byjusexamprep.

com

IMPORTANT FORMULAS TO REMEMBER

\

1. Types of materials:
a. Insulators
• At room temperature, an insulator does not conduct. However, it may conduct if its
temperature is very high or if a high voltage is applied across it. This phenomenon is termed the
breakdown of the insulator.
• Example: diamond.
b. Semiconductors
• At 0°K, semiconductor materials have the same structure as insulators except for the difference
in the size of the bandgap EG, which is much smaller in semiconductors (E G ~ 1 eV) than in
insulators.
• Example: Ge and Si.
c. Metals
• Without supplying any additional energy such as heat or light, a metal already contains many
free electrons, which is why it works as a good conductor.
• Example: Al. Cu etc.
2. Thermal Voltage VT OR VTH
"Volt-equivalent of temperature"

kT
VT =
q

T
or VT = volts
11600

where T = Temperature in kelvin

VT ~ 26 mV
1.For silicon, EG(T) = 1.21 – 3.60 × 10–4 T
and at room temperature (300°K), EG = 1.1 eV
2.Similarly, for germanium, EG(T) = 0.785 – 2.23 × 10–4 T
and at room temperature, EG = 0.72 eV
• Free electrons and holes are always get generated in pairs. Therefore, the concentration of free
electrons and holes will always be equal in an intrinsic semiconductor
n = p = ղi
Where ղi is called the intrinsic concentration.

1
byjusexamprep.com
4. Effect of Temperature on Conductivity of Intrinsic Semiconductor
 EG 
− 0 
 kT 
n2i = A0 T3 e  

Where EG0: Energy gap at 0K in eVs

k: Boltzmann's constant in eV/K
A0: Material constant independent of temperature
5. The Mass-Action Law
The law of mass action states that the product of the number of electrons in the conduction band
and the number of holes in the valence band is constant at a fixed temperature and is

independent of the amount of donor and acceptor impurity added .

np = 2i

For a p-type semiconductor,

2i
np =
pp

For an n-type semiconductor,

2i
pn =
nn

6. Transport Phenomena In Semiconductors:

6.1 Mobility:
V = μE

 qt 
⇒ V = E
m

qt
∴ =
m

drift velocity
=
fieldintencity

vd m2 cm2
= → unit or
E V− s V− s
• In a semiconductor, mobility of charge carriers depends on:
i. Temperature
ii. Doping concentration
  T −m  decrease as a non-linear variation.

Where m= material constant

6.2. Mobility versus E graph:

2
byjusexamprep.com

Figure: Mobility versus E graph

  T −m

Where, for Ge: m =1.66 for e and 2.33 for hole

for Si: m = 2.5 for e– and 2.7 for hole
Table 2:

Parameter Ge Si GaAs

Electron mobility (μn) 3800 cm2/V-s 1300 cm2/V-s 5800 cm2/V-s

Hole mobility (μp) 1800 cm2/V-s 500 cm2/V-s 400 cm2/V-s

 
Ratio  n  2.1: 1 2.6: 1 14.5: 1
 p 
 

• If n p is greater then, the material will offer minimum switching time.

• In a semiconductor, the mobility of charge carriers depends on various types of SCATTERING

such as:
1. LATTICE scattering
2. IMPURITY scattering
3. SURFACE scattering
• Due to this, the resultant mobility of charge carriers is given by μ, and the mathematical
formula is given by:
1 1 1 1
= + + ,
 1 2 3

Taken one at a time, keeping others as constant.

3
byjusexamprep.com
7. Current Density

Therefore,

Nq Nqv  L
l= =  v=
T L  T 

l Nqv
∴ Current density = =
A LA
 N 
⇒ J = qv   [Unit of J = amp/m2]
 LA 
N
since, = n(electron concentration in electrons per cubic meter).
LA
∴ J = nqv = ρv
8. Conductivity
From the above discussion
J = nqv = nqμE = σE
i. For semiconductors conductivity
σ = nqμn + pqμp
ii. For intrinsic semiconductor

( )
i =  i n + p q

iii. For n-type semiconductor

n >> p
∴ n n q n

but, n ~ ND

so, n NDqn

iv. For p-type semiconductor

p >> n
p pq p

but, p ~ NA

so, p NA qp

4
byjusexamprep.com
8.1 Conductivity Vs Temperature
• As we know that in metals, the resistivity of metal increases with an increase in temperature.
So, the conductivity of metals decreases with an increase in temperature.
• In pure semiconductors, conductivity mainly depends upon the number of charge carriers. So,
in a semiconductor, conductivity increases with temperature.
• For a 1°C increase in temperature, the conductivity of Ge increases by 6%, while in Si, it
increases by 8%.
• The conductivity of extrinsic semiconductors decreases above normal temperature with
temperature.
9. Diffusion and Drift of Carriers

dn ( x )
Jn ( x ) = qnn ( x ) E(x) + q Dn
dx

Drift Diffusion

dp ( x )
Jp ( x ) = qpp ( x ) E ( x ) − qDp
dx
The total current density is the sum of the contributions due to electrons holes
J(x) = Jn(x) + Jp(x)
10. Length of Diffusion

Figure 22
Length of diffusion is given as below,

L = D  cm

D = Diffusion constant for charge carrier (cm 2/s)

 = Carrier life-time or mean life time of minority carriers (s).
11. Einstein Relationship:

Dp Dn
= = VT
p n

where VT is the "volt-equivalent of temperature."

5
byjusexamprep.com
12. The Hall Effect:

qE = Bvq

VH I
E= and J= vρ =
d wd
Combining these relationships, we find

BJd BI
VH = Ed = Bvd = =
 w

It is customary to introduce the Hall coefficient RH defined by

1
RH =


VHw
RH =
BI

⇒ Hall coefficient, RH  Temperature coefficient of resistance of given specimen.

⇒ For metals, σ is larger, VH is small.
⇒For semiconductors, σ is small, VH is large.
Applications:
Hall effect is used in many applications as following:
• measurement of magnetic flux density.
• measurement of displacement.
• measurement of current.
• measurement of power in Electro-magnetic waves.
• determination of mobility of semiconductor material.

6
byjusexamprep.com
13. COMPENSATED SEMICONDUCTOR
13.1 N-type compensated semiconductor:
Let ND>NA
By the law of electrical neutrality:
2
(N − NA )  N − NA  2
n= D +  D  + ni  nn
2  2 

ni2
So, pn= (minority carrier concentration in N-type compensated semiconductor)
nn

13.2 P-type compensated semiconductor:

Let, NA > ND
By the law of electrical neutrality:
2
(NA − ND )  N − ND  2
p= +  A  + ni
2  2 
14. Minimum Conductivity In Semiconductors

P
1. n = ni
n

n
2. p = ni
P

3.  n = 2niq n P

14.1 Equation for donor concentration for N-type semiconductor when  is MINIMUM:

P 
ND = ni − ni n
n P
  n 
ND = ni  P − 
 n P 

14.2 Equation for acceptor concentration for P-type semiconductor when  is

MINIMUM:

n 
NA = ni − np P
P n
  P 
NA = ni  n − 
 P n 

7
byjusexamprep.com
15. The Fermi Level

1
f (E ) =
1+e( E −EF ) /kT

• The function f(E), the Fermi-Dirac distribution function, gives the probability that an electron
will occupy an available energy state of E at absolute temperature T. The quantity E F is called
the Fermi level.
1
• If E = EF then f (E ) = = 0.5 or 50%
2
If E > EF then f(E) < ½
If E > EF then f(E) > ½
•

Figure: The Fermi Dirac distribution function

Figure: Schematic band diagram, the density of states, Fermi-Dirac distribution and
the carrier concentrations for (a) Intrinsic, (b) n-type and (c) p-type semiconductors
at thermal equilibrium

8
byjusexamprep.com
15.1 Fermi Level in Intrinsic Semiconductor
In an intrinsic semiconductor, Fermi level EF is given by
Ec + Ev 1 N 
EF = − kT ln  c 
2 2  Nv 
Where NC = density of states in the conduction band
Nv = density of states in the valence band
In pure Semiconductor at T = 0K, Fermi level lies in the middle of the bandgap.
15.2 Fermi Level in the n-type semiconductor
Fermi level in an n-type semiconductor is given by
N 
EF = Ec – kT ln  c 
N 
 D
Where ND = doping concentration.
• Fermi level in n-type semiconductors depends on temperature as well as on doping
concentration.
• At 0K, the Fermi level coincides with that of the lowest energy level of the conduction band.
• As doping increases, the Fermi level moves towards the conduction band.
• A shift in Fermi level in an n-type semiconductor with respect to the Fermi level of an intrinsic
semiconductor is
n
shift = kT ln  
 ni 
 
N 
shift ≅ kT ln  D 
 ni 
 
15.3 Fermi Level in the p-type semiconductor
Fermi level in the p-type semiconductor is given by
N 
EF = EV + kT ln  V 
NA 
 
• In a p-type semiconductor, the Fermi level depends on both temperature and doping
concentration NA.
• As temperature increases, the Fermi level moves away from E V, i.e. towards the middle of the
bandgap.
• As 0K Fermi level coincides with the highest energy level E V of the valence band.
• As doping concentration increases, Fermi level moves toward E V or away from the middle of
the bandgap
• Shift in Fermi level in a p-type semiconductor with respect to Fermi level of intrinsic
semiconductor as
p 
shift = kT ln  
 ni 
 
N 
shift ≅ kT ln  A 
 ni 
 

9
byjusexamprep.com
16. Optical Absorption
• A photon with energy less than Eg cannot excite an electron from the valence band to the
conduction band. Thus, in a pure semiconductor, there is negligible absorption of photons with
h  < Eg.
• If a beam of photons with h  > Eg falls on a semiconductor, there will be some predictable
amount of absorption, determined by the properties of the material
16.1 The intensity of light transmitted through the sample thickness l is

l ( x ) = l0e− x

lt = l0e− l

• The coefficient 𝛼 is called the absorption coefficient and has units of cm–1. This coefficient
will, of course, vary with the photon wavelength and with the material.
17. Continuity Equations
n 1 n n
=  JN + +
t q t R −G
Therman t Other
processes

p 1 p p
= −  Jp + +
t q t Therman
R −G
t Other
processes

Also

dp p − po 2 p  ( pE )
= + Dh 2 − h
dt h x x

dn n − no 2n  ( nE )
=− + Dn 2 − h
dt e x x

10
byjusexamprep.com

CHAPTER-2-PN JUNCTION

1. Equation for contact potential:

Let the PN junction is kept either open-circuit condition or unbiased condition.
Mathematically,
1.1. Contact potential :
V0 = Vbi
N N 
V0 = Vbi = VT In  A 2 D  ← Unit in Volts
 ni 
Also with temperature

N N 
 V0 = VTIn  A2 D 
 ni  

NOTE:
• Contact Potential, V0 is a function of temperature.
• Contact Potential, V0 decreases with the temperature.
• For 10C rise in temperature, V0 decreases by 2.5 mV.
1.2. Electric Field:

 ( x ) = −qNA ; − x  x  0

 ( x ) = qND ; 0 < x < xn

Maximum electric field will be at x = 0, we have

−qNA −qND
Emax = xp = xn
 

11
byjusexamprep.com
1.3.1 Equation for width of depletion layer W:
NAxp = NDxn

2   N D  1 
xP =    V0
q  N A  N A +N D 

2   N A  1 
xn =    V0
q  N D  N A +N D 

W = xn + xp
Therefore, from the above equations, we get

2ε  1 1 
W=  +  V0 (Unit is metres)
q  NA ND 

Where,
ϵ = Permittivity in F/m
ϵ = ϵ0 ϵr
ϵ0 = Absolute Permittivity of free space = 8.854 × 10-12 F/m = 8.854 × 10-14 F/cm
And,
ϵr = Relative permittivity of a medium
The dielectric constant of the material used
ϵr = 11.7 (Si)
NOTE:
• The maximum electric field in the junction
2V0
Emax = − , for the case of zero applied voltage
W
−2 ( V0 + VR )
Emax = , for the case of applied reverse-biased voltage VR
W
where W is the total width of the depletion region.
1.3.2 Reverse bias configuration:

2  1 1 
W=  +  (|V0 |+|VRB |)
q  NA ND 

2  1 1 
W=  +  Vi
q  NA ND 

Vi = |V0| + |VRB|

12
byjusexamprep.com

Figure 2
• Cut-in voltage decreases with a rise in temperature. For 1°C rise in temperature, the cut-in
dV o
voltage decreases by 2.5 mV, i.e. = − 2.5 mV C.
dT
• I0 approximately increases by 7% for every 1°C increase in temperature.
• I0 doubles for every 10°C rise in temperature.
T2 − T1
I0 ( T ) = I0 ( T ) (2 ) 10
2 1

13
byjusexamprep.com

CHAPTER-3-PN JUNCTION DIODE

1. Forward bias configuration:

 AqDpPn0 AqDnnp0   nVT 

VD

If =  +  e − 1
 LP Ln   
Also,
n i2
p n0 =
ND

ni2
np0 =
NA

 AqDp AqDn  2 V / n
If =  +  ni e
D VT
(
−1 )
 p D
L N NA n 
L

AqDp
= If due to flow of holes from P side to N side
LpND

AqDn
= If due to flow of electrons from N side to the P side
NALn

Also,

Lp = Dp  p
Ln = Dn n

Hence,

 Aq  2 V / V
( )
Dp Aq Dn
I = +  ni e D T − 1
f
 ND p NA n 
 
The reverse saturation current in the Forward bias diode is:
 AqDpPn0 AqDnnp0 
Is =  + 
 Lp Ln 

 AqDp AqDn  2
Is =  +
LnNA 
ni
 LpND

 Aq Dp Aq Dn  2
Is =  +  ni
 ND p NA n 
 
A = Cross-Sectional Area of Junction

14
byjusexamprep.com
2. Volt-Ampere Characteristics of a p-n Junction Diode

Figure 1: PN Junction Characteristics

3. Diode Resistance

 VT
r
I

4. Capacitive Effects in the p-n Junction

Transition or depletion layer capacitance:
A
CT = CJ = = Unit is Farads.
W
A = Cross Sectional Area Of junction
W = Width of Depletion Region
CT ∝ A
CT ∝ 1/W
For better performance of diode or BJT, the value of C T must be as small as possible.
In a reverse-biased PN junction, the transition capacitance, CT
CT ∝ V-n

15
byjusexamprep.com
n = grading coefficient
n = 1/2; for Step graded diode (abrupt PN Junction diode)
= 1/3; for Linear graded diode
5. Diffusion Capacitance
I
CD =
 VT

Where η is a constant dependent upon semiconductor, VT is volt equivalent temperature, and 𝜏

is the mean lifetime of minority carriers.
NOTE
• For a reverse bias junction, CD may be neglected compared with CT (transition capacitance).
• For a forward bias junction, the CD is usually much larger than CT
• Diffusion capacitance CD is proportional to the current I.
6. ZENER DIODES
• Basically, a p-n junction with little increase in doping level (1:10 5) aria is fabricated only with
Si.
• Generally designed with normal junction and popularly known as constant voltage device.
• It can be used as a reference voltage device.
• Major application is as a voltage regulator circuit and can be used as a clipper.
• Always operated under reverse bias.
• When forward bias, it will be working as a normal diode with cut-in voltage 0.6 V or 0.7 V.
• Zener diode is specified in terms of breakdown voltage and maximum power dissipation.
• Zener diodes are commercially available with breakdown voltages in the range of 2.5 V – 300
V.

Figure 2: Circuit symbol of Zener diode

6.1Resistance of Zener Diode

V Z
RZ = 
IZ

For the ideal Zener diode, dynamic resistance is zero.

16
byjusexamprep.com
6.2 Equivalent Circuit of Zener Diode
Case-I: When Zener diode is in forward bias

Figure3 : (a) Zener diode in forward bias and (b) Equivalent circuit
Forward bias Zener diode can be replaced by a cut-in voltage
Case-II: When Zener diode is in reverse bias

Figure 4 : (a) Zener diode in reverse bias (b) & (c) Equivalent circuit

17
byjusexamprep.com

CHAPTER-4-SPECIAL DIODES

1. Tunnel Diode
A tunnel diode is a high conductivity two terminal p-n junction diode doped heavily about 1000
times higher than a conventional junction diode.
1.1Current-Voltage characteristic
Figure 1 shows the current-voltage characteristic of a tunnel diode. If the tunnel diode is reversed
biased, then it acts like a good conductor, i.e. the reverse current increases with increasing
reverse voltage.

Figure 1: Current-Voltage characteristic of Tunnel Diode

2. PIN Diode
The PIN diode has a fast response time at high frequencies.

Figure2: Schematic Construction of PIN Diode

2.1. Characteristic of PIN Diode
Some important characteristics of PIN diodes are:
i. When a PIN diode is forward biased, it offers a variable resistance.
ii. When a PIN diode is reversed biased, it offers infinite resistance in the reverse direction.
iii. PIN diode has highly improved switching time in comparison with a PN diode.
2.2. Applications of Pin diodes
Some important applications of PIN diodes are:
i. PIN diodes can be used in the construction of phase modulators and amplitude modulators.
ii. It can be used as an alternator.
iii. It is used as a constant impedance device.
iv. It can be used as a phase shifter.
v. It can be used as a T-R switch in radar applications.

18
byjusexamprep.com
3. Varactor Diode:
A varactor diode is a specially manufactured pn junction with a suitable impurity concentration
profile and operated under reverse-biased conditions to yield a variable junction capacitance.
The expression approximates the transition capacitance of a varactor diode,
C T (0)
CT =
[1 + (V / Vk )]n

where,
Vk is the volt equivalent temperature;
V is the reverse bias applied in volts;
n = 1/2 for alloyed junctions;
n = 1/3 for diffused junctions
3.1 Applications of Varactor Diode
Following are some important applications of varactor diode:
i. Used in a parametric amplifier.
ii. Varactor diode is used in automatic frequency control.
iii. It is used in tuning circuits.
iv. Used in adjustable bandpass filter.
4. Schottky Diode
Schottky diode is an extension of a point-contact diode. It is also known as a hot-carrier diode,
a hot electron diode or epitaxial Schottky barrier (ESBAR) diode. It is mainly used as a rectifier
at signal frequencies exceeding 300 MHz.
4.1 Current-Voltage Characteristic of Schottky Diode

Figure 5: illustrates the current-voltage characteristic of the Schottky diode.

4.2 Advantages of SCHOTTKY Diode
Following are the advantages of varactor diode over an ordinary p-n junction diode:
i. It is a unipolar device because there are no minority carriers in the reverse direction (i.e., no
significant current from metal to semiconductor when the diode is reverse-biased). Hence, the
delay due to the hole-electron recombination present in junction diodes is absent in varactor
diodes.
ii. The junction contact area between semiconductor and metal is larger than in point contact
diode, and hence the forward resistance is lower (i.e., noise is comparatively lower).

19
byjusexamprep.com
iii. Since no holes are available in metal, and there is no depletion layer or stored charges to
worry about. So, the Schottky diode can switch OFF faster than a bipolar diode.
(NOTE: An ordinary junction diode is a bipolar device because it has electrons and holes as
majority carriers.)
5. Light-Emitting Diode (LED)
• LED will emit the light when properly forward biased.
• PRINCIPLE: ELECTRO-LUMINESCENCE (conversion of electrical energy into light energy).
• In LED, light is emitted due to a large number of recombination in the depletion region.
• LED, i.e. generally fabricated with Direct bandgap semiconductors(DBGSC).
• A popularly used material is GaAs.
• LED can emit the light either in the VISIBLE SPECTRUM or INVISIBLE SPECTRUM OF LIGHT,
depending on DOPENTS.
• In the invisible spectrum of light, LED emits INFRARED LIGHT.
• IR LED is widely used as a remote-control transmitter.
• The colour of light given by LED depends on
i. Wavelength and frequency of emitted light.
ii. Type and concentration of dopants.
• LED fabricated with GaAs emits infrared light.
• LED materials are
i. GaAs
ii. GaAsP
iii. GaP←Highly unstable material (unreliable, unpredictable). Belongs to indirect bandgap
semiconductors(IBGSC). Also, since the material is unstable but then also under controlled
doping, it is made to work as LED. Material is forced to emit light; under controlled doping.
• Modern LED's are fabricated with some of the DBGSC and also some of the IBGSC under
"controlled doping".
• Always operated under forward bias.
• When Reverse Biased, the LED will be working as a normal diode & it cannot emit any light.
• The function of limiting resistance in the LED
i. To limit the forward current.
ii. To limit the light output.
• The efficiency of LED
  If

1

Temp
1
n
Junction Temp

• Cut in voltage, V = 1.3 V to1.5 V depending on dopant.

• Power dissipation in mW.

20
byjusexamprep.com
• When compared to LCD, the disadvantage of LED is higher power dissipation.
• LED has longer operating life.
• LED is relatively faster in operation when compared to LCD because of the smaller response
time (in 𝜇s).

Figure 6: Symbol of LED

5.1 Applications:
i. As Remote-Control Transmitter.
ii. As a display device.
iii. In designing of Opto Couplers.
NOTE
i. GaAs → IR LIGHT
ii. GaAsP → (YELLOW/ORANGE} depending on doping concentration.
iii. GaP → (GREEN/RED)

1.24
C = m
Eg

6. Solar Cell:
• When light falls on the space charge Region, electrons and holes are generated. They are
quickly separated and swept out of the Depletion layer by the Electric field so that a photocurrent
is generated.
• This generated Photocurrent will produce a voltage drop across the load, indicating that the
solar cell has delivered the power to the load.
Light or Solar Energy

– – + +

P – – + +
Ei N
– – + +
– – + +

Photo Photo Current

Current
RL

+ VL –
Terminal Voltage
Taken Across Solar Cell
(taken across load)

Important point
• Photocurrent is a drift current
• The solar cell is generally fabricated with Si (most popular) or GaAs or the 3 RD & 2ND group
compound semiconductors.
• The terminal voltage of the solar cell is very small and is in the range of 0.1V to 0.5V.
• The maximum terminal voltage of the solar cell is 0.5V.

21
byjusexamprep.com
• Solar cells are widely used in satellites
• The open-circuit voltage of Solar cells is

 I 
VOC = VT ln 1 + L 
 IS 
 J 
VOC = VT ln 1 + L 
 JS 

Where,
IL = Solar current
JL = Solar Intensity (light intensity)
IS = Reverse Saturation current
Js = reverse saturation current density.
 I   J 
VOC = VT ln 1 + L  = VT ln 1 + L 
 IS   JS 
Also,
 AqDP AqDn  2
IS =  +  n Amp
 LPND L nNA  i
 qDP qDn  2 IS 3
JS =  +  ni =  Ampere / cm
 LPND L nNA  A

Max Power obtained(max )

FillFactor =
VOC .ISC

Where,
VOC = Open circuit voltage of a solar cell
ISC = short circuit current of a solar cell.

Max obtained Power (max )

Efficiency () =
G. A

Where,
G = Input light in watts/m2
A = surface Area in m2
IP
q
Quantum efficiency ( ) =
Po
f
Where
Ip=Photocurrent
Po=incident power
f and q have usual meanings
q
Re sponsivity ( R ) =
hf
Where h=planks constant

22
byjusexamprep.com

23