried milk or tin of peanut butter distributed by a farmer or a co-
operative, the value of good packaging is the same.

(g) SECURITY
Packaging can play an important role in reducing the security risks of transportation. Packages
can be made with improved tamper resistance to deter tampering and also can have tamper-
evident features to help indicate tampering. Packages can be engineered to help reduce the risks
of package pilferage: Some package constructions are more resistant to pilferage and some
have pilfer indicating seals. For example:

- Packages may include authentication seals to help indicate that the package and
contents are not counterfeit.
- Packages also can include anti-theft devices, such as dye-packs, RFID tags, or
electronic article surveillance tags, that can be activated or detected by devices at
exit points and require specialized tools to deactivate. Using packaging in this way
is a means of retail loss prevention.

(h) AID PORTION CONTROL

Single serving packaging has a precise amount of contents to control usage. Bulk commodities
(such as 50kg salt or sugar, 20 litres cooking oil, 120 litres milk, etc) can be packed into packages
that are a more suitable size for individual households or consumers to easy the control of usage.
For example, it is easier to control usage of 10 x 2kgs of sugar than one bag of 20kg sugar at
household level.

23
 - It also aids the control of inventory: selling sealed one-liter-bottles of milk, rather
than having people bring their own bottles to fill them themselves makes it easy to
do stock taking and know your true worthiness before hand.

(i) PHYSICAL PROTECTION

The food enclosed in the package may require physical protection from, among other things,
shock, vibration, compression, temperature, etc during handling throughout the food chain. Good
and appropriate food packaging materials may serve a lot of food losses that come as a result of
physical damages.

MACHINES FOR FOOD PACKAGING

Machines available for packaging foods have been elaborated to a remarkable extent. Automatic
equipment can be provided for filling bottles, cans and jars with measured quantities of liquids
and semi-liquids such as sauces and mayonnaise and for capping the containers; vacuum-
operated machines can be purchased for the high-speed packaging of powders such as dried
milk or custard powders; machines can automatically put caps, stoppers or lever lids on to
containers. Ingenious mechanisms have been invented for sorting and wrapping loose biscuits
rapidly yet without breaking them; other machines wrap irregularly-shaped objects such as
kip¬pers, cuts of meat, pies or cakes. There are other machines which unpack bottles from the
cartons in which they are delivered to the food manufacturer from the bottle maker, and as well
there are devices for putting bottles into cartons and then wrapping and labelling the cartons
(secondary packages). One of these, capable of unpacking twenty-four cartons a minute, spaces
out the incoming cartons, opens out the flap, brings down a "grab head', gently picks out the
bottles with a multiple cluster of nylon 'fingers' and puts them on to a travelling conveyor.
Sophisticated equipment is now available to form from reels of flexible laminated materials trays,
pots or cups, then fill and seal the containers, code, label and date-stamp them in successive
operations on the same machine. The difficulties of transport, stor¬age and handling of pre-
formed packaging are largely eliminated.

Precaution: The engineers who design the packaging-machines must, besides understanding the
principles of engineering, produce reliable equipment, also understand the technical properties of
the foods for which the machines are intended. Many foods exert a corrosive action even on
certain types of steel, others possess particular physical characteristics which must be under¬
stood and respected. In just the same way, the packaging experts who produce the metal foils
and plastic films, the adhesives and the printing inks (for labelling) must also comprehend the

24
physical chemical nature of the foods which are to be packed, A foil to be used outside a can (tin)
or carton may be well to its' purpose, whereas the same film used to wrap a chicken or a loaf of
bread may contaminate it and spoil its flavour. More important still, the manufacturer of
packaging material may treat a film a softening agent to it more flexible, or more transparent, or
stronger; if he does .so, it is his business to ensure that the agent will not be absorbed by the
food and perhaps prove toxic to the person who subsequently eats it. The rate of advance in the
organic chemistry of plastics is so fast that the food chemist himself can hardly hope to keep
abreast of every change in the composition of new qualities and grades of new plastics. It is
clearly important,-.therefore, for the plastics expert to appreciate at least the principles of food
technology so that he will understand what properties are desirable for a packaging material and
what are not.

PACKAGING MATERIALS

The materials available for packaging are as diverse as the machines are complex. There are
papers and cardboards of all sorts, some plain, some reinforced. There are sealing tapes and
adhesives in great variety. Aluminium foil can be used for wrapping as well as a multitude of
'plastic films, polythene by itself or as a lamination with other wrappings, poly-vinyl chloride
'(PVC), polyester films and laminates, polystyrene, rigid PVC and polypropylene. However,
selection of packaging material require expert (scientific) knowledge of the relationship between
the type of food and packaging in terms of reaction, safety from deterioration, physical damages,
etc. This therefore requires good understanding between all experts involved in food and hence
work as a multidisplinery group.

ENVIRONMENTALLY FRIENDLY PACKAGING

Environmentally friendly packaging causes less damage to the environment. There are
three types:

1. Reusable packaging can be cleaned and re-used. For example, glass milk bottles
are reused.
2. Recyclable packaging is made of materials that can be used again, usually after
processing. Recyclable materials include glass, metal, card and paper.
3. Biodegradable packaging will easily break down in the soil or the atmosphere.

25
Recyclable packaging should carry standard symbols that show what the product is made
from and how it can be recycled.

LAYERS OF PACKAGING

There are three layers (levels) of packaging.

1. Primary packaging is seen at the point of sale. It needs to contain and

protect the food product, as well as display it and provide information.
2. Secondary packaging is the middle layer of packaging - for example a
cardboard box with a number of identical products inside.
3. Transit packaging is the outer container that allows easier handling
during transfer between factory, distribution centres and retailers
TOPIC 5. FOOD LABELING

UNDERSTANDING LABELING RULES

Falsely describing or labeling or presenting food is an offense. There are institutions that regulate
labeling in every country in the world today. They ensure food is labeled with certain acceptable
label requirements. In other countries like the United Kingdom and the United States of America
are found a number of laws that help protect the consumers against dishonest labeling and

26
misdescription. For example:
i) The Food Labeling regulations 1996
ii) Food Compositional Legislation
iii) European marketing Standards
iv) Surveillance and Research
v) Food Standards Agency

Why label food?

 Consumers should be able to be confident with their choice of food and be able to
buy according to their particular requirements, be it for diet and health, personal
test and preferences or cost and quantity. Given the information on the label they
will be able to buy what they want. They have a right to expect that the food
bought matches the description given on the label and that they get what they pay
for.
 Consumers want to be able to make comparisons with similar products, knowing
the information on the label is correct and choose the best according to their
standards.
 It avoids unnecessary competition. The best producers should be allowed to get
the best prices for their products by making themselves and their products known.
 For ensuring food authenticity. In some cases the names of food we buy are
protected by law and must comply with certain compositional regulations. In other
cases such as fish like kapenta, there may be no such standards, but the food still
need to be described accurately and should not be misleading. This therefore calls
for regulations to ensure food authenticity.

Mislabeling when done deliberately it constitutes the crime of fraud.

Food authenticity
Food authenticity is all about whether a food matches its description. If food is
misdescribed, not only is the consumer being deceived, but it can also create unfair
competition with the honest manufacturer or trader.

27
Note: The description of food refers to the information given as to its name, its
ingredients, its origin or processes undergone.

Misdescription in itself is nothing new. Food fraud has been around for a very long time –
probably as long as food itself has been sold

FORMS OF MISDESCRIPTION OF FOOD

In the past basic foods such as flour, spices and beer were adulterated with cheaper
ingredients. Nowadays misdescription can take many forms such as:

1. Not having the necessary composition for a legal name – in order to be called
‘chocolate’, for example, the food must have a certain amount of cocoa solids.
Similarly in order to be called a ‘sausage’, it must have certain amount of meat in it.
2. Substitution with cheaper ingredients- adding low cost ingredients to a more
expensive product, such as diluting olive oil with vegetable oil.
3. Extending a food- perhaps with water or other fillers e.g. adding water to beer, to
orange juice or water to liquid milk or offal’s to other meat products without
declaring it.
4. Incorrect origin- incorrectly labeling the true origin of the food or ingredients in
terms of:
i) Animal species- misdescribing the meat species in the product or not
declaring other meats present.
ii) plant variety- adding cheaper variety to a premium variety such as premium
rice variety basmati.
iii) Geographical origin or country- giving the incorrect country or region for a
product.

5. Incorrect or failure to describe a process or treatment- not declaring if food has

been irradiated or previously frozen, etc.
6. Incorrect quantitative declaration- giving a wrong amount of an ingredient in a
food product.

28
However, in many countries today, Zambia inclusive there are a number of institutions
that regulate labeling. This requires food to be marked or labeled with certain accepted
requirements such as:
i) The name of the food product
ii) A list of ingredients (including food allergies)
iii) Ingredients listed in descending order of their weights
iv) An appropriate durability indication (e.g. ‘best before’ or ‘used by’)
v) any special storage conditions or instructions for use
vi) the name and address of the manufacturer, packer or retailer
vii) the place of origin
viii) Allergy information
ix) Weight
x) Cooking/heating instructions (recipe)
xi) Special description of the product where necessary

The following items are not legal requirements, but are nevertheless good practice and
are often included on packaging:

i) Illustration of product
ii) Price
iii) Nutritional value of the product
iv) Customer guarantee
v) The batch – code and bar – code numbers
vi) Opening instructions

FRONT-OF-PACK (FOP) NUTRITION LABELING (NUTRITIONAL INFORMATION)

Some agencies recommend a consistent approach to Front-Of-Pack (FOP) nutritional

labeling that provides ‘at a glance’ information on labels about the nutritional content of
foods through the use of traffic light colours.

For example:
i) Green = low content

29
 ii) Red = high content
iii) Orange = mild content

FOP labels aims to make it easier for people to choose a healthy diet. As such some
Foods standards agencies advise a traffic light system to make it easier for consumers to
know the nutritional content of food.

TOPIC 5: FOOD ‘ADDITIVES’ (CHEMICAL ‘ADDITIVES’)

Chemical substances have been added to foods for technical reasons long before food
technology was developed as an applica¬tion of science. Salt has been employed as a
preservative for many generations, sodium nitrite is traditionally added to the liquor in which
bacon is pickled, and hops are used as a preservative in the manufacture of beer. During the
present period of the development of food technology, however, a large number of additional
sub¬stances have been introduced for a variety of purposes. It is there¬fore important for the
technologist to consider whether the action of these compounds in achieving specific technical
results is at the same time damaging the food value of the commodities with which he is
dealing.
The main categories of food additives are as follows:

(a) Food colours

(b) Flavours
(c) Thickening and gelling agents
(d) Fat 'extenders', emulsifiers and stabilizing agents
(e) Anti-oxidants
(f) Preservatives
(g) Acids, bases and salts
(h) Flour 'improvers'
(i) Nutritional supplements

30
 (j) Adventitious 'additives'

(a) FOOD COLOURS

Synthetic organic dyestuffs which belong to the chemical group of diazo compounds have been
widely used as food colours. Those which are included in 'permitted' lists have been exhaustively
tested to ensure their harmlessness. Examples are:

While some diazo compounds have been reported to be carcinogenic (cancer causing
substances) when tested on experimental animals, the ones included in various 'permitted' lists
have never been shown to be in any way toxic. Nevertheless, there is a tendency for
development food technologists to restrict (limit) their use and employ, where possible,
naturally occurring pigments. Although this may seem to be the most prudent thing to do, there
is, of course, no certainty that because a substance is derived from a plant or animal source it
is, therefore, necessarily safe.
Colours (Natural)
Aluminum Metal Carbon Black Chlorophyll
Alkanet Carotene Cochineal
Annatto ß-apo-8'-Carotenal Gold
Ethyl ß-apo-8'-
Anthocyanins Iron Oxide
Carotenoate
Beet Red Caramel Orchil
Canthaxanthin Charcoal Paprika
Riboflavin Saunderswood Titanium Dioxide
Saffron Silver Metal Turmeric
Xanthophyll

The most commonly used natural pigments in foods include;

 the yellow carotenoids such as carotene, xanthophyll and bixin (annatto) derived
from the green parts of plants,
 the red-orange anthocyanins from beet, berries and flowers and
 the green chlorophyll.

The major disadvantages of using such pigments and the compelling reason why synthetic dyes
will continue to be em¬ployed is due to the natural pigments or natural colours’ sensitivity to
light and heat, especially in more acid foods. This severely limits their use when foods need to be
heated as a preservative measure or during manufacturing.

31
(b) SWEETENERS AND FLAVOURS
(i) Sweeteners. Saccharin, the chemical substance ortho-sulpho-benzimide, has been used as
a sweetening agent ever since it was discovered by the American chemist Flahbert in 1879 to
be 500-600 times as sweet as sugar, weight for weight. Saccharin has long been considered to
be entirely inert and harmless when eaten, and excreted from the body unchanged in the urine.
Recently the results of tests on laboratory animals in Canada and the USA have suggested that
it possesses some toxic properties. Existing legisla¬tion in the USA makes a complete ban
mandatory on the use of saccharin. However, the pressure of public opinion which perceives
the benefits of its use to people who must restrict their calorie or sugar intake as greatly
outweighing the risks, has effectively prevented such a course of action.

(ii) Flavours. Flavours are normally minor constituents of foods with insignificant nutritional
value. Yet, together with colour, flavour is an important attribute of acceptability.
The flavour chem¬ist is concerned with providing the food technologist with sub¬stances that:
 enhance,
 modify or
 replace the natural flavours of foods, examples include herbs and spices,
chemicals compounds, etc

Some reasons for promoting use of flavours

 The diminishing supplies and rising costs of tradi¬tional materials for flavours;
 the increasing use of bland or flavourless ingre¬dients such as textured vegetable protein
that require improving flavor
 the increasing demand for processed foods some of which require improved test and
 in some countries, not enough food that can provide own flavour leading to imitations.

The above reasons have made the products of the flavour chemist indispensable to the food
scientist and stimu¬lated the growth of a large and profitable food flavour industry.

Types of flavours
i) Natural flavours - Concentrated natural flavours are provided as extracts, such as as
essential oils distilled from onions, herbs, spices and citrus fruits.

32
 ii) Synthetic flavours - Entirely synthetic flavours created and produced in the laboratory
can be used to enhance or replace costly or less readily avail¬able natural flavours. The
development of synthetic vanillin as a replacement for vanilla is a good example of this
approach.

iii) Monosodium Glutamate (M.S.G.) or simply sodium glutamate is the salt of the naturally
occurring amino acid, glutamic acid, possesses the capacity to accentuate and enhance
meat flavours. It is widely used in meat products, soups and other foods.

iv) 5-Ribonucleotides. At least two substances, 5'-inosinic acid and 5'-guanilic acid, prepared
from yeast, when used separately, together or in combination with sodium glutamate,
enhance the 'meatiness' or 'brothiness' of foods to which they are added.

v) Hydrolysed vegetable proteins, produced by the chemical or enzymatic breakdown of

carefully selected proteinaceous raw materials, are useful sources of meat flavours and
can be used in place of M.S.G.

(c) THICKENING AND GELLING AGENTS

(i) Starches and modified starches. Starches are a major source of calories in food and as
such play a significant role in nutrition They also have purely technological uses apart from their
food value. Through their thickening and gelling properties they can be employed to modify
textural properties and impart stability to foodstuffs, and their availability and low cost make
them the most widely used thickeners and stabilizers in the food industry.

Starches are insoluble in cold water but when heated in water above a certain characteristic
temperature, which varies with the type of starch, the granules swell and thicken until a1 stable
viscosity is achieved. Natural starches have a number of disadvantages as thickeners as far
as food manufacturers are concerned—

 The thickner is unstable to heat, shear, freezing and acid.

In order to overcome these disadvantages starches can be chemically modified to alter their

33
structure and impart more desirable characteristics. Modifica¬tion treatments include
 acid hydrolysis,
 cross-linking of molecules,
 esterification,
 etherification and
 oxidation, alone or in combina¬tion.

Speciality starches can be produced for use in frozen sauces, highly acid condiments and in
foods to be subjected to retort temp¬eratures.

Native starches of importance in the food industry include those derived from maize (corn),
potato, wheat and tapioca. A genetic modification of maize, waxy maize, has also become a
very impor¬tant source of food starch.

(ii) Natural gums or gels. Many naturally occurring compounds, such as plant exudates,
seaweed extracts and gelatine, possess the ability to form gels or highly viscous solutions at low
concentrations in food¬stuffs containing water. These are widely used in the same way as are
the starches to modify and control the structure, texture and shelf stability of manufactured
foods. Whereas starches are used at levels of 2-40% in foods, the much higher viscosities that
can be achieved with gums allow them to be used effectively at the much lower levels of 0.1 to
1.0%.
A list of gums/gels, their sources and common uses in food products, is shown below.

SOME NATURAL GUMS AND THICKENERS: THEIR SOURCES AND USES IN

MANUFACTURED FOODS

SOURCE MATERIAL/S USED COMMON USES

Plant Gum Arabic Beverages

Salad Dressings,
Gum Tragacanth Sauces

34
Seed Gums Locust Bean Gum (Carob) Salad Dressings, Desserts,
Guar Gum Processed Cheese, Ice
Cream

Seaweed Extracts Carrageenans Milk Products, Ice Cream

Icing, Confectionery Ice
Agar Cream, Beer

Alginates

Microbial Xanthan Gum Salad Dressings

Beverages

Polysaccharides Alginates Ice Cream,

Desserts,
Beverages
Plant extracts Pectin Jams,
Jelly,
Confectionery
Proteins Casein Sauces, Desserts

Gelatine Confectionery, Table Jelly

Many of these materials act synergistically, the combined thickening power of several mixed
together exceeding the sum of the thickening effect of individual compounds. Xanthan gum and
locust bean gum are good examples of this behaviour which can be usefully and economically
exploited by the food technologist. The difficulty and high cost of harvesting naturally occurring

35
vegetable gums has led to a search for replacements, for example, by using modified starches,
or alternative means of pro¬duction. The traditional, increasingly costly and uncertain
harvest¬ing of brown seaweed as a source of alginates, for example, is likely to be superseded
by its development as a product of microbial fermentation.

(d) FAT 'EXTENDERS', EMULSIFIERS AND STABILIZING AGENTS

(i) Fat extenders. (GMS and POEMS). The chemical structure of fats and oils comprises a
combination of three fatty acid molecules with one of glycerol. It has been found that in foods
such as ice cream or cakes in which the quality is to a large degree dependent on the amount of
fat in them, the addition of a proportion of a compound of glycerol and one fatty acid
molecule, for example, glyceryl monostearate, (GMS) as it is called, makes a reduced proportion
(small amount) of fat go further. Another compound with similar properties is poly-
oxyethylene-monostearate, (POEMS).
GMS can almost be claimed to be a natural food component since it occurs during the breakdown
of fats in the body. Some doubts were felt, based on animal tests, as to whether POEMS
might possess undesirable physiological action but both have been widely employed by food
technologists.

(i) Emulsifiers and stabilizing agents. There are two types of food emulsion:
 oil-in-water emulsions such as milk and salad dressings and
 water-in-oil emulsions such as butter.

NOTE: The latter (water-in-oil emulsions) are formed by the dispersion of few droplets of
water in a continuous oil phase. On the other hand, oil-in-water emulsions consist of small
oil drop¬lets dispersed in water and is the more common type to be found in manufactured
foods.

Emulsifying agents are substances which aid in the dispersion of these oil droplets and stabilize
them by preventing their coalescence to form larger globules. The progressive coales¬cence of
oil droplets, or 'breaking' of the emulsion, results in the undesirable separation of a fat or oil at
the surface of foods. Apart from GMS and POEMS emulsifiers in common use are such products
as:
 lecithin (as a pure compound or in egg yolk),
 milk protein,

36
  salts of fatty acids and
 sorbitan or glycerol fatty acid esters.

(e) ANTI-OXIDANTS

Many crude fats and oils contain natural anti-oxidants which prevent the onset of oxidative
rancidity. These compounds are removed during the process of refining, so the food
technologist has set out to find substances which can safely be added to the refined fats to
protect them from becoming rancid.
(i) Acids. Lactic acid, tartaric acid and citric acid have all been used in amounts of about one part
in 15,000 parts of fat. Phosphoric acid has also been employed. The effectiveness of these
substances, however, is not very great.
(ii) Synthetic compounds. A number of more complex organic substances, among which are
nor-dihydro-guaiaretic acid (NDGA), butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA) and butylated
hydroxytoluene (BHT), have also been employed.
(iii) Natural substances. It is interesting to note that besides these more esoteric compounds, a
number of natural substances have also been studied and found to possess anti-oxidant
properties. These include the tocopherols (vitamin E), certain spices including chillies, turmeric
and cinnamon bark and the naturally occurring pigments classified as flavanols.

(f) PRESERVATIVES

A restricted range of chemical compounds of no significant nutri¬tional value are permitted to be

added to foods as antimicrobial agents.

These preservatives exert their effect by poisoning micro¬organisms which would otherwise
cause the food to decay or become a public health hazard. In doing this they inevitably tend to
have to a lesser degree a toxic effect on the cells of the body of the consumer.

The circumstances in which preservatives may legiti¬mately be employed are restricted by

statute (law) to those in which a clear technological need is demonstrable. This is for reasons as:

 the safety of a preserved food product itself or

 the consumer's safety and expec¬tation of quality.

37
It is, however, the clear policy of regulatory authorities throughout the world that
preservatives should not be used to cover poor manufacturing practice.
The type of preservative considered appropriate and the level of usage are legislated for
according to each specific product applica¬tion and this may vary from country to country. For
example in the United Kingdom:

(i) Sulphur dioxide can be added to fruit juices, fruit pulp and jam.
(ii) Propionic acid may be added to flour to prevent mould growth in bread,
(iii) Benzoic acid can also be safely used in fruit juices, beer and soft drinks.

NOTE: Antibiotics have been suggested as food preservatives and pimaricin and nisin have
been permitted in certain instances; a danger in using them arises from the possibility that the
bacteria they are intended to suppress become genetically modified so that they become
permanently resistant. This would be of great concern where the antibiotic had clinical
applications (where the antibiotic is also used to treat people). People who may consume food
containing preservative resistant microbes may not easily respond to treatment if such a food
preservative is also used as a drug in hospital.
Another example of unex¬pected results of the use of antibiotics was the finding that cows
treated with penicillin for some bovine infection produced milk which could not be made into
cheese because the cheese-forming organisms would not develop properly in the milk containing
an antibiotic from the animal’s body. The antibiotic used to treat the cow ended into the cow’s
milk and preserved the milk and indirectly prevented the growth of the cheese forming organisms.

Preservatives permitted in foods have been the subject of considerable toxicological testing to
ensure safety at the levels used. Such testing is continually reviewed and as new information
becomes available modifications are made to permitted lists of use. A good example of this, and
one with far reaching implications, is the use of sodium nitrate for the preserva¬tion of cured
meats. This compound has been in use as a preserva¬tive for over 2,000 years but in 1964 a
link was found between nitrites and nitrosamines which were known to be capable of induc¬ing
cancer in laboratory animals; more recently it has been sug¬gested that nitrite itself may have
some degree of carcinogenicity. This has led to great debate as to whether nitrite should
continue to be permitted as a food additive. Nitrite is the key ingredient in meat curing, being
responsible for the development of flavour and colour as well as preservation. No alternative
currently exists and the technological need is clear. A complete ban would deprive the

38
consumer of traditional staple products such as cured hams, meats and bacon, and the
existence of a whole industry would be threatened. The regulatory authorities have
considered the risks and benefits of the use of nitrite as a food additive and have
recommended its continued use at lower levels than previously permitted until such time as the
food scientists can develop a satis¬factory alternative process or additive.

(g) ACIDS, BASES AND/OR SALTS

Acids, bases and salts find many uses in food processes and product formulation. Acids such
as acetic acid, vinegar, benzoic acid, sorbic acid are used to provide flavour or tartness (a
sharp sour taste) as preservatives and as part of chemical leavening systems (baking powders).
Bases are also used to modify flavour, provide buffering capacity, aid in colour retention and as
a processing aid (peeling of fruit and veget¬ables).

Salts such as phosphates, citrates and tartrates are often used in dairy products such as
processed cheese or cheese spreads. In these instances the addition of salt in combination with
heat produces a smooth uniform texture by modification of protein structure. Phos¬phates are
increasingly important additives to processed meat pro¬ducts where, by a similar mechanism,
they help retain water during handling and processing and impart firm textures to comminuted
products such as sausages.

(h) FLOUR 'IMPROVERS'

Bread that is made from 'strong' flour from Canadian wheat which contains a comparatively
large proportion of an appropriate protein will make a large 'bold' loaf. On the other hand, if the
flour is derived from English wheat or from wheat grown in other coun¬tries with moist climates
it will be 'weak' and the bread made from it will form small loaves with what the baker would
consider to be an unsatisfactory, close structure. It has been found that many blended flours
made from a mixture of different types of wheat will give a superior loaf of bread if an
appropriate amount of a chemical 'improver' is added to the flour blend. These 'improvers' are
all compounds which exert a powerful effect when they are added in amounts of the order of
ten parts in each million parts of flour.
(i) Bromate has been used successfully as an 'improver' for a number of years. Plate 10

39
shows the effect of treating a flour blend with the appropriate amount of an 'improver', and with
too much.
(ii) In 1919, a powerful and effective 'improver' came into use and was employed widely and
with great technical success until 1946. In that year it was discovered that this substance,
nitrogen trichloride, known as 'Agene', caused the production of a substance in flour which was
toxic to dogs. This substance was subsequently found to be produced by the conversion of an
integral part of the flour protein, the amino acid, methionine, into the toxic agent, methionine
suphoximine. The demonstration that Agene produced toxic effects for animals caused it to be
withdrawn as a flour addi¬tive. It is now commonly replaced by chlorine dioxide.
NOTE: The impor¬tant lesson for the food technologist is that the use of chemical
agents to produce a desired technical effect must be adopted only after the most
rigorous biological tests. Even then absolute safety cannot be assured.

(i) NUTRITIONAL SUPPLEMENTS

The processes of modern food technology affect the nutritional value of foodstuffs in many
ways. Modern milling methods produce a 'high extraction' (polished) flour which, while
keeping better than wholemeal flour and being lower in indigestible residue, contains less of
the B-vitamins. In several countries, it has been recom¬mended that additions of vitamin B1
(thiamine), niacin, sometimes riboflavin, and sometimes iron and calcium (as calcium
carbonate) as well should be made to white flour. Margarine, made from vegetable fats and
whale oil and lacking in butter-fat, is eaten as butter but does not naturally contain the amounts
of vitamins A and D present in summer butter. These vitamins may be incorporated as pure
chemical 'additives'.

As is also well known, good nutrition is best ensured by the consumption of a judicious variety
of different foods. Nevertheless, where the proportion of processed foods in a community's diet
is high, or where variety is beyond the reach of a substantial proportion of the population, it is
clearly valuable to add vitamins, minerals such as calcium, or possibly a single amino acid such
as lysine, which is only present in low propor¬tions in cereal protein, to selected processed
foodstuffs. Here again the food technologist must exercise caution. Although a dangerous
excess of water-soluble vitamins, such as vitamin C or B vitamins, is unlikely, the fat-soluble
vitamins may posse a lot of danger if consumed in excess. Vitamin A and D may both be

40
consumed in excess if too many foods are injudiciously enriched, which can be quite dangerous.

It is also impor¬tant to be careful that the amount of additive suitable for most people is not
harmful to some special group. For example, salt levels appropriate for adult foods may be
harmful in baby foods.

(j) ADVENTITIOUS 'ADDITIVES'

These are additives that find themselves in food by chance and therefore not an integral part of
the food.
The possibility that penicillin administered to a cow for veterinary reasons may gain access to the
milk as an adventitious 'additive' has already been referred to above.
A similar possibility arises if cattle are treated with hormones to accelerate or modify their
growth.

Although modern cans are commonly lacquered, there is a possi¬bility that when canned foods
are stored for a long period, a slow corrosion process will occur and the content of tin and iron
in the food will increase. Both these metals are non-toxic but may cause discoloration of the
food. An upper limit for tin is, therefore, accepted as 250 p.p.m.
Regulatory agencies responsible for food safety have been pressing for progressively lower
levels of lead in canned foods, especially those consumed by children or consumed in large
quantities. Canned food manufacturers have therefore become increasingly concerned about
contamination of their pro¬ducts by lead which is a component of the solder by which the side
seam of a can is made. Most lead pick-up comes from small particles of lead spattered on the
surface of the can during the soldering process. In plain, unlacquered cans very little
contamination occurs as the electrolytic relation between lead and tin is such that, whereas tin
migrates into the food, lead tends to be deposited on to the can. However, in cans that are
lacquered to prevent reaction between the tin coating and the product the spatters of lead are
not so well protected by the tin and give rise to high lead levels in the product. The problem can
largely be overcome by the use of pure tin solder, but only at great cost.

The most satisfactory long-term solution will lie in a combination of the 'drawn' can and the
welded can which are both in advanced stages of development. The former is drawn in one piece

41
 in a press, has a rounded shoulder on the base and requires the application of only one end-piece.
The latter will depend for its success on the development of a good side stripe coating to
prevent corrosion of the welded seam.

The difficulty of determining whether a chemical substance, incorporated purposely in food as

an 'additive' or gaining access adventitiously, is harmful or not is extremely difficult. For example,
an official committee in the United States, the Panel on Food Additives of the President's
Science Advisory Committee, has reached the decision that when testing for potential
carcinogenic activity, if no cancers develop in 1000 test animals, the correspond¬ing level of the
substance under examination can be classified as 'safe'. Yet two statisticians have calculated
that even if a substance were sufficiently toxic to produce 100,000 cases of cancer in a
population the size of that of the United States, there is a one-in-three chance that the
biological test on the 1000 animals would classify it as 'safe'.

TOPIC 6: FOOD ADULTERATION

What's in your food?

Sometimes, reading the list of ingredients or the nutrition facts label may not tell the real story.
"Adulteration" just like “fraud” is a legal term. When it is referred to food, it simply means that a
food product fails to meet state or legal standards, while fraud means intentional deception.

Note: An adulterant is a substance found within other substances, although not allowed
for legal or other reasons. The addition of adulterants is called adulteration.

Therefore, food adulteration, or "food fraud," occurs when an ingredient is replaced partially or
fully with something different - without the knowledge of the consumer.

An adulterant is distinct from permitted food additives.

EXAMPLES OF FORMS OF FOOD ADULTERATION

42
 1. USING POISONOUS, INSANITARY, ETC., INGREDIENTS
A food shall be deemed to be adulterated if:
 it bears or contains any poisonous or deleterious (harmful) substance which may render it
injurious to health; but in case the substance is not an added substance, such food shall
not be considered adulterated under this clause if the quantity of such substance in such
food does not ordinarily render it injurious to health.
 it bears or contains any added poisonous or added deleterious substance
 it bears or contains a pesticide chemical residue that is unsafe for human health
 it contains any food additive that is unsafe to human health
 it contains a new animal drug (or conversion product thereof) that is unsafe
 it consists in whole or in part of any filthy, putrid (or decomposed) substance, or if it is
otherwise unfit for food; or
 it has been prepared, packed, or held under insanitary conditions whereby it may have
become contaminated with filth, or whereby it may have been rendered injurious to health;
 it is, in whole or in part, the product of a diseased animal or of an animal which has died
otherwise than by slaughter; or
 its container is composed, in whole or in part, of any poisonous or deleterious substance
which may render the contents injurious to health; or
 it has been intentionally subjected to radiation, unless the use of the radiation was in
conformity with a regulation or exemption

2. ABSENCE, SUBSTITUTION, OR ADDITION OF CONSTITUENTS

A food shall be deemed adulterated if:
 any valuable constituent has been in whole or in part omitted
 any substance has been substituted wholly or in part
 damage or inferiority has been concealed in any manner; or
 any substance has been added thereto or mixed or packed therewith so as to increase its
bulk or weight, or reduce its quality or strength, or make it appear better or of greater
value than it is.

3. UNSAFE FOOD COLOR ADDITIVES

A food shall be deemed adulterated if:
 it is, or it bears or contains, a color additive which is unsafe

43
 4. CONFECTIONERY CONTAINING ALCOHOL OR NON-NUTRITIVE SUBSTANCE
A food shall be deemed adulterated if:
 it is confectionery, and has partially or completely imbedded therein any non-nutritive
object thereby rendering the product injurious or hazardous to health;
 it bears or contains any alcohol other than alcohol not in excess of one-half of 1 per
centum (1%) by volume derived solely from the use of flavoring extracts,
 it bears or contains any non-nutritive substance. Except that this subparagraph shall not
apply:
- to a safe non-nutritive substance which is in or on confectionery by reason of its use
for some practical functional purpose in the manufacture, packaging, or storage of
such confectionery
- if the use of the substance does not promote deception of the consumer
NOTE: except that the government may, for the purpose of avoiding or resolving
uncertainty as to the application of this law, issue regulations allowing or prohibiting
the use of particular non-nutritive substances.

5. OLEOMARGARINE CONTAINING FILTHY, PUTRID, ETC., MATTER

A food is considered adulterated if it is oleomargarine or margarine or butter and any of
the raw material used therein consisted in whole or in part of any filthy, putrid, or
decomposed substance, or such oleomargarine or margarine or butter is otherwise unfit
for food.

6. DIETARY SUPPLEMENT OR INGREDIENT SAFETY

A food is considered adulterated if:
 it is a dietary supplement or contains a dietary ingredient that presents a significant or
unreasonable risk of illness or injury under conditions of use recommended or suggested
in labeling
 if no conditions of use are suggested or recommended in the labeling, under ordinary
conditions of use;
 it is a new dietary ingredient for which there is inadequate information to provide
reasonable assurance that such ingredient does not present a significant or unreasonable
risk of illness or injury;

44
 7. DIETARY SUPPLEMENT MANUFACTURING PRACTICES
A food is considered adulterated if:
 it is a dietary supplement and it has been prepared, packed, or held under conditions that
do not meet current good manufacturing practice regulations, including regulations
requiring, when necessary, expiration date labeling, issued by

8. REOFFER OF FOOD PREVIOUSLY DENIED ADMISSION

A food is considered adulterated if:
 it is an article of food imported or offered for import into the country and the article of
food has previously been refused admission

9. NONCOMPLIANCE WITH SANITARY TRANSPORTATION PRACTICES

If it is transported or offered for transport by a shipper, carrier by motor vehicle or rail vehicle,
receiver, or any other person engaged in the transportation of food under conditions that are not
in compliance with the set regulations

SOME OF THE CAUSES OF FOOD ADULTERATION

- Low food production levels that cannot meet growing demands. Desire for increased
production to meet increasing population, especially where there is increased demand
and shortage of food, lead some producers to use other means of increasing
quantities such as adding water to milk
- Consumer ignorance about food quality standards. This makes people eat anything
without question. Producers also take advantage of the situation and produce/sale
low quality and unsafe products
- Unclear laws marred with complications and rarely enforced – it reduces consumer
confidence in the pursuant of cases of adulteration. Producers and retailers also take
advantage of the situation and do anything without being questioned, such as sale of
low quality, unsafe and expired foods
- Lack of or weak food quality control measures and few or no inspection by regulatory
authorities or standard officers in most places to keep check on what people are
producing and selling to the general public
- Desire to make huge profits by producers
- Etc.

45
SOME OF THE EFFECTS OF FOOD ADULTERATION
- Food bone diseases whose circumstances may not be known creating increased
medical support and costs to families and the national economy. Diseases such as
cancers
- Nutritionally low quality foods are sold. People do not get the right value for their
money
- May result in severe effects especially where the vulnerable are involved e.g. unborn
babies, the sick, infants and children, the aged
- Creating unnecessary competition with authentic food products, especially from poor
producers such as some small scale farmers who may produce quality food
Etc.

TOPIC 7: MEATS
The food technologist who has to deal with meat must be properly informed about
 the structure and composition of meat derived from different types of animals;
 about the different kinds of bacteria and other micro-organisms which may infect it;
 the appropriate condi¬tions for transport and storage;
 the factors affecting quality; and the principles of different types of technological
processes.

As well as all these above,

 he must also possess an adequate understanding of the effect of the growth of an
animal upon the character of its meat and the significance of the conditions under which
an animal is slaugh¬tered.

FACTORS THAT AFFECT MEAT QUALITY

1. ANIMAL GROWTH AND MEAT QUALITY

The effect of animal growth on meat quality depends on a number of factors:

46
 b) Rate of animal growth and meat quality

c) Fat deposition in the animal during growth and meat quality

d) Fat under the skin and meat quality

e) Color of meat (color of fat and muscles) and meat quality

f) Size of muscle bundles and meat quality

(a) Rates of animal growth on meat quality

For example, growth of sheep

The proportion of parts of low meat-value, that is the head, shins and shanks, is greatest in a
newborn lamb. As the lamb grows, its body lengthens and thickens and the proportion of head to
shanks becomes less. There are two waves of growth; the first starts at the head, which is
already advanced in its growth at birth, and moves backwards. The second starts at the feet
and tail. These waves of growth eventually meet at the loin, where the meat is considered most
valuable.

This type of growth in animals implies that:

 from a young animal (lamb) the butcher obtains a smaller proportion of carcass weight
and the consumer gets less edible meat than from a ram (31% of meat and 17% of bone);
whereas from a full-grown animal (ram) the butcher can expect 62% of edible meat and
only 4% of bone.
 Of the meat of the lamb, only 2% is recognizable fat, but there is 30% of fat in the meat
from the ram.

Studies on the details of animal growth have now made it possible for the farmer to change the
conformation of the animals he pro¬duces, and consequently the quality of their meat, by the
way he feeds them. Adequately fed animals grow at a much fast rate making it possible to
develop more meat than bones in the animal, which is a desirable quality. Such meat is normally
well matured and tender.

From the above situation therefore, it follows that the composition and quality of meat can be

47
controlled to a very large degree by the way the animal is fed. If the animal is underfed
throughout its life, the earlier maturing and dietetically less attrac¬tive parts—the legs and
tail—grow, and the more desirable struc¬tures—particularly the loin—and the fat become less
well developed. On the other hand, if the animal is richly fed in the early stages of its
development, the age (maturing) changes are speeded up and a young animal is produced with
the desirable proportions and diete¬tic attributes of an older one. This is important in two
respects:

 Firstly, smaller animals giving joints of meat that are smaller but contain the right
proportion of meat and fat are produced.
 A second factor is that 'improved' breeds can be selected which are more readily
affected by a high level of feeding. For example, whereas the growth of an 'unimproved'
animal such as an indigenous breed may not much be influenced by levels of diet, a
modern meat animal is highly suscep¬tible to the above type of controlled husbandry.

(b) Fat distribution/ deposition in the animal during animal growth on

meat quality
i. Distribution of fat in different parts of the meat
The 'quality' of meat depends to a large degree on the proportion of fat in it. The relative
proportion of muscle, tendon and fatty tissue is not the same in all parts of the carcass. For
example, in the same mutton carcass there may be 36% of fatty tissue in the loin and 22% in the
leg. And different animals may put on fat in different parts of their carcass at different rates.
Too much or too little fat in some parts of the carcass may render that part of the meat
undesirable while a moderate amount in other or similar parts may be favo red by most
consumers. For instance:
- The loin of South American lamb is usually more highly valued than the leg because it
contains the 'right' amount of fat and the leg contains too little.
- On the other hand, in mutton from South America the leg brings a higher price than the
loin because in the older animal the loin now contains too much fat.

ii. Fat deposition under the skin

Fat laid down under the skin is valuable because it prevents the meat from drying out during

48
storage and cooking. This fat tends to be lacking towards the end of the limbs (legs) and it is
partly for this reason that breeders select animals with short legs as meat producers. Butchers
also tender to buy animals with shorter legs for slaughter to avoid dry bones which just add
unnecessary weight.

iii. Fat deposition at end of feeding

Good feeding during the last stage of growth before slaughter is desirable so as to encourage fat
deposition in the right parts of the meat. Fat deposited during the later stages of feeding is most
desirable, espe¬cially in beef, because it tends to be laid down in the muscles as 'marbling' fat,
where it breaks up the muscle bundles and makes the meat tender. It has been observed that fat
in the right places improves meat quality; in the wrong place, for example round the kidneys, it
makes no contribution to meat quality and is sold separately as suet.

(c) Color of meat and meat quality

The color of meat (color of fat and muscles) enables the consumer to estimate meat quality with
some accuracy.

For example:

i) Color of fat around the meat

An orange pigment in grass tends to be taken up gradually by beef animals into their fat. If the
animal then goes short of food, fat is withdrawn from the animal's body but the pigment
remains. Thus starved cows and old animals usually have darker fat than younger animals.

ii) Color of muscles

Apart from fat, the colour of muscle is also an indication of quality. Muscles whose function is
to sustain pro¬longed action (hard and long time activities) are darker and more highly
flavoured than those which are less used. Mild-flavoured meat is usually preferred, so it follows
that pale-coloured muscle is an index of 'quality'. The muscles of a horse are relatively dark as
also are those of an old animal, and neither of these is usually considered to give meat of high
quality. Colour is, therefore, to some degree a measure of toughness.

(d) Size of muscle bundles (muscle fibre) and meat quality

49
Size of bundles (muscle fibre) including the amount and strength of connective tissues tell alot
about the quality of meat. The texture of muscle, and so its tenderness or tough¬ness when
eaten, depends on the grain or size of the 'bundles' within the muscle. In large animals, such as
cattle, these bundles are coarser than in small animals such as sheep. Since the size of the
fibres and the amount and strength of the connective tissues in the muscles increase with age,
the meat of older, larger animals tends to be coarser, and tougher than that of younger beasts.
The larger the bundles, the older the animals and the coarser the meat is expected to be, giving
it low quality value.

Some ways that help make tough meat tender are as explained below:

Tenderness and tenderizing of tough meat

As has already been mentioned, meat naturally contains proteolytic enzymes which
are capable, when meat is hung, of breaking down to some degree the structure of the
muscle fibres and making the meat more tender. The idea of treating tough meat with
artificial preparations of enzymes is of some antiquity. Cortez, 400 years ago,
commented on the fact that the Mexican Indians wrapped tough meat in leaves
from the papaya tree which are now known to contain proteolytic enzymes.

However, a number of attempts have been made by food technologists to tenderize

tough meat artificially by using specially prepared enzyme solutions. The difficulty in
practice is to get the enzyme to penetrate sufficiently into the meat; the outside
tends to become mushy before the inside is affected at all. The normal method of
operation is to immerse the meat for a short time—say one minute—in the solution
and then immediately place it in freezing storage to check and control the enzyme
action. Enzymes for tenderizing meat have been obtained from the following
sources:

ENZYME SOURCE
Papain The papaya tree
Bromdin Pineapples
Ficin Figs
Microbiological proteases Fermentation

50
2. SLAUGHTER AND MEAT QUALITY
There is one important aspect of the slaughtering of meat animals which is of very direct
concern to the food technologist.

Lactic acid

Unless meat contains an appropriate amount of lactic acid it is sticky and flabby and bacteria
are liable to multiply in it during storage. This is because a proper degree of acidity restricts
bacterial growth. Muscular tissue contains in life about 1% of glycogen, which serves as the
reserve fuel for muscular activity. This reserve can be depleted in some of the muscles by
walking, running or fighting and it may take some time for the glycogen to be restored. When a
rested animal is killed, the glycogen in its muscles breaks down and becomes converted into
lactic acid, and the meat therefore becomes slightly acid. This acid exerts a preservative effect
on the meat. If before it is killed the animal has consumed the glycogen in its muscle, for
example, by being driven on foot to the abattoir or by struggling, the final acidity of the meat is
very much less and its keeping quality is seriously affected. For example, the acidity, as
measured in pH values, for the muscle situated below the backbone by which the hind leg is
drawn up, for rested and exhausted animals may vary between the follow¬ing values:

Rested PH (high acidity) Exhausted pH (low acidity)

Beef 5.1 Beef 6.2
Lamb 5.4 Lamb 6.7
Pork 5.3 Pork 6.9

In order that meat may keep satisfactorily it is essential that the animal should be killed when
its muscles contain the maximum concentration of glycogen in them. This implies that beasts
should be fully rested before slaughter. If they have been driven to the slaughterhouse on foot,
they must be kept quietly for some length of time. For pigs, this may be as long as three days if
the percentage of tainted hams is to be kept to a minimum.

Besides reducing the growth of bacteria, both inside the meat and on the surface, which are
capable of tainting the meat and causing slime to form, a high concentration of lactic acid will
improve the structure of the meat. Meat from rested animals has a more open and less sticky

51
structure.

3. BACTERIAL INFECTION AND MEAT QUALITY

(a) General infection

Meat is a moist foodstuff and as such is readily susceptible to infection by bacteria and
moulds. The degree of infection must be kept to a minimum. The best way to keep down the
bacterial count is to ensure:

- the slaughterhouse should be maintained in a sanitary state and

- the vehicles used for the transport of meat should be designed for the purpose, should
be thoroughly cleaned before use and should be cleaned between one load and the next.

Note:
 It has been shown that the storage life of chilled beef is inversely proportional to the
logarithm of the number of bacteria per unit area of surface.

 It has also been found that the nearer the temperature of the chill-room or cold store is
to the soil temperature of the place from which the meat-animal came, the greater will
be the number of contaminating organisms capable of growing on the meat. It follows,
therefore, that chilled beef from the tropics tends to have a longer storage life than
chilled beef from more temperate climates.

(b) Infection with pathological (disease causing) organisms

Casual infection due to insanitary transport, storage and handling is bad because it introduces
taint and affects keeping quality, but it is not usually more harmful to people eating the meat than
meat from diseased animals. The danger of eating meat from diseased animals has, however,
been recognized in most countries and the flesh of animals which die of themselves is
com¬monly discarded.

The following are the principal infective disease organisms which the food technologist must
do his best to detect and avoid by a proper system of veterinary inspection.
(i) Bovine tuberculosis. This disease can be overcome by a system of regular tuberculin
tests and ruthless slaughter of infected ani¬mals. Tuberculosis is the principal

52
 reason why beef and pig carcas¬ses are condemned as unfit for human consumption.
Sheep are virtually immune from the disease.

(ii) Anthrax. This is a dramatic and deadly affliction derived from infected cattle. It is rarely
found in Great Britain or other industrial countries with a good standard of animal
hygiene but it may be found in contaminated meat meal or bone meal from Africa or
India.

(iii) Trichiniasis is commonly among pigs in the United States and is also found in Germany
and Poland. It is due to a small worm, Trichina spiralis, which is picked up by the pigs
from infected food. Rats are thought to carry the infection and to contaminate the
pig food by way of their droppings. The human disease, trichiniasis, is a painful and
prolonged one and, since it is difficult to detect the affected pigs, it is always unsafe to
eat meat products containing pork that is raw or only lightly cooked. Consequently,
certain types of sausages that are commonly eaten raw are a possible source of
disease.

(iv) Tapeworms. When eaten by cattle the eggs of the human-infecting tapeworm, Taenia
saginata, liberate a small embryo which works its way into the muscular tissue of the
beast, usually the masticatory muscles of the jaw. The encysted embryo, if consumed
by human beings, may grow in their intestines up to a length of 20 ft. and has been
known to remain in the same individual for 35 years. Tapeworm infection from meat
has been by no means uncommon in Denmark, Germany, Holland and in Great Britain
during recent years and underlies the importance of the adequate heating of meat
products during the course of manufacture. Tapeworms may also be disseminated by
certain kinds of fish, including pike, perch and trout.

4. STORAGE AND TRANSPORT OF MEAT UNDER REFRIGERATION AND MEAT QUALITY

A major part of the technology of meat is concerned with its preservation under cool
conditions. The object of the reduced temperature is to arrest the factors or processes which
would otherwise reduce the quality of meat by causing deterioration and decay, namely:
(i) Enzyme changes. Enzymes are chemical substances which when the animal is alive
facilitate the complex series of reactions by which life is maintained. These enzymes

53
 survive after the animal is killed and are present in meat. E.g.
 Fat-splitting enzymes produce ran¬cidity,
 oxidative enzymes allow oxygen from the atmosphere to react with meat fat
and produce bleaching and tallowy flavor’s.

Note: Proteolytic enzymes cause softening of protein and, since they make meat more tender,
their
effect is desirable.

The action of all enzymes, desirable and undesirable alike, is slowed down by reduced
temperature, namely, rapid cooling followed by cool or cold storage.
(ii) Increase of micro-organisms. Slime, offensive odors and moulds growth are due to
the proliferation of micro-organisms. These can be checked by reducing the
temperature towards freezing and stopped altogether by deep-freeze conditions.
(iii) Shrinkage and evaporation. Stored meat shrinks due to the evaporation of moisture
even when the meat is frozen. Shrinkage can be reduced if the atmosphere of the
store is humid, but this encourages bacteria and mould unless the temperature is well
below freezing. Evaporation can be reduced by wrapping, provided the wrapper is
close enough to the meat to prevent ice forming inside.

HOW TO STORE MEAT UNDER REFRIDGERATION

(a)Chilled meat storage

The structure of the muscular tissue of meat is irrevocably changed at a temperature of -3 to

-4°C if stored for longer time, so frozen meat does not possess quite such a good flavour and
consistency as fresh meat. It has been found, however, that beef 'chilled' to a tempera¬ture of
– 1.4°C can be kept in good condition sufficiently long to withstand quite long periods of
storage. The following conditions must be maintained:
(i) The meat must be carefully prepared under the most hygienic conditions in
order to keep bacterial contamination to a minimum.
(ii)The meat must be hung, not stacked,
(iii) It must be maintained at -1.4°C.
(iv) Storage life can be extended from about 30 to about 50 days if a level of 10
to 12% of carbon dioxide gas is maintained in the atmosphere of the cold store.

54
(b) Frozen meat storage
About 25% of the water in the meat is frozen when it is held in chilled storage at -1.4°C. This
gives firmness without excessive hard- ness and does not disrupt the normal structure of the
muscle fibres. For longer storage, however, it is necessary to use a store below -10°C at which
temperature microbiological growth is almost entirely stopped. Enzyme action is very much
slowed down at -10°C although a distinct change in flavour is apparent after, say, 12 months'
storage.

Freezing temperatures, however, change the structure of the protein molecules and affect their
capacity to retain moisture. It follows, therefore, that when frozen meat is thawed/defrosted it
has a tendency to drip and its quality deteriorates.

The limit of storage time even at -10°C is the appearance of 'freezer burn', due to drying out of
the meat and the development of a corky appearance.

WHAT IS FREEZER BURN

Freezer burn is what happens when food that has been stored in the freezer loses moisture
resulting in greyish-white spots or patches on the surface of the food.

These spots or patches are caused by the evaporation of the ice crystals from the surface of the
product or by moisture loss. If a product is not properly wrapped, the water molecules can
escape to colder parts of the freezer, which is what they prefer, leaving the food item dehydrated
and dry.

As water is able to escape, this means that air or oxygen will also be able to enter the packaging
and come into contact with the food, creating more deterioration and changes to the product.

Freezer burn is not harmful but it will lead to a deterioration of the product. The food will dry out
and become tougher, yet in most cases it will still be edible. Small affected areas can be cut
away from the food either before or after it has been defrosted and cooked.

55
Items with larger areas of freezer burn may need to be thrown away due to the deterioration of
the quality.

HOW TO PREVENT FREEZER BURN

First and foremost, freezer burn can be prevented by correctly wrapping food intended for
freezer storage. This means using correct packaging materials that retain moisture and tightly
wrapping the product so that no water molecules are able to escape.

Freezer burn also occurs if a product is stored for too long in the freezer. Therefore, with correct
labelling of the product and consumption well within the use-by date, freezer burn will not occur.

Maintaining the temperature of your freezer at 0°F (-18°C) or below also keeps freezer burn at
bay, as fluctuating temperatures that rise above 0°F will eventually lead to moisture loss and
evaporation.

TOPIC 8: FOOD POISONING

Foodborne illness, commonly called "food poisoning," can occur if food containing poisons of
chemical or biological origin is eaten. Food poisoning is caused by bacteria, toxins, viruses,
parasites, and prions. Roughly 7 million people die of food poisoning each year, with about 10
times as many suffering from a non-fatal version.

Food poisoning has been recognized as a disease of man since as early as Hippocrates. The sale
of rancid, contaminated or adulterated food was commonplace until introduction of hygiene,
refrigeration, and vermin controls in the 19th century. Discovery of techniques for killing bacteria
using heat and other microbiological studies by scientists such as Louis Pasteur contributed to
the modern sanitation standards that are ubiquitous in developed nations today. This was further
underpinned by the work of Justus von Liebig, which led to the development of modern food
storage and food preservation methods. In more recent years, a greater understanding of the
causes of food-borne illnesses has led to the development of more systematic approaches such
as the Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP), which can identify and eliminate

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many risks.

Less commonly, acute adverse reactions can also occur if chemical contamination of food
occurs, for example from improper storage, or use of non-food grade soaps and disinfectants.
Food can also be adulterated by a very wide range of articles (known as 'foreign bodies') during
farming, manufacture, cooking, packaging, distribution or sale. These foreign bodies can include
pests or their droppings, hairs, cigarette butts, wood chips, and all manner of other contaminants.
It is possible for certain types of food to become contaminated if stored or presented in an
unsafe container, such as a ceramic pot with lead-based glaze.

A surprising number of foods in their natural state contain toxic substances in small amounts.
For example:
- the presence of solanine in green in green potatoes
- Oxalates in rhubarb and spinach
- Goitrogens in cabbage, cauliflower, Brussels sprout

Refer to the table of toxins present in foods below:

FOOD ITEMS TOXINS EFFECTS

Almonds, lima beans, kirsch, Cyanogens which produce Inhibition of respiratory
fruit stones and seeds cyanides system with possible fatal
consequences
Nutmeg, mace, black pepper, myristicin Headaches, cramps, nausea
parseley, celery seed. and hallucinations.
Green or sprouting potatoes Solanine and chaconine Stomach upsets, nervous
effect
Rhubarb (especially leaves) Oxalic acid Interference with calcium
absorption
Alcoholic drinks Ethanol (ethyl alcohol). Personality changes,
vomiting, unconsciousness,
subsequently hung-over

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Cabbage and other brassicas goitrogens Interference with iodine
absorption by thyroid glands
Most raw beans (especially Protease inhibitors Interference with protein
soya beans) digestion and absorption
Bread and other cereal Phytates Complexes with iron and
product calcium and may interfere
with their absorption
Raw red beans Haemagluttenins Cause red blood cells to
cling together
Mashroom of amanita Amanitin Inactivates metabolic
variety enzymes causing severe
illness with possible fatal
result
Some shellfish Alkaloids related to Severe and sometimes fatal
strychnine illness
Fish, especially puffer fish Various toxins derived from Severe digestive upset
and scombroid fish (e.g. food eaten by fish
tuna, mackerel and bonito) if
not fresh.
Mustard Sanguinarine Fluid retention (dropsy =
generalised oedema of
tissues and fluid in the body
cavities, as seen in cardiac
failure)
Tea , coffee, cola drinks Caffeine Diuretic and stimulant
Parsinips, celery, parseley Psoralens Genetic mutations
Some cheese, yeast extract, Tyramine Increased blood pressure,
red wines migraine. Interferes with
some antidepressant drugs

The toxic substances listed in the table above are present in foods in such small amounts that in
most cases they do no harm. Coffee addicts for example are able to drink numerous cups of

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coffee each containing about 100mg caffeine with apparent harm. Yet a single dose of 10g might
have fatal consequences. Those who do not drink coffee need not feel smug because a cup of
tea contains 50-80mg caffeine and a can of cola drink about 35mg. similarly; many people
regularly consume ethyl alcohol, which is undoubtedly toxic without great harm.

Just as the body is able to deal with regular but small amount of caffeine or ethyl alcohol, so can
it deal with small amounts of the other toxins listed above. When one food is eaten to excess,
however, even substances normally regarded as nutrients can be toxic and atleast one death has
occurred through retinol (vitamin A poisoning)

The term food poisoning is therefore normally used to refer to illness caused by eating foods
which has been contaminated by bacteria or less commonly, viruses or moulds.

BACTERIA FOOD POISONING

This is the most common type of food poisoning and it is caused by the presence in food of
harmful bacteria or poisonous substances produced by them. The general term food poisoning
used in this section refers more specially to bacterial food poisoning. The two most common
factors leading to cases of bacterial foodborne illness are cross-contamination of ready-to-eat
food from other uncooked foods and improper temperature control.

The characteristic symptoms of food poisoning are abdominal pain and diarrhoea accompanied
by vomiting which follow from one to thirty six hours after eating food will be familiar to most
readers from personal experience.

An outbreak of food poisoning may be caused by food which appears to be quite wholesome
inspite of the fact that it is heavily infected by bacteria. The organisms which cause food
poisoning are quite different from those involved in food spoilage, and food that is dangerously
contaminated may appear to be quite wholesome. Of course food which has ‘gone off’ may also
be infected with pathogens but as such food is unlikely to be eaten, hence not a major cause of
food poisoning.

TOXIC AND INFECTIVE FOOD POISONING

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 Toxic food poisoning

Some bacteria produce toxins or poisons outside their cells when they are growing and
multiplying in food, these toxins are known as exotoxins. Exotoxins are not living cells, they are
poisonous chemicals produced by cells. They have the following characteristics;

- The incubation period, the period of time between the entry of the poison into the body
and the appearance of the first symptoms is normally short with troxic food poisoning.
- The toxins produce irritation of the stomach and vomiting occurs often with two hours of
eating the food. Abdominal pain and diarrhoea normally follow.
- Exotoxins are less easily destroyed by heating than the bacteria from which they come.
Thus if food is only heated sufficiently to kill the bacteria, the exotoxins may survive and
still cause food poisoning when food is eaten.
- Food poisoning bacteria are killed in one to two minutes in boiling water, whereas it may
take up-to 30 minutes to destroy exotoxins.

Examples of toxic food poisoning bacteria:

SERIAL # BACTERIA SOURCE INCUBATION DURATION EFFECTS
RESPONSIBLE PERIOD
1 Staphylococcus Human 2 – 6 hours 6 - 48 hours
aureus nose,
mouth,
skin. Boils
and cuts.
Raw milk
and cheese
made from
raw milk

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2 Bacillus cereus Rice, 1 – 6 hours
cornflour, (vomiting type) 24 hours
vegetables
and dairy 8 – 16 hours
products (diarrhoeal
type)
3 Clostridium Animal and
perfringens human 8 – 22 hours 12 – 48
excreta. but usually 12 hours
Soil, dust. to 18 hours.
Raw or
inadequate
ly cooked
meat and
poultry.
Gravy,
stews,
large joints
of meat
4 Clostridium Soil, meat, 6 hours – 8 Death within
botulinum fish and days but 7 days or
vegetables. usually 12 – 36 slow
Inadequate hours recovery
ly
processed
canned
foods

Infective food poisoning

This type of food poisoning, or more correctly, food infection, is caused by eating food
containing live bacteria in sufficient numbers to cause illness. Infective food poisoning bacteria
produce toxins within their own cells. Such toxins are called endotoxins. They have the following

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 characteristics:
- The incubation period for infective food poisoning is normally longer than that for toxic
food poisoning because it takes time for the endotoxins to be released. The symptoms of
fever, headache, diarrhoea and vomiting do not usually appear for about 12 hours.
- They are not as heat resistant as the exotoxins referred to above. And if infected food is
heated to a temperature high enough to destroy the bacteria, the endotoxins are also
destroyed.
- Food poisoning may occur if infected food is not heated to a high enough temperature
during cooking or if infected food, e.g. cooked meat is eaten without further cooking.
- If not properly cooked, the live organisms containing their endotoxins enter the gut and as
they die the endotoxins are released and cause illness.

Examples of infective food poisoning bacteria:

SERIAL BACTERIA SOURCE INCUBATIO DURATION EFFECTS
# RESPONSIBLE N PERIOD
1 Salmonellae, Raw or
especially inadequately 6 – 72 hours 1 – 8 hours
Salmonella cooked meat, but usually
tryphimurium milk, eggs, and 12 – 30
and Salmonella poultry (carried hours
enteritids by pets and
rodents).
2 Listeria Precooked
monocytogenes chilled foods,
untreated dairy
products
3 Escherchia coli Excreta and 10 -72 hours 1 – 5 days
(E coli) polluted water. but usually
Raw or 12 – 24
inadequately hours
cooked meat
and poultry
4 Campylobacter Raw or

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jejun inadequately 3 – 5 days 2 – 3 days
cooked foods of
animal origin,
raw or
inadequately
heat treated milk

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