Lesson 1

Radio as a Medium of Mass Communication

Introduction
Radio in recent times has developed a new role as informant and companion, besides being the
source of entertainment. Radio for most of us serves as an alternative to many things newspapers
and magazines, informal gatherings and conversations, clubs, cinema, theatre, schools and the
playground. It brings us news and their analyses, discussions on current events and educational
programmes; it also provides entertainment through music and songs, serials, radio-drama, sound-
tracks of films, besides sports commentaries.

It is no exaggeration to say that we cannot imagine civilized life without this product of modem
science and technology. In fact, radio has permeated into those remote areas of our society where
neither electricity nor newspapers nor even motor vehicles have reached.

In the last sixty years radio in India has increasingly become the main source of mass broadcasting.
Through its broadcast of news and features. Documentaries and interviews, it makes people aware
of matters that are close to them and that affect them most. A good radio broadcast acts as a
communication catalyst encouraging people to think and analyse and keep alive to happenings
around them. Radio pours out thousands of words every minute in an effort to inform, educate,
entertain and at times persuade. The development of the transistor has revolutionised this broadcast
medium and has made it available to all sections of people all over the country. Hence there is the
urgency and the need to recognise its full potential as a mass communication medium and exploit it
to fulfil the twin objectives of education and entertainment in the broad sense of the terms.

All India Radio with the help of its 98 radio stations, 142 MW (medium wave), 40 SW (short wave)
and 4 VHF (very High frequency) (FM) transmitters cover 95% of the population and 86% of the
area of the country.
Characteristics of Radio

1. Radio makes pictures: Remember the example of the running commentary on radio of the
Repubic Day Parade in Delhi? As you heard the commentary, you could visualize or ‘see’ in
your mind what was being described. You could actively ‘see’ pictures in your mind of the
parade even as you listened to the sounds of bands playing patriotic tunes or the sounds of
marching and commands. You use your power of imagination as you follow the running
commentary.
2. The speed of radio: Radio is the fastest medium. It is instant. As things happen in a studio
or outside, messages can be sent or broadcast. These messages can be picked up by
anyone who has a radio set or receiver which is tuned into a radio station. If you have a
television set and cable or satellite connection you may be using a remote to get your
favourite channel. These days if you have a satellite connection, you can also receive radio
signals of various AIR stations. Otherwise your normal radio set gives the meter or frequency
on which various radio stations operate. You are tuned into that station and listen to news
that happened a few minutes earlier. On the other hand, a newspaper gives you the previous
days’ news. Of course television can also cover events instantly. But television is a more
complex medium where you need light and cameras for any coverage.
3. Simplicity of radio: Compared to all other media, radio is simple to use and it needs very
simple technology and equipment.
4. Radio is inexpensive: As it is simple, it is also a cheaper medium. The cost of production is
low and a small radio can be bought for as low a price as say fifty rupees.
5. Radio does not need electric power supply: You can listen to radio using dry battery cells
even if you do not have electric power supply or a generator. So in a country like ours, where
electricity has not reached everywhere, radio is a great blessing.
6. A radio receiver is portable: Don’t you move your radio set at home from the living room to
the kitchen or as you go out somewhere? You can’t do that very easily with television. This
facility of moving an object which is called ‘portability’ gives radio an advantage. These days
if you have a car and a radio in it, you can listen to it as you drive or travel. Can you think of
watching television, when you drive?
7. One does not have to be literate to listen to radio: Unless you are literate, you can’t read
a newspaper or read captions or text on television. But for listening to radio, you need not be
literate at all. You can listen to programmes or news in any language on the radio.
 8. For a majority of Indians in the rural areas, radio is the only source of news and
entertainment. Radio news can be heard anywhere using an inexpensive receiver. Even the
most economically backward sections can afford to use the medium of radio. Radio is the
best medium of entertainment. It provide healthy entertainment to the listeners. There is
plenty of music of different types available to people. The popular types of music are classical,
light classical, light, devotional, folk and film music.

Limitations of radio
Radio, like any other medium suffers from many limitations as well. Some are redundant in today’s
time and technology and some seriously hamper the messages reaching the audience. Radio
broadcasts are of no use to people who have no sense of hearing especially those with hearing
disabilities.

A one chance medium

When you read a newspaper, you can keep it with you and read it again. You have the printed word
there and unless the paper is destroyed it will remain with you. Suppose when you read a news
item, you do not understand the meaning of certain words. You can refer to a dictionary or ask
someone who knows to find out the meaning.
Now think of radio. Suppose you are listening to a news bulletin in English and you hear words that
you don’t understand. Can you refer to a dictionary or ask someone else for the meaning? If you
stop to do that, you will miss the rest of the news. You have to understand what is being said on
radio as you listen. You have only one chance to listen. What is said on radio does not exist any
longer; unless you record it. The words have momentary life. After it is spoken, it disappears unlike
a newspaper or a printed book. So that is one of the greatest limitations or weaknesses of radio. It’s
momentary nature or to put it differently – radio is a one chance medium. A listener has just one
chance to receive the message and understand it.

Radio has no visual images

Let us consider a news item on radio and the same item on television. For example, the news about
the devastating cyclone ‘Hud-Hud’ that hit India in 2014. Radio news talked about the intensity of
the cyclone, the number of deaths, details about property destroyed etc.
However in the case of television, it showed the actual cyclone hitting the country, visuals of
properties destroyed, rescue operations and many more details which could be seen. Now compare
the two. A natural disaster like a cyclone when seen on television is more effective than what you
hear on radio.

It is said that “a picture is worth a thousand words”. It is also said that ‘‘seeing is believing’’. So when
you see something, it is more believable than what you hear. So having no visuals is a major
limitation of radio.

Messages on radio are easily forgotten

The problem of not having visuals leads to another limitation of radio. What is seen is often
remembered and may remain with us. For example if you have seen the fine visuals of the Taj Mahal
in Agra, it will remain in your memory. But what you hear is normally forgotten fast. Probably you
may remember what you have heard in a class room if you found it interesting. But can you recall
all the headlines of a news bulletin you heard on radio? Normally, you don’t. So this is another
limitation of radio. Messages heard on radio are easily forgotten.

Poor performance on the part of announcers

Presenters or participants in a radio programme can be boring or uninteresting that it can result in
listeners switching off their radio sets. So listeners’ interest depends up on how information or
messages are presented.

Radio as a medium of Mass Communication

Radio is the transmission of signals by modulation of electromagnetic waves with frequencies below
those of visible light. In electronics, modulation is the process of varying one or more properties of
high frequency periodic waveform, called the carrier signal, with respect to a modulating signal. This
is done in a similar fashion as a musician may modulate the tone from a musical instrument by
varying its volume, timing and pitch. The three key parameters of a periodic waveform are its
amplitude ("volume"), its phase ("timing") and its frequency ("pitch"), all of which can be modified in
accordance with a low frequency signal to obtain the modulated signal.
During the 1930s, radio was considered an intimate and credible medium. The public used it as a
news source and expected it to provide factual information. Radio was the first truly mass medium
of communication, reaching millions of people instantly and altering social attitudes, family
relationships, and how people related to their environment.

Radio is an attractive medium among the various mass communication media because of its special
characteristics. It continues to be as relevant and potent as it was in the early years despite the
emergence of more glamorous media. It is a truism that in the first phase of broadcasting spanning
three decades from the early twenties, radio reigned alone or was the dominant player.

However, over a period of time, the media scene has changed drastically. Television with its inherent
strength of audio-visual component has captured the imagination of the people. The advent of
satellite television, the Internet and the convergence of technology have added further dimensions
in media utilization patterns.

However, despite the presence of a plethora of media, there is room and scope for each medium.
Experience has revealed that 'new technologies add things on but they don't replace'. One medium
is not displaced by another - each medium reinvents itself in the context of changes in the
communication environment. In the changed media scenario, radio is reorienting itself with more
innovative programmes and formats.

Radio has expanded into to a national medium of communication. It reaches to even those who
cannot read and helps those who cannot see to maintain a contact with the world around. Whatever
else can be said of the medium, it is plentiful has maintained its place in a highly competitive field
where television, newspapers, cinema and video films jostle for the attentions of the media.

Now, let’s take a look at the features which makes radio as a medium of mass communication:

Radio speaks to millions

Radio is one of the mass media. The very term broadcasting indicates a wide scattering of the output
covering every home, village, town, city and country within the range of the transmitter. Its potential
for communication therefore is very great, but the actual effect may be quite small.
The difference between potential and actual will depend on matters to which this book is dedicated
– programme relevance, editorial excellence and creativity, qualities of ‘likeability’ and
persuasiveness, operational competence, technical reliability, and consistency of the received
signal. It will also be affected by the size and strength of the competition in its many forms.

Broadcasters sometimes forget that people have other things to do – life is not all about listening to
radio and watching television. Audience researchers talk about share and reach. Audience share is
the amount of time spent listening to a particular station, expressed as a percentage of the total
radio listening in its area.

Audience reach is the number of people who do listen to something from the station over the period
of a day or week, expressed as a percentage of the total population who could listen. Both figures
are significant. A station in a highly competitive environment may have quite a small share of the
total listening, but if it manages to build a substantial following to even one of its programmes, let
alone the aggregate of several minorities, it will enjoy a large reach. The mass media should always
be interested in reach.

The speed of radio

Technically uncumbersome, the medium is enormously flexible and is often at its best in the totally
immediate ‘live’ situation. No waiting for the presses or the physical distribution of newspapers or
magazines. A news report from a correspondent overseas, a listener talking on the phone, a sports
result from the local stadium, a concert from the capital – radio is immediate. The recorded
programme introduces a time shift and like a newspaper may quickly become out of date, but the
medium itself is essentially live and ‘now’. The ability to move about geographically generates its
own excitement. Long since regarded as a commonplace, both for television and radio, pictures and
sounds are beamed and bounced around the world, bringing any event anywhere to our immediate
attention. Radio speeds up the dissemination of information so that everyone – the leaders and the
led – knows of the same news event, the same political idea, declaration or threat. If knowledge is
power, radio gives power to us all whether we exercise authority or not.
Radio has no boundaries
Books and magazines can be stopped at national frontiers but radio is no respecter of territorial
limits. Its signals clear mountain barriers and cross deep oceans. Radio can bring together those
separated by geography or nationality – it can help to close other distances of culture, learning or
status.

The programmes of political propagandists or of Christian missionaries can be sent in one country
and heard in another. Sometimes met with hostile jamming, sometimes welcomed as a life-
sustaining truth, programmes have a liberty independent of lines on a map, obeying only the rules
of transmitter power, sunspot activity, channel interference and receiver sensitivity. Even these
limitations are overcome for radio on the Internet, which can bring any station to an Internet-enabled
PC, laptop or mobile phone, wherever it is. Independent of transmitter power or cable networks, any
studio can have a worldwide reach. Crossing political boundaries, radio can bring freedoms to the
oppressed and enlightenment to those in darkness.

Radio for society

It acts as a multiplier of change, speeding up the process of informing a population, and heightening
an awareness of key issues.
 It provides information about jobs, goods and services, and so helps to shape markets by
providing incentives for earning and spending.
 It acts as a watchdog on power holders, providing contact between them and the public.
 It helps to develop agreed objectives and political choice, and enables social and political
debate, exposing issues and options for action.
 It acts as a catalyst and focus for celebration – or mourning – enabling individuals to act
together, forming a common consciousness.
 It contributes to the artistic and intellectual culture, providing opportunities for new and
established performers of all kinds.
 It disseminates ideas. These may be radical, leading to new beliefs and values, so promoting
diversity and change – or they may reinforce traditional values, so helping to maintain social
order through the status quo.
 It enables individuals and groups to speak to each other, developing an awareness of a
common membership of society.
 It mobilizes public and private resources for personal or community ends, particularly in an
emergency.
Radio for the disadvantaged
Because of its relatively low cost and because it doesn’t require the education level of literacy, radio
is particularly well suited to meet the needs of the poor and disadvantaged.
 Lesson 2
Radio Broadcasting in India
(pre and post-independence)

History of Radio Broadcasting in India- An Introduction

Broadcasting was introduced in India by amateur radio clubs in Calcutta, Bombay, Madras and
Lahore. The first of such clubs was the Madras Presidency Radio Club which was formed on May
16, 1924. It began broadcasting on 31 July. Financial difficulties forced the club to close down and
to be queath its transmitter to the Corporation of Madras in October, 1927. A regular broadcasting
service, however, went on the air from 1927, when the Indian Broadcasting Company Ltd., a private
concern, came into being.

It was under the private operators and afterwards placed under the direct control of the central
government and renamed as the Indian Broadcasting Services. In 1935, the Hyderabad station
under government of the Nizam of Hyderabad started operation. In 1936, the Indian radio was
designated as All India Radio wad designated as All India Radio (AIR). In 1938 June 16, a
programme journal named Vani a Station Publication from Madras with the declaration of was on 3
September, 1939 it was inevitable that the Broadcasting news from AIR station acquired added
importance from October 1, 1939 coinciding with about 40% increase in the transmission hours of
all stations, AIR started giving news bulletins, in five Indian languages Tamil, Telugu, Guajarati,
Marathi and Punjabi in addition to the usual bulletins in English, Hindustani and Bengali. In 1948
Vijayawada station started broadcasting.

Lionel Fielden, India’s first Controller of Broadcasting, tells the story of the early years of Indian
Broadcasting in his autobiography-
‘A group of Indian business men, fired by the financial success of European broadcasting, had
floated a company in 1927 with a too-meagre capital, built two weak little stations at Calcutta and
Bombay. In the following three years they had gathered some 7,000 listeners and lost a great deal
of money. They decided to go into liquidation. The government of India, which then and later with
considerable wisdom-thought broadcasting a curse was there upon bullied by the vested interests
of radio dealers to buy up the transmitters. Having done so, it proceeded, quite naturally, to
economise.
File-writers in Delhi could hardly be expected to sanction public expenditure on music, drama and
similar irrelevancies. It seemed obvious that all such frivolous waste should be avoided. The
programmes accordingly deteriorated even from their former low standard and Indian Broadcasting
would have spiralled down to complete eclipse had not the BBC, at the critical moment, started an
Empire programme on the short wave.

Europeans in India rushed to buy sets and since the Government had, by way of strangling
broadcasting although, put an import duty of fifty percent on sets, even the 8000 extra sets
purchased brought quite a deal of money under the broadcasting head. The dealers cried that
broadcasting’s profits must be used for broadcasting: The Government replied with the offer of a
new station at Delhi and a man-me-from the BBC. But, however much English residents of India
listened to the BBC and to the radio dealers it did not matter, then, who listened to what as long as
sets were sold-Indian broadcasting remained what it had always been…’

In 1935 the colonial government took another decisive step by inviting the BBC to help develop
radio; one of the BBC’s senior producers, Lionel Fielden, was sent. Fielden is credited with having
the name of the organization changed to All India Radio and for laying the foundations for public
service broadcasting with the goal of providing information and education. He returned to England
in 1940. By 1947, the year of India’s independence, the air network had grown to 11 stations with 2,
48,000 radio licenses.

Radio comes to India

The first regular broadcasting station in the world, as we have seen, was opened in Pittsburgh in
the USA. Soon after, the first radio programmes were broadcast in the U.K. by the Marconi Company
from Chelmsford, on February 23, 1920. However, it was not until November 1922 that the British
Broadcasting Company, with John Reith as its Managing Director, began to broadcast programmes
on a regular basis.

In November, 1923 a Radio Club was set up in Calcutta which ushered amateur. Broadcasting in
India. In June 1924, similar clubs in Bombay and Madras began transmitting programmes for about
two and a half hours every day. However, the Madras club closed down in October 1927. But earlier
in July the Bombay station of the Indian Broadcasting Company was given the government licence
for regular transmissions, and in August the Calcutta station of the IBC went into operation.
Lord Irwin, the then Viceroy, who inaugurated the Bombay station earlier, said the following words
on the occasion:
'India offers special opportunities for the development of broadcasting. Its distances and wide
spaces alone make it a promising field. In India's remote villages there are many who, after the day's
work is done, find time hang heavily enough upon their hands, and there must be many officials and
others whose duties carry them into out-of-the-way places where they crave for the company of their
friends and the solace of human companionship. There are, of course, too in many households
those whom social custom debars from. Taking part in recreation outside their own homes. To all
these and many more, broadcasting will be a blessing and a boon of real value. Both for
entertainment and for education its possibilities are great, and as yet we perhaps scarcely realise
how great they are’.

In a sense Irwin was prophetic. Today for education and entertainment radio is a powerful means of
communication for the masses of this country especially for those living in remote villages.
The lndian Broadcasting Company began with a capital of 15 lakhs of rupees. Four and a half lakhs
were spent on the installation of the stations at Bombay and Calcutta. On 3 1st Dec., 1927 Broadcast
Receiver licences were enforced. There was a fee of Rs. 101- per year on every radio set. There
were 3,594 sets at that time. In two years this figure went up two- fold. In 1930, however, the number
of licences went down. The expenditure on broadcasting in the meantime was far in excess of the
revenue. The company therefore applied to the Government for a loan which was turned down. The
result was that the company went into voluntary liquidation in March, 1930.

AIR is born
The 30s were a bad period for the world economy; worse for the Indian radio. The expenditure on a
radio station was pruned from Rs. 33.0001- a month in 1927 to Rs. 24, 0001- in 1929 and after the
Government of India took over, to Rs. 220001- in 1930.

The cut in the budget forced the Indian radio to adopt lower and lower standards until 1935 when
the Government of India Act was passed. The constitutional position of broadcasting was defined in
section 129 of the Act.
The salient features of this Act lay emphasis on granting reasonable freedom to:
i) The government of any province or the Ruler of any Federated State such functions with respect
to broadcasting as may be necessary to enable that Government or Ruler-
a) To construct and use transmitters In the Province or State;
b) To regulate, and impose fees in respect of the construction and use of transmitters and use of
receiving apparatus in the Province or State, and
ii) To the matter broadcast by or by authority of, the Government or Ruler. In August, 1935 Lionel
Fielden of the BBC came to India. He had been recommended to Lord Willingdon, the then Viceroy
of India, by Sir John Reith, the then D.G. of the BBC.

Lionel Fielden is now a mythic figure in the history of Indian broadcasting. He was the first Controller
of Broadcasting in India when the Indian state broadcasting corporation was controlled by the
Department of Industries and Labour. In the five years or so that Fielden was the Controller of
Broadcasting he showed patience, tact and foresight and succeeded in establishing the radio as a
public institution in India.

'There is an often-quoted episode in Fielden's autobiography, 'The Natural Bent (1960). It tells us
how the Indian State Broadcasting Service was rechristened as All India Radio.
It goes like this:

"I had never liked the title ISBS (Indian- State Broadcasting Service) which to me seemed not only
unwieldy but also tainted with officialdom. After a good deal of cogitation-which may seem ridiculous
now, but these apparently simple and obvious things do not always appear easily-I had concluded
that All India Radio would give me not only protection from the clauses which I most feared In the
1935 Act, but would also have the suitable initials AIR. I worked out a monogram which placed these
letters over the map of India, and it is now about the only thing which remains of me in India......
Thus All India Radio was born."

Today All India Radio is known as Akashvani, a name which was given to it in 1958.
The word ‘Akashvani’ however was first used by Dr. M.V. Gopalaswamy, Professor of Psychology
at Mysore, for a radio station he established at his own residence on 10th September, 1935. It used
to be on the air from 6 to 8.30 p.m. daily, except on Sundays. The broadcasts were of Carnatic
music and talks in Indian languages on various subjects of popular interest. His radio station was
able to broadcast programmes on a regular basis with the financial support of the Mysore
Municipality and Professor Gopalaswamy's own, until 1942 when it was taken over by the Mysore
State.

In 1950 it became part of the AIR network consequent on the integration of the former princely
states. Lionel Fielden left India in 1940 and handed over the charge to A.S. Bohhari, who had taught
English at Government College, Lahore and had joined the AIR in 1936, and became Fielden's
Deputy in three months. Bokhari went back to become Principal of the college from where he had
come in 1946. P.C. Chaudhuri was the first D.G. of Akashvani in independent India under Sardar
Vallabhbhai Patel, the first Minister for Information and Broadcasting.

Landmarks in History of All India Radio (Pre-Independence)

Landmarks in History of All India Radio (Post-Independence)

(Source: allindiaradio.gov.in)

Services of Akashvani (All India Radio)

News Services
The origins of a centrally planned National Service for news go back to the Second World War when
news bulletins began to be broadcast from Delhi. However, it was in 1931 that the Central News
Organisation (CNO) was formed. Before that date, each station produced its own bulletins. Bombay
and Delhi broadcast news both in English and Hindustani and Calcutta in Bengali in lieu of the latter.

Fielden defended the broadcasts on AIR in Hindustani and recorded that the AIR had 'tentatively
adopted it as a language spoken or at least understood in the greater part of Aryan speaking India'.
'There is, however', he went on, 'a feeling in the country that All lndia Radio should assist in the
evolution and expansion of a common language for India, and it is in pursuance of this feeing, no
less than for practical considerations, that All India Radio is endeavouring to widen the scope of
Hindustani.' However, the word Hindi replaced Hindustani in AIR programme journals in November,
1949. Shortly afterwards newscasts started in Urdu while Hindustani, a mixture of the two, was not
recognised officially as a language.
All lndia Radio today has a fully developed news service which broadcasts news in 20 languages
and 34 dialects. It also broadcasts, apart from the bulletins, newsreels, daily commentaries on
important events and discussions on current events. It provides service to small newspapers through
its slow-speed bulletins in Hindi and English. It monitors broadcasts of foreign stations by the
monitoring services at Shimla and in New Delhi.

Educational Radio
In a way discussions and commentaries on current events have great educational spin-offs. Such
programmes can be classed under non-formal education. Some other types would be Farm and
Home Units of which there are over 60 which deal with agriculture, animal husbandry, cooperatives,
cottage industries and such other matters. Radio Farm Forum was started in 1949. In 1956 the Pune
Station of Akashvani made an experiment in Adult education.

Another area in which radio has been active since 1967 is family welfare. It covers education on
health and nutrition, immunization, child and mother care and family planning techniques. Apart from
the non-formal education mentioned above radio has gone in a big way into formal education
through its school and university broadcasts.

Programmes for schools are broadcast from Calcutta, Bombay, Madras and Delhi and other stations
for 30 minutes, two or three times a week. However, they have not been received by a large number
of schools due to the lack of infrastructural facilities. At each station there are consultative panels of
6 members who advise on the programmes but good teachers do not always make good
broadcasters and the AIR does not always succeed in selecting the best 'people for the school
broadcasts. Akashvani at present broadcasts programmes of the universities of Delhi, Punjab
(Chandigarh) and Punjabi (Patiala). It will soon broadcast programmes of this university as well on
a regular basis.

Special Audience Programmes

Programmes with a focus on special target groups such as army jawans, women, children and the
youth are called special audience programmes. Some of the programmes mentioned in the previous
sub-section can also go under this rubric.
Yuv-Vani or The Voice of Youth is a special audience programme, planned, presented and to a large
extent managed by the young people of the 15-25 years age group. The Programme commenced
on 23rd July, 1969. Can you recall which other world famous event took place on that day'? Neil
Armstrong and Edwin Aldrin set foot for the first time on the moon.

By August 1976, the Yuv-Vani service was broadcast from 23 stations. Delhi, where this service
was introduced for the first time had 6000 participants in its programmes in the first six months (in
1969-70) of its commencement. Today it is still very popular on the national level.

The Commercial Service-Vividh Bharati

In the early Years of our independence, film music was not considered at Akashvani as radio worthy.
In 1950, a Music of India programme was started from Delhi and relayed by all stations. 'Popularize
Classical music' was the catchword spread in 1952 and it did a lot to improve its status. However,
the Indian listener wanted Hindi film music and this was beamed on to various parts of India by
Radio Ceylon on its commercial service.

In order to satisfy the Indian listener's needs, AIR introduced a new service in 1957 on par with
Radio Ceylon known as Vividh Bharati or the All India Variety Programme channel. Originally these
programmes were broadcast from Bombay and Madras. After 1960 these Programmes have been
made available on low-power medium wave transmitters also.
 Lesson 3
Different Types of Radio Stations and Transmissions:
On the Basis of Reach: National, Regional, Local and Community
On the Basis of Transmission Technology: AM, SW, FM, Web

Introduction

Transmission is the act or process of sending a message and information from one location to one
or more locations by means of radio waves, electrical signals, light signals, etc. In radio electronics
and broadcasting, a transmitter usually has a power supply, an oscillator, a modulator, and amplifiers
for audio frequency (AF) and radio frequency (RF).The modulator is the device which modulates the
signal information onto the carrier frequency, which is then broadcast.

Process of Radio Transmission on the basis of Transmission Technology

The Radio Receiver

In daily parlance, a radio is an apparatus that receives signals broadcast by radio stations in the
form of electromagnetic waves and converts them into audible sounds. We use it in fact as a
shortened form of a RADIO RECEIVER.

Now let us see what components a radio receiver has.

Aerials
a radio receiver is generally is attached to an aerial. The aerial picks up all the radio frequency
waves around it.

Tuner
these frequencies are conveyed to the tuner that selects the desired frequency and rejects the
others.

Vacuum Tubes
With the help of special vacuum tubes the programme current is separated from the carrier current
so that the former alone remains.
Amplifiers
The programme current is very weak and cannot operate the loudspeaker. Hence it is made more
powerful (i.e. amplified) with the help of vacuum tubes called amplifiers.

With the advancement of radio technology, transistors that take less space than a vacuum tube
Began to be used in their place. 'Transistor is an electronic device much smaller than a radio valve
used in radio sets. It works both on electricity and cells. If there an old radio, look into its hole at the
back. You may also take the help of a technician and look into a transistor set and difference will be
clear to you.

Loudspeaker

The loudspeaker converts the programme currents into sound waves that we hear.

The Radio Transmitter

A transmitter is the equipment through which we receive the radio broadcast on our sets. This is big
equipment in comparison to other equipment installed in the studio or control room. The strength
and type of the transmitter determines the coverage area of broadcast.

The transmitter sends these sound waves to the listeners’ radio sets which convert them into
sounds. There is no time gap in the whole process.

Studio Control Room (CR) Transmitter (XTR) Listener

Transmitters are generally located outside the city boundaries. The transmitters are of different
capacities such as 1 KW to 100 KW, 200 KW or 250 KW or above. Their locations are decided
according to their capacity. A 1 KW transmitter is normally installed in the vicinity of the studio/control
room whereas the high power transmitters are installed outside the city.

There are two types of transmitters.

■ Low Power Transmitter (LPT) and

■ High Power Transmitter (HPT)

Likewise, there are:

■ Medium Wave (MW) radio broadcast transmitters and

■ Short Wave (SW) radio broadcast transmitters

In a radio station, the broadcaster speaks into a microphone. The microphone converts the sound
into electrical energy. Certain substances-have the property of conducting electricity when they are
put under pressure. Carbon is one such substance. The more pressure you put on it the greater the
electricity it will produce. Hence a capsule of fine carbon particles is connected to a piece of wire
and placed behind a plastic or springy sheet of metal called a Diaphragm. The broadcaster speaks
in front of the diaphragm. The sound made by the announcer presses the carbon particles which in
turn, produce the electrical energy.

This electrical energy is in the form of a programme current which is weak in nature and cannot
travel very far. Certain vacuum tubes at the radio station produce carrier currents that can travel
very far. Special vacuum tubes combine the two currents--carrier and programme. Thus modulating
the carrier current. This modulated carrier current (AM or FM) is sent through a wire to a radio
transmitting tower. The carrier current is amplified (or increased) and radiated out in all directions
from the transmitting tower.

The Ionosphere
Do you know that the quality of reception on your radio-receiver depends also on the sun '? The sun
sends its energy to the earth and thus ionises the layers of air from about 50 to 175 kilometres above
us. The ionosphere layers reflect the radio waves back to the earth. During the day the ionospheric
reflector is pushed behind in the sky. The result is that the sky waves arc reflected farther during the
night than during the day.
The Modulation of Waves
To modulate is to vary the strength and nature of a sound. For instance, we say that Sanjeev is able
to modulate his voice according to the needs of his audience. We used it earlier in the context of
radio waves. A carrier wave is a powerful wave that can go far. A programme wave is not that
powerful because the source of that current is generally the voice of a human being. There are two
important components of a wave-its amplitude (wave height) and frequency (number of waves in a
unit-distance). If with the help of the programme wave we modulate the amplitude of a wave it is
called amplitude modulation or AM.

On the other hand, if with the help of the programme wave we modulate the frequency and not the
amplitude of a wave we have frequency modulation or F.M.

In radio communication, a radio signal is ‘modulated’ so that it can be transmitted over long
distances. In the simplest terms, this means that the radio signal (or input signal), i.e. the signal
carrying audio information, is added with a carrier signal. Unlike a radio signal (which usually has a
very low frequency), a carrier signal has a constant amplitude and frequency, i.e. a constant
waveform, which helps to carry the radio signal over long distances. The process of ‘mounting’ the
original signal to a carrier wave is called modulation.
Meaning of Amplitude
The strength of a wave of sound or electricity, measured at the strongest repeating part of the wave.

Amplitude Modulation (AM) Transmission

Amplitude Modulation, commonly abbreviated as AM, is a common method of broadcasting radio
signals. This method dates back to the 1870s, i.e. the time when we first discovered that information
in the form of audio production can be broadcast over long distances through radio waves. In AM,
the amplitude of the carrier wave is modified in order to transmit the input signal (the one that carries
information). The amplitude of the carrier wave varies proportionally according to the input signal,
so when the input signal has a low amplitude, the amplitude of the carrier wave is decreased and
vice-versa.
Advantages of AM
It is easy to produce in a transmitter and AM receivers are simple in design. AM is simple to tune on
ordinary receivers, and that is why it is used for almost all shortwave broadcasting.
Disadvantages of AM
Its main disadvantage is its inefficiency. About two-thirds of an AM signal's power is concentrated
in the carrier, which contains no intelligence. Other disadvantages of AM include the relatively wide
amount of frequency space an AM signal occupies and its susceptibility to static and other forms of
electrical noise.
Meaning of Frequency
The rate per second of a vibration constituting a wave, either in a material (as in sound waves), or
in an electromagnetic field (as in radio waves and light). A particular number of radio waves
produced in a second at which a radio signal is broadcast the number of times that a wave, especially
a light, sound, or radio wave, is produced within a particular period, especially one second

Frequency Modulation (FM) Transmission

Frequency Modulation, often referred to as FM, is another, relatively newer method of modulation
where the carrier wave is modified proportionally according to the input signal. In FM, the
instantaneous frequency of the carrier wave is altered according to the amplitude of the input signal.
Due to the much better transmission quality, most music radio stations prefer FM over AM to transmit
information (mostly, songs) to their listeners.

Advantage of FM
The big advantage of FM is its audio quality and immunity to noise. Most forms of static and electrical
noise is naturally AM, and a FM receiver will not respond to AM signals. FM receivers also exhibit a
characteristic known as the capture effect. If two or more FM signals are on the same frequency,
the FM receiver will respond to the strongest of the signals and ignore the rest. The audio quality of
a FM signal increases as its deviation increases, which is why FM broadcast stations use such large
deviation.

Disadvantage of FM
The main disadvantage of FM is the amount of frequency space a signal requires.

AM vs FM Debate

Mode of modulation: AM involves the alteration of the amplitude of the carrier wave, whereas FM
involves changes in the frequency of the carrier wave.
Frequency range: The typical frequency range in which AM works is 535 to 1705 Kilohertz, whereas
the frequency range is around 88-108 Megahertz for FM.
Area of reception: Unlike AM, FM signals can’t travel over long distances; therefore, FM signals
have good reception in cities, whereas AM signals (usually used for broadcasting news) have a
lower sound quality, but can be transmitted to more remote places.
This is because FM waves have a small range in terms of the geographical regions they can cover,
whereas AM waves have a much larger range and can therefore be received even in hinterlands!
This is the reason most news stations use AM over FM, because they want the information to reach
as many people as possible, even if the sound quality isn’t top-notch, which brings us to the next
point.
Complexity and cost: The equipment requirements of an FM system are costly, whereas AM, with
its relatively older technology, relies on less complex and thus cheaper equipment to transmit
signals.
Bandwidth: AM signals take up 30 kHz, while FM signals take up 80 kHz of bandwidth for each
signal. This means that AM can send more signals than FM in a limited range of bandwidth.
Sound Quality: The one aspect that’s undoubtedly the most relevant to users, i.e. the sound quality
of the transmission, is where FM clearly trumps AM. Noise affects amplitude more readily, and since
information is stored in the amplitude itself, AM becomes vulnerable to interference. FM, on other
hand, relies on changing frequency, and is therefore less susceptible to noise, allowing it to provide
a superior quality of sound.

Given the fact that both AM and FM are commonly used for broadcasting information these days,
it’s evident that there’s no winner in this debate. Whether you use AM or FM while broadcasting
something depends entirely on how many people you want to reach out to.

Most radio stations use amplitude modulation because it is most efficient for long-distance short-
wave broadcasting. However. AM programmes are often disturbed by noise. FM programmes are,
on the other hand, not disturbed by noise but do not prove useful in long- distance broadcasting.
However, if you have a stereo-radio receiver-and you live close to the big cities you will find music
broadcast on FM much more enjoyable.

Short Wave (SW) Transmission

Shortwave radio received its name because the wavelengths in this band are shorter than those
used for medium and low frequency bands first used for radio communications. It is used for long
distance communication by means of reflecting off ionosphere, allowing communication around the
curve of the Earth. It is also used for broadcasting of voice and music, and long-distance
communication to ships and aircraft, or to remote areas out of reach of wired communication or
other radio services.
Additionally, it is used for two-way international communication by amateur radio enthusiasts for
hobby, educational and emergency purposes. Shortwave frequencies are capable of reaching any
location on the Earth. Shortwave broadcasts often suffer from serious interference problems
because of overcrowding on the wavebands, atmospheric disturbances and electrical interference
problems (particularly in cities) from TV sets, computers, poorly designed domestic appliances, and
substandard electrical installations. Even under ideal reception conditions, the audio quality of a
shortwave broadcast is usually inferior to that of domestic stations, particularly FM stations, and it
is always in mono.

The selection of a frequency to use to reach a target area depends on several factors:

 The distance from the transmitter to the target receiver.

 During the day, frequencies higher than approximately 12MHz can travel longer distances
than lower ones; at night, this property is reversed.
 During the winter months the AM broadcast band tends to be more favourable because of
longer hours of darkness.
 Solar activity: Sunspots, solar flares, and overall solar variation affect the ionosphere. Solar
flares can prevent the ionosphere from reflecting or refracting radio waves.

Shortwave does possess a number of advantages over newer technologies, including the following:

 The difficulty in censoring programming by authorities in target countries: unlike the

Internet, government authorities have technical difficulties to monitor which stations (sites) is
being listened to (access). Low-cost shortwave radios are widely available in all but the most
repressive countries in the world.
 Many newer shortwave receivers are portable and can be battery operated, making them
useful in difficult circumstances. Newer technology includes hand-cranked radios which
provide power for a short time.
 Shortwave radios can be used in situations where Internet or satellite technology is
unavailable (or unaffordable). Shortwave radio travels much farther than broadcast FM (88-
108MHz).
 Shortwave broadcasts can be easily transmitted over a distance of several thousands of
kilometers, e.g., from one continent to another, especially at night.
  Particularly in tropical regions SW is somewhat less prone to interference from
thunderstorms than Medium wave and is able to cover a large geographic area with relatively
low power (and hence cost). Therefore in many of these countries it is widely used for
domestic broadcasting.

Radio on Web
Radio on internet is a growing phenomenon with thousands of radio stations operating through
computer modems. It is altogether a new format that removes the restrictions of frequency or license.
It is relatively cheap to set up. It has certain advantages as well as disadvantages. Now all the
national and international radio stations like BBC, Voice of America, and All India Radio are available
on internet. It is now possible to listen to the programmes from a radio station while working on the
computer. All India Radio started its services on internet on 1st May 1998. With this, it was possible
to extend the coverage of programmes to all parts of the world including USA and Canada.

Radio Transmission on the Basis of Reach

All India Radio is a division of Prasar Bharati or the Broadcasting Corporation of India, an
autonomous corporation of the Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India.
The headquarters of AIR is at Akashwani Bhawan, New Delhi. AIR has different services each
catering to different regions/ languages across India. One of the most famous services is Vividh
Bharati (All India Variety Programme) which offers programmes such as news, film music, comedy
shows etc. in several cities of India.

AIR has a three-tier system of broadcasting. These three levels of programmes are the National,
Regional and Local each having distinct audiences. National programmes are broadcast from Delhi
for relay by the Capital, Regional and Local Radio Stations. Some of these are the National
Programme of Talks and Features in Hindi and English, the National Programmes of Drama and
Music.
Radio Transmission on the Basis of Reach: National
The National Channel of All India Radio located in Delhi broadcasts programmes which are heard
on Medium Wave and also on Short Wave. It started on 18th May 1988, this channel works as a
night service from 6.50 PM to 6.10 AM the next morning. Broadcasting in Hindi, Urdu and English,
the programme composition of the channel has been designed to make it representative of the
cultural mosaic and ethos of the country.

It caters to the information, education and entertainment needs of the people, through its
transmitters at Nagpur, Mogra and Delhi beaming from dusk to dawn. It transmits centrally originated
news bulletins in Hindi and English, plays, sports, music, newsreel, spoken word and other topical
programmes, to nearly 76% of the country’s population fully reflecting the broad spectrum of national
life. The languages of broadcast are Hindi, English and Urdu apart from some music from other
Indian languages.

The National Channel transmits programmes of national relevance. It is an alternative channel to

the listeners who have access to the regional /sub-regional and Vividh Bharati Service. The
languages of the spoken-word broadcast of the National Channel are Hindi and English

The National Channel features Hindustani and Carnatic music. light and folk music' from Planning
and Research different regions of the country, Western music, plays, dramatized presentation of
short stories translate into Hindi from different Indian languages, documentaries, financial reviews,
sports magazines and programmes in Urdu. The national service is available to substantial
segments of the people in different regions.

Radio Transmission on the Basis of Reach: Regional

The Regional Stations in different States form the middle tier of broadcasting. They originate
programmes in the regional languages and dialects. Regional Channels are located in the major
linguistic-cultural region of every state. 116 Regional Channels are spread over 29 states & 6 Union
Territories including the North-Eastern Service at Shillong that projects the vibrant cultural heritage
of the North-Eastern region of this country. The Regional Channels, broadcast largely on the
Medium Wave frequency, follow a composite programme pattern comprising of music - classical,
light, folk and film, News and Current Affairs, Radio plays, features, Farm and Home programmes,
programmes on Health & Family Welfare and programmes for Women, Children etc.
The organisational setup of a regional radio station which is located at the capital of a state or Union
Territory is more or less on the pattern detailed in the typical set-up of a radio station.

The head of a regional station is Station Director who is the controller of the station and is
responsible for its final output. Public relations is directly under the Station Director. She keeps
liaison with state government functionaries, eminent writers, thinkers, scientists, technologists,
musicians, artistes and others. She also presides over the Programme Advisory Committees and
Consultative Panels attached to the stations.

A Station Director of a radio station in a state capital has the added responsibility of organising and
coordinating the programmes of state level relevance and importance. She also inspects other
stations in the state.

Radio Transmission on the Basis of Reach: Local

Local Radio is relatively a newer concept of broadcasting in India. Local radio stations serve small
communities, showcase local culture and broadcast area specific programmes for the benefit of the
community. The transmission is in the FM mode. The programming is flexible and spontaneous and
the stations function as the mouth piece of the local community. At present there are 86 Local
Stations spread across the country.

The government has granted licenses to IGNOU to operate educational channels known as
Gyan Vani. These radio stations are managed by a three member team headed by a station
manager.

Each of these local radio stations serving a small area provides utility services and reaches right
into the heart of the community, What distinguishes local radio from the regional network is its down
to earth, intimate and uninhibited approach. The programmes of the local radio are area specific.
They are flexible and spontaneous enough to enable the station to function as the mouth piece of
the local community.
The FM service of AIR has two channels- FM Rainbow and FM Gold. There are 12 FM Rainbow
channels and 4 FM Gold Channels. The programme content of these channels is mainly popular
Indian and Western music, presented in a style which is highly popular with the urban youth. News
bulletins and current affairs programmes are also broadcast from these channels. There are also
other AIR stations on the F.M. mode. There are several private FM channels which can be heard all
over the country.

Private radio stations (FM channels)

Radio Mirchi, Radio City, Big FM, Red FM ……The list is becoming longer. You must have heard
about one or more of them. These are private or commercial radio stations which have been given
a license to broadcast programmes on radio. Most of them cater to the younger generation by
providing a mix of music and fun.

Radio Transmission on the Basis of Reach: Community

Community Radio is a voluntary activity, supported by the community it serves. Civil society can
assist in setting up and supporting stations over a short duration as they move towards self-
sufficiency. Community Radio is a type of radio service that offers a third model of radio broadcasting
beyond commercial and public service. Community stations can serve geographic communities and
communities of interest. They broadcast content that is popular to a local/specific audience but which
may often be overlooked by commercial or mass-media broadcasters.

Community Radio is a type of radio service that caters to the interests of a limited area or a
community which is homogenous. It broadcasts programmes that are popular and relevant to the
local audience. A community radio license is required to operate a community radio station.
Community Radio Stations are operated, owned, and driven by the communities they serve.
Community radio is not-for profit and provides a mechanism for facilitating individuals, groups, and
communities to tell their own diverse stories, to share experiences, and in a media rich world to
become active creators and contributors of media.

These stations are expected to produce programmes as far as possible in the local language or
dialect. Although the stress is on developmental programmes, entertainment is not banned on these
radio stations. Anna FM is India’s first campus community radio operating from Anna University in
Chennai, Tamil Nadu. This was launched on 1 February 2004.
On 16 November 2006, the government of India notified new Community Radio Guidelines which
permit NGOs and other civil society organizations to own and operate community radio stations.
The license entitles them to operate a 100 watt (ERP) radio station, with a coverage area of
approximately 12 kilometers radius. A maximum antenna height of 30 meters is allowed. Community
radio stations are expected to produce at least 50% of their programmes locally, as far as possible
in the local language or dialect. The stress is on developmental programming, though there is no
explicit ban on entertainment.
 Lesson 4
Organizational Structure and
Functionaries of a Radio Station: Govt. and Private

Introduction
The organisational structures of institutions are designed in accordance with their objectives and
functions. This holds true of radio networks/stations as well. There are several broadcasting
networks in the world, some are public service broadcasting organisations, and others are
commercial networks. Besides, there are individual radio stations, mostly of a commercial nature.
The policy objectives of radio networks/radio stations differ widely depending on the policy of those
who own/control them. The organisational structure of a broadcasting organisation also varies
widely in relation to the size, of the network, its policy objectives and capital investments.

In India, as in most other counties, it is an organisation under the control of the government. In some
countries, as for instance the U.S.A., there are private radio stations. In others, radio has greater
autonomy than what it enjoys in our country, nevertheless it is still under governmental control. Such
is the case with the British Broadcasting Corporation (B.B.C.). The nature of relationship influences
the organisation of radio station.

There are, however, three main departments in a radio station:

The Programme Department

Imagine the number of programmes and types of programmes that are broadcast by a radio station
every day, such as music, drama, serials, news and their analyses, panel discussions etc. This
involves three kinds of operation-(i) Scheduling. (ii) Recording and (iii) Broadcasting the
programmes. All programme matters, including programme schedules, appointment of staff artistes
and producers, etc. fall within the jurisdiction of the Deputy Director General (Programmes). He is
assisted by the Director of Programmes and the Director of Programme (Planning) who are Station
Directors. Similarly, the News Department has a Director-in-charge. The need for speedy action in
terms of instant relay of the news gives radio a great advantage over the Press.
The Director (Programmes) is assisted by Programme Executive, Programme Assistants, producers
and staff artistes which include composers, announcers and accompanists besides transmission
assistants and studio executives and staff.
In big radio stations there are big news sub-departments within the programme department. The
news sub-department collects news from various sources such as the news-agencies and reporters
who send them local news from various parts of the country. News-readers, artistes and disc-jockeys
(who conduct radio programmes of recorded music, interspersed with comments) all normally form
the part of the programme department.

The Engineering Department

You have seen how the voice of the announcer or singer has to undergo a technological process
before it can be heard by the listeners on their radio sets. This is done by the engineers in the control
room of the station and his most important equipment is the control board to which come wires from
the microphones, tape recorders and record turntables. She/he ensures that the programmes are
broadcast on a frequency assigned to that station.

The Business Department

The radio earns revenue from advertisements and salesmen have to go to the local stores or the
big producers of goods as the case may be for the sale of air-time on the station. They generally
charge more money for programmes broadcast at peak listening hours also called prime time. The
business department also has accountants who keep accounts of the incomes and expenditures of
the radio station. Without the three major departments radio will not be able to function.

Organisational Structure of All India Radio

The type of organisation and the principles of management adopted by a broadcasting station will
depend on its size, range of operations and ownership. In our country, radio broadcasting had been
the responsibility of All India Radio funded by the government. A number of radio stations in the
private sector are coming up. A number of educational channels operated by IGNOU known as
Gyan Vani have come up and more are to be commissioned. The NGO sector may also set up
community broadcasting stations as and when Government regulations permit.
Their organisational pattern would be different depending on their size, financial outlay and activities
to be undertaken.
All India Radio (AIR) is one of the major public service broadcasting organisations in the world, and
perhaps the largest in Asia. It has a network comprising 209 broadcasting centres with a staff
component of over 30,000 employees and an annual expenditure of over Rs. 450 crores in the year
2000. Its home service, averaging 2300 hours of output every day, includes national, regional, sub-
regional and local service in 26 languages and 146 dialects, beside light entertainment commercial
service. Its external service in 16 foreign and 10 Indian languages is beamed to 84 countries around
the globe for a daily duration of over 70 hours. The headquarters of the network located in New
Delhi is headed by a Director-General. The Director-General is assisted by an Engineer-in Chief, a
Director-General (News), and Additional Deputy Director-General for Programme, Administration
and Security, a Director of Monitoring Service and a Director for Audience Research. The Director
General is answerable to the Parsar Bharati Board of Management.

Prasar Bharati Board

The Prasar Bharati Board functions at the apex level ensuring formulation and implementation of
the policies of the organization and fulfillment of the mandate in terms of the Prasar Bharati Act,
1990. The Executive Member functions as the Chief Executive Officer (CEO) of the Corporation.
The CEO of Prasar Bharati is Mr. Shashi Shekhar Vempati.
Officers from different streams working in the Prasar Bharati Secretariat assist the CEO, Member
(Finance) and Member (Personnel) in integrating actions, operations, plans and policy
implementation as well as look after the budget, accounts and general financial matters of the
Corporation. Prasar Bharati also has a unified vigilance set up at the headquarters, headed by a
Chief Vigilance Officer. The Director General heads the Directorate of All India Radio

Director-General (DG)
The Director-General provides the professional leadership. He controls and supervises the
activities of various divisions. The heads of programme and engineering divisions are, in turn,
assisted by regional/zonal heads and a chief engineer in charge of civil construction. The heads of
programme regions are located in Mumbai, Calcutta and Guwahati, while the zonal chief engineers
are headquartered at the four metropolises. There are 41 Regional News Units attached to the
various radio stations and they receive professional guidance from the Director-General.
A Deputy Director General carries out the inspection of radio offices.
Director General, All India Radio is responsible for the overall administration of the entire Akashvani
network consisting of 277 stations and 432 broadcast transmitters (148 are MW (Medium Wave),
236 FM (Frequency Modulation) and 48 SW (Short Wave) transmitters as on 31.03.2012), which
provide coverage to 99% of the population spread over the country.
DG, AIR- Shri F. Sheheryar
DG, AIR (News) - Ms Ira Joshi

Organizational Structure of All India Radio

Prasar Bharati
Board
Director General
(DG), Station Director
All India Radio

Audience
Programme Engineering Administrative Security
Wing
Research
Wing Wing Wing Wing

Functionaries of All India Radio

Each radio station, except the smaller ones, has Programme, News, Engineering, Administration,
Accounts, Audience Research and Security Units. The head of the station reports to the Director-
General directly or through regional/zonal heads. She coordinates the various units to ensure that
the communication objectives of the organisation arc achieved through the station's programming
and other activities.
 Director General
(DG)

DG (News) Engineer-in- DDG (Admin.) DDG

ADG/DDG
{41 Regional Chief {Admin & (Security at
(Programmes of
News Units} (Zonal offices at Accounts at
Radio Stations) Radio Stations)
4 Metropolis) Radio Stations}

Programme Wing
Each station is equipped with facilities for programme production and presentation. The Programme
Wing is divided into a number of production units such as; the Talks Unit, Women and Children's
Programmes Unit, the Farm and Home Unit (for producing rural programme), Youth Programmes
Wing, the Education Programme Unit, Science Programme Unit, Music Units (for classical, light and
folk music programmes) Outdoor Broadcasting (field based) programme, Morning Information
Programme and Senior Citizen Programme Units. In some stations, there are Western Music and
Industrial Workers Programme Units also.

All the stations have a Programme Coordination Unit and Public Relations Unit. The programmes
are produced by Programme Executives/ Prograrnme Officers/Farm Radio Officers who are
deployed at the station according to the language and other special requirements. The programme
producers are assisted by reporters, script writers and production assistants. Instrumentalists and
music composers’ assist in the production of music programmes.

The work of the programme executives is supervised by assistant station directors/deputy director
in accordance with the Scalar Principle. The Station Director coordinates all the activities in
accordance with the principle of Line of Control. The presentation of programmes is generally made
by announcers and broadcast of programmes in accordance with a pre-determined schedule is
ensured by a cadre of officers referred to as Transmission Executives.
Engineering Wing
The head of the engineering wing is a Station Engineer/Superintending Engineer. She controls and
coordinates all the technical activities of the stations. She/he is assisted by Assistant Station
Engineer, Assistant Engineer, Senior Engineering Assistant, Engineering Assistants and
Technicians. They handle all programme origination and transmission, including relays from Delhi
or other stations. They are responsible for maintenance and operation of the technical facilities
created at the station.

News Wing
The News Wing is headed by a Joint Director or News Editor and is assisted by sub-editors and
news reporters. For news reporting and news gathering there are staff correspondents, supported
by a number of part-time correspondents or stringers. The news editing is done by the editorial staff,
while translation and reading of news is done by translators and news readers respectively.
The news wing also produces district newsletters and one or two newsreels in a week.

Administration and Accounting Wing

This is headed by an Administrative Officer assisted by a head clerk, accountant and a number of
assistants. Additional Director General (Administration) and a Deputy Director
General(Administration & Finance) assists the Director General on matters of administration and
finance, while Additional Directors General (Programme) assists DG in administration of Programme
personnel. A Director looks after the Engineering Administration of All India Radio.

Security Wing
The security set up comprises of a Deputy Director General (Security), Assistant Director General
(Security) and a Deputy Director (Security). They handle matters of the security and safety of AIR
installations, transmitters, studios, offices etc. The Security needs of Doordarshan are also looked
after by these officers.

Audience Research Wing

An Audience Research Officer, supported by field investigators conduct feedback studies which help
the station to formulate their programme-fare. The Audience Research Wing also conducts
formative research studies to provide the programmers with a profile of the audience, their tastes
and preferences.
 Activities of other offices of AIR

News Services Division (NSD)

External Services Division (ESD)

Transcription & Programme Exchange
Service
Research Department

Central Store Office

Staff Training Institute (Programme)

Staff Training Institute (Technical)

News Services Division (NSD)

The News Services Division works round the clock and broadcasts over 647 news bulletins both in
the home and in external services. The bulletins are in Indian and Foreign languages. It is headed
by Director General (News) Service. There are 44 regional News Units.

External Services Division (ESD)

The External Services Division of All India Radio broadcasts in 27 languages – 16 foreign and 11
Indian languages. These services are radiated for an aggregate duration of 72 hours daily and are
projected to over 100 countries.

Transcription & Programme Exchange Service

This service looks after exchange of programmes among the stations, building and maintenance of
sound archives and commercial release of prestigious recordings of music maestros.
Research Department
The functions of the Research Department include Research and Development of equipment
required by AIR and Doordarshan, investigation and studies relating to AIR and Doordarshan,
development of Prototype models of R&D equipment for limited use field trials in the network of AIR
and Doordarshan.

Central Store Office

The Central Stores Office located at New Delhi performs functions relating to procurement, stocking
and distribution of engineering stores required for the maintenance of technical equipment at All
India Radio Stations.

Staff Training Institute (Programme)

The Staff Training Institute (Programme) started in 1948. It has two main branches functioning from
Kingsway Camp Delhi and Bhubaneswar. They impart in-service training to Programme Personnel
and Administrative Staff, induction course for the newly recruited staff and short duration
refreshment courses. It also conducts examinations for administrative staff.

Staff Training Institute (Technical)

The Staff Training Institute (Technical), part of the Directorate since 1985, now functions at
Kingsway Camp, Delhi. The Institute organizes Training Courses for the engineering staff of All
India Radio and Doordarshan from the level of Technician to the Superintending Engineer. It also
conducts Departmental, Qualifying and Competitive Examinations. There is one Regional Staff
Training institute (Technical) at Bhubaneswar.

In addition to the above discussed, there are some other offices and stations in AIR:

Commercial Broadcast Stations: These with a small complement of staff look after the
Commercial broadcasts which comprise Vividh Bharati programmes, programmes in the local
languages and commercial advertisements. They are located in the regional/sub-regional/local
stations.
North Eastern Service: The North Eastern Service is located in Shillong. It is an integrated service
catering to the communication needs of the listeners living in the North Eastern region. The
broadcasts from individual stations in the North East of India are mostly in the tribal dialects due to
the absence of a common lingua franca of the region. The spoken-word broadcasts are in English
and Hindi. The music broadcast features are folk and tribal songs of the entire region, collected from
different stations of AIR in the North East.

Commercial Sales Unit: Commercial Sales Unit (CSU) is the Wing which keeps liaison with the
advertisers and advertising agencies. The advertisements (or commercials) are cleared by this unit
located in Mumbai. Marketing units have also been set up to promote sale of airtime.

Vividh Baharti Service: Vividh Bharati programmes form the bulk of commercial broadcasting
services of AIR. They are produced at a separate production unit functioning in Mumbai. The
programmes arc taped and copies sent to the commercial broadcasting centres.

A brief historical perspective of Private radio stations

In 1967, the Committee on Broadcasting and Information headed by eminent broadcaster A.K.
Chanda recommended separate corporations for radio and television. The Union Government
decided in 1969 against converting AIR into a corporation. However, radio and television were
separated and on April 1, 1976 and Doordarshan came into existence as a Department of the
Government.

The structure of broadcasting was again reviewed by a Working Group on Autonomy for Akashvani
and Doordarshan in August 1977. This group headed by B.G. Verghese recommended in May 1978
the creation of a National Broadcast Trust to be named Akash Bharati to look after radio and
television. The then Union Government did not consider it necessary for the setting up of a trust
under the name Akash Bharati. However, it brought a bill for creating a Public Sector Corporation
under the title Prasar Bharati. The bill lapsed with be dissolution of the Lok Sabha. Under a modified
version of the Bill, the Prasar Bharati became an Act in 1990 and the Act was notified for
implementation with effect from September 15, 1997. As a result, All India Radio and Doordarshan
are functioning as units of the autonomous corporation Prasar Bharati.
Supreme Court Judgement
In the case of the Union of India vs. the Cricket Association of Bengal, the Supreme Court in its
judgement of February 9, 1995, held that the airwaves are a public property and a monopoly over
broadcasting whether by Government or anybody else (public monopoly could be an exception) is
inconsistent with the free speech right of the citizens and directed the government to take immediate
steps to establish an independent autonomous public authority, representatives of all sections and
interests of society to control and regulate the use of airwaves.

Regarding private broadcasting, the apex court in its judgement observed:

"The question of whether to permit private broadcasting or not is a matter of policy, for Parliament
to decide. If it decides to permit it, it is for Parliament to decide, subject to what conditions and
restrictions it should be permitted. Private broadcasting, even if allowed should not be Ieft to market
forces, in the interest of ensuring that a wide variety of voices enjoy access to it. the electronic
media are the most powerful media, both because of their audio-visual impact, and their widest
reach covering the section of the society where the print media do not reach. The right to use
airwaves and the context of the programmes, therefore. needs regulation for balancing it and as well
as to prevent monopoly of information and views relayed which is a potential danger flowing from
the concentration of the right to broadcast/telecast in the hands either of a central agency or few
private affluent broadcaster”.

It was expected that the government would bring in legislation for setting up a broadcast authority
with enabling provisions to license and regulate private radio stations. But the government chose to
use the administrative powers vested with it and worked out a scheme to make way for the setting
up of radio stations by private parties. It identified 40 towns and cities for setting up 108 channels.
Some cities would have as many as 11 private channels, while places like Agra, Cuttack,
Trivandrum, Nagpur etc. would have only one. The allotment of licenses to operate channels was
made on the basis of highest bids from the eligible applicants. Only companies registered in India
under the Companies Act 1956, were eligible to apply.
The scheme includes some clauses for disqualifying religious bodies, political bodies and
advertising agencies from getting the license. There are also clauses to prevent the same company
getting more than one license at the same town/city. The Government might identify more places
and channels for opening up private radio stations. It is worthwhile to note that some of those who
got the licenses surrendered them because of financial non-viability.

Organizing a private radio station involves setting up of a studio, transmitter and generation of
software. This would require a substantial investment, entrepreneur-ship and manpower and this
will depend on the hours of broadcast and type of programming. The station has to depend on
advertisement revenue for its day-to-day expenditure, profits and provision for depreciation etc.

Experience of running private radio stations elsewhere in the world reveals that they have to be
compact organizations with minimum staff, avoiding the expense of a large paraphernalia of
divisions and departments with huge staff manning them. The management could ill afford all this.
The station has to be managed with a small contingent of multi-skilled staff numbering 10 or 15
persons or even less. The software has to be drawn from pre-recorded cassettes1CD's and the like.
To hook the listeners, in a competitive environment, they may have to organize interactive
programmes, chat shows, prize schemes etc. The situation would be different if a corporate body
gets licenses to operate a number of radio stations at many centres. These could be 'functional' type
of organizations. In community radio stations the organization would be distinctively different
depending on the informational resources.

The government has granted licenses to IGNOU to operate educational channels known as Gyan
Vani. These radio stations are managed by a three member team headed by a station manager.

The proliferation of radio channels throws up a lot of challenges as well as opportunities. The
presence of a number of private stations would encourage a healthy competition among them and
in such a situation, the listening public eventually would be the beneficiaries.
Functionaries of a FM radio station

Station Manager: Heads the station and decides the agenda .

Operations Manager: He is responsible for all

that is being broadcast from the station.
Sales Staff: A FM radio station cannot survive without revenue
and generating the same is the job of the sales staff through
sponsors and commercials etc.

Engineering Staff: It sees to it that there are no technical glitches

in the broadcast and the transmission should go smoothly on air.

On AIR Staff (RJs): They are the brand ambassadors of a FM

radio station and without a good RJ a station can neither generate
revenue nor thrive.