INTRODUCTION TO THE PHILOSOPHY OF HUMAN PERSON

FIRST QUARTER
Objectives:
At the end of the quarter, the students will be able to:
1. Define the true meaning of philosophy both etymologically and nominally;
2. Identity and discuss Philosophy as a science and its branches;
3. Understands the meaning and process of philosophizing;
4. Identify and describe the different forms of knowledge;
5. Distinguish and discuss the different methods of philosophizing;
6. Know the different fallacies in argument;
7. Identify what is a man, its purpose and essence;
8. Identify and discuss the three major spiritual philosophies;
9. Determine the role of human being in the environment; and
10. Reflect on the values of appreciating and taking care of the environment.

LESSON 1: DOING PHILOSOPHY

One evening when a teacher was about to go home from work, she decided to have a short
walk in a park. While walking she saw some high school students discussing about something. They
were sitting down under the big narra tree. Quite curious about what they were talking about, he
walked closer to them and heard someone asking:

What is the purpose and meaning of life?

What is the world made of?

Why man has to do good

What makes man happy?

What is true love?

Do we all have a soul?

Is there life after death?

What is the goal of a man?

Is there God? Can our mind prove his existence?

How can we consider that man is free when he is under the rule of law?

The teacher was amazed of their curiosity. Quite impressed about the inquisitiveness and
enthusiasm of the students, he came closer. Their discussion rolled over like waves of the ocean.

In this subject, the role of Philosophy as a subject and as a concept will be justified. As what Socrates
said “Philosophy does not explain life but help constitute it.” Everyone is heading towards the
same direction. And this is what life is all about. As we more forward to one direction, there are those
who are in a a hurry and so, they prefer to take a ride. Some people prefer to take a walk so they can
have a full view of what nature can offer. Every individual has his own convictions according to his
principles and beliefs in life.

PHILOSOPHY DEFINED…

It comes from two Greek words: philo (love)+sophia (wisdom) = love of wisdom (covers just
about everything).
A science that by natural light of reason studies the first causes or highest principles of all
things.

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 Focus on the common understanding the things that happen all around us or the things that
we do.
In a very general sense, it could mean a guiding principle. Example: “My Philosophy in Ife is…”
It could also mean reason, rationale, or basis of something. Example: We say that Philosophy
is…
It was applied to science or discipline which uses human reason to investigate the ultimate
causes, reasons, and principles which govern all things.
According to Quito, a Filipino professor of philosophy, there are two usages of the term in the
current trend or in our own local setting.
Popular Usage: one is reminded of how the common people think of the way pilosopo explains
things or events in one’s surroundings
A science that by natural light of reason studies the first causes or highest principles of all
things.

Science – organized body of knowledge.

Natural light of reason-uses the natural capacity to think (human reason alone or unaided reason)

Study of all things – it is not one dimensional or partial, it is multidimensional or holistic.

First cause or highest principle – “something proceeds in any manner whatsoever”

In philosophy, we learn to identify, and think carefully about, our most basic ideas and
theories-those that support all the quest for knowledge we do in other subject areas.

NOTABLE ANCIENT PHILOSOPHERS

HERACLITUS

Claimed the “unity of opposites” in characterizing the cosmos

Proposed that everything that exists is based on a higher order or plan which he called logos
for him, change is permanent aspect of the human condition
Credited in his saying, “No man ever steps on the same river twice.”

PYTHAGORAS

A mathematician and a scientist, credited for the formulation of Pythagorean Theorem.

His work earned him many followers
Established a community of learners who are devoted to the study of religion and philosophy
Believed that nature can be quantified.

DEMOCRITUS

Devoted himself to studying the causes of natural phenomena.

Was among the first to propose that matter is composed of tiny particles called atoms.

SOCRATES

He is best known for ‘elenchus’ or the Socratic method.

ELENCHUS-a Socratic method in which it is a way of eliciting the truth by question and
answer
The hard questions we throw unto ourselves are not meant to confuse; they must be
welcomed as healthy ways of communing with the complex reality of our world
“He also urged ‘self-examination’ and claimed that ‘the unexamined life is not worth living’’.
Considered the foremost philosopher of ancient times
*He made great contributions to the field of ethics
“He is a known critic of intellectuals during his time
He believed that philosophy could enable a man to live a life of virtue
“The unexamined life is not worth living.”
Lived and died teaching the truth to the youth of Athens
His basic teachings are attributed to the writings of his student, Plato
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 For him, true learning is not a blind obedience to the teacher. Wed do not simply follow or
accept things.
True learning is always dialogical. Both teacher and student are a part of the active search for
knowledge
It requires each, the teacher and his student, to listen not only with an open mind, but more
importantly, with a humble heart
For him, the only true knowing is docta ignorantia. It is to know that you do not know.

PLATO

Student of Socrates
Wrote down his teacher’s teachings and incorporated some of his own ideas to them
Plato claimed that philosophy is the science of idea or of the unconditioned basis of
phenomena.
He also encouraged humanity to seek what is good, what is true and what is beautiful in the
intellectual realm beyond the appearances because the senses are often deceitful.
His significant ideas included his Theory of Forms, which proposes that everything that exists
is based on an idea or template that can only be perceived in the mind; these nonphysical
ideas are eternal and unchanging
Known for his Dialectic method- a method of inquiry where two opposing ideas are discussed
in an attempt to arrive at new knowledge
His lasting contribution to learning was his founding of the Academy, an institution of higher
learning which was the first of its kind in the West.

ARISTOTLE

His studies in logic led to the formulation of a formal process of analyzing reasoning which
gave rise to deductive reasoning- the process by which specific statements are analyzed to
reach a conclusion or generalization.
For him, all ideas and views are based on perception and our reality is based on what we can
sense and perceive
He disagreed with Plato’s theory of forms an took a different view in interpreting reality
Attended the Academy and a prominent student of Plato

WHAT IS AN INSIGHT?

According to a Filipino philosopher, Fr. Roque Ferriols, an insight is a kind of seeing with the
mind.
It is to realize the meaning of something.
It is something that emerges when we are thrown into a situation.
Abstraction is the process of arriving at an insight.
When do we do an abstraction, we actually doing a conceptual analysis of reality.
Ferriols also suggests that “the fact that there are many ways of doing something with insight
shows that certain insights are so rich that they cannot be exhausted by our offers to clarify
them.”

DIFFERENT FORMS OF KNOWLEDGE

DOXA

Opinion (mere belief)

Knowledge that refers to a common understanding or taken in a certain way as common
sense.
Examples: gossips, hearsays, gut-feel

TECHNE

Technical knowledge
Knowledge of the means-end objects, that is “how” things are made and done.
Specialized knowledge or inherent skills to produce something.
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 Examples: Creating software, teaching, etc.

EPISTEME

Scientific knowledge
Knowledge of the principle that govern things. Found in different scientific domains ranging
from physics to geology, psychology to economics.
Examples: In science, water boils at 100-degree Celsius.
In linguistics, language possesses dynamism.
In psychology,” People who are introverted focus more on internal thoughts, feelings and
moods rather than seeking out external stimulation.”

SOPHIA

Wisdom
Highest of all knowledge.
Most well-grounded of all the forms of knowledge

Wisdom

Deeper from knowledge.

After gaining knowledge of something from experience, a correct and right application of this
knowledge must be done.
Mother of morality.
Ex. Insight, skill or intelligence.

TWO KINDS OF WISDOM:

A. DIVINE WISDOM-this is different from the wisdom of man. The divine wisdom is a gift from God.

Characteristics of Divine Wisdom:

From Above: it is a gift from above.

Pure: free from stains and evil thoughts.

Peaceable: free from strife or disorder.

Gentle: it is considerate or kindly in disposition; amiable and tender. Not harsh or severe; mild and
soft.

Open to Reason: it is willing to listen to logical or sensible thinking.

Full of Mercy: it is treating people with kindness and forgiveness.

Impartial: it is treating or affecting everybody equally.

Full of Good Fruits: it is meant to produce of our lives.

B. HUMAN WISDOM-is the quality of having an experience, knowledge and good judgment; the
quality of being wise. In Philosophy, we define wisdom as a right application of knowledge. Human
wisdom requires the element of human experience because from experience we gain knowledge.

MAJOR BRANCHES OF PHILOSOPHY

ETHICS

The discipline concerned with questions of how one should live

Greek word “ethos” = custom or habit
Norms for conduct that distinguish between acceptable and unacceptable behavior
Explores the nature of moral virtue and evaluates human actions
Study of the nature of moral judgments
Study of action

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ETHICAL QUESTIONS:

 How should we live?

 What ought I do? Shall we aim at happiness or at knowledge, virtue, or the creation of
beautiful objects?
 If we choose happiness, will it be our own or the happiness of all?
 Is going to war justified in cases where it is likely that innocent people will be killed?
 And what of the more particular questions that face us: is it right to be dishonest in a good
cause?
 What are our obligations, if any, to the generations of humans who will come after us and to
the
nonhuman animals with whom we share the planet?

METAPHYSICS

What sorts of things exist and what are their essential natures?
“After physics” (above or beyond the physical)
Study of existence
Study of the nature of reality (world, universe & being)
Analyzes whether everything is material, and if life, energy and mind are its different
manifestations.
Metaphysicians reflect on the subject of appearances (how something looks by how it
appears) and reality (that which actually is).

Metaphysics can be roughly divided into:

1. Materialism – a metaphysical view which states that everything that exists arises from matter.

2.Idealism-regards ideas, concepts or anything abstract as the fundamental substance of reality

(mind).

Materialism and idealism are both monistic views (a view that there is only one kind of ultimate
substance).

METHAPHYSICAL QUESTIONS:

 What is life?
 What is being?
 How did the universe start?
 Why do we exist?
 What is the nature of reality? Or what is it made of?
 Is change really possible?

EPISTEMOLOGY

Greek word “episteme”-knowledge

Concerned with the origin of knowledge and the verification or confirmation of knowledge. It
includes distinction between belief and knowledge, nature of truth, problems of perception.
External world and, meaning and other minds.
Helpful in making judgments such as in the court of law (search for objective truth,
investigating bases of certainty)

EPISTEMOLOGICAL QUESTIONS:

 How can we know anything?

 How can we know that we know?
 What can we know with certainty?
 What is knowledge?
 What can I know?
 How is belief different from knowledge?

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  What we can know by reasoning alone?

LOGIC

What are the correct principles of reasoning?

Greek word “logike” (coined by Zeno, the Stoic)
Study of reasoning and correct thinking
Concerned on the truth or validity of our arguments regarding such objects.

LOGICAL QUESTIONS:

 What is correct reasoning?

 What is correct inference?
 What distinguishes a good argument from a bad one?
 How can we detect a fallacy in reasoning?

AESTHETICS

What is beauty
Greek word “Aesthetikos” –“of sense perception”
Concerned with the nature and appreciation of. art, beauty and good taste.
Philosopher analyzes whether beauty is based on utility, experience, form, pleasure or
expression.

AESTHETICAL QUESTIONS:

 How do the arts relate to economic power and class structure?

 How do the arts communicate emotions? How central is emotional communication to the
nature of art?
 How closely is artistic expression and meaning tied to culture? To cultural ideas and
philosophy? To cultural “forms of life”?
 What’s the nature of aesthetic intelligence, and how does it relate to other sorts of
intelligence? What’s the nature of aesthetic intelligence, and how does it relate to other sorts
of intelligence?

COSMOLOGY

Comes from Greek word kosmos “world” and logia “study of” which means the study of the
world
The study of the physical universe
Deals with the nature of the universe

PSYCHOLOGY

Comes from Greek word psyche which means breath, soul or spirit and logos means study of
The science of human behavior
the scientific study of the mind and behavior

PSYCHOLOGICAL QUESTIONS:

 Would you like to be famous? In what way?

 What would be a “perfect” day for you?
 If you’re able to live to the age of 90 and can keep either the mind or body of a 30-year-old for
the last 60 years of your life, which would you want?
 If you could change one thing about the way you were raised, what would it be?
 If you could wake up tomorrow having gained any one quality or ability, what would it be?
 Is there something you’ve dreamed of doing for a long time? Have you done it? If not, why?
 If you knew that in 1 year you’d die suddenly, would you change anything about the way
you’re living now? Why?

THEODICY
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 Comes from the Greek word theos means God and dike means study of
The science of the study of God
Studies about proving God’s existence through the use of human reason
Discusses about God but they use faith and tradition in order to arrive into conclusion

LESSON 2: METHODS OF PHILOSOPHIZING

The contrast in methodology between the natural sciences and the human sciences is an
interesting place to begin this chapter. The modern natural sciences observe and explain natural
phenomena in a calculative and an experimental way. They express their workings in objective
judgments using empirical methods in order to arrive at concrete results. This general method
operates within certain assumptions, such as universality of thinking patterns and the predictability of
the operations of the natural world as existing within and under the physical laws.

PHENOMENOLOGY

Phenomenology: On Consciousness
Edmund Husserl-Founder of Phenomenology.
Aim to arrive at a philosophy understood as a rigorous science, which, however, should
describe, rather than explain, immediate experience.
“Reality is consisting of objects and events (“phenomena”) as they are perceived or
understood in the human consciousness.”
TRUTH IS BASED ON HUMAN CONSCIOUSNESS
“Consciousness is intentional.”
For phenomenologists, the human person cannot be found in a concept, nor in a scientific or
metaphysical principle.
The phenomenological attempt is to go back to the phenomenon- that which presents itself to
the human person-to see things as they really are, independent and free of prejudice.

Examples:

A tree has leaves, branches, twigs, trunks, etc. It gives off oxygen and undergoes photosynthesis.

Trees can be tall and short.

Trees can be turned into lumber, furniture, paper, etc.

” Trees can be homes to birds, squirrels, ants, insects, etc.

Trees are dating places; a symbol of lovers’ love.

Trees can be deadly sometimes.

We can think of a tree, without physically seeing one at a present time, because of the “intellectual
sediments” remaining in the consciousness of our mind.

How the world appears to us differ from one another, for we bring within us different subjective
experiences.

REALITY AS PHENOMENON

Both science and philosophy seek to understand the world. The difference is how they proceed
to treat phenomenon.
To know WHAT IS TRUE LOVE, the investigation involves the phenomenon of love.
It uses phenomenon or raw experience to form the basis of truth. The phenomenon is studied
by examining the relations it has with other phenomena.
Science can objectively reduce love to a biological explanation. Example, a kiss is a physical
manifestation of love.
Philosophy can see ‘a mutual surrender of the human will for the other person.

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EXISTENTIALISM

Truth is based in exercising choices and personal freedom.

“The authentic self was the personally chosen self, as opposed to public or herd identity.
(Soren Kierkegaard)
Our search for truth by means of critical thinking is a rational choice. Existentialism
emphasizes the importance of free individual choice, regardless of the power of other people
to influence and coerce our desires, beliefs and decisions. (Jean-Paul Sartre)

Common Themes in Existentialism

 The human condition or the relation of the individual to the world;

 The human response to the condition;
 Being, especially the difference between the being of person (which is “existence”) and the
being o other kinds of things;
 Human freedom;
 The significance of choice and decision in the absence of certainty;
 The concreteness and subjectivity of life as lived, against abstractions and false
objectifications.

POST MODERNISM

Reality cannot be known nor described objectively.

“To arrive at truth, humanity should realize the limits of reason and objectivism.”
“Humanity should come at truth beyond the rational to the non-rational elements of human
nature including the spiritual”.
To postmodernists, such reality is nothing but a “conceptual construct”.
Since there is no objective reality, there is no absolute truth.
They criticized the modern period for its emphasis on reason, logic and sciences’ these have
led to oppressive knowledge (truth dictated by those in power).
Regarding human nature, they claimed that much of who we are is socially determined. If we
live in a society of primitive ideas, then, we become people of primitive thoughts. If we live in
a society of active philosophical activity, then, we become people of wise thoughts.

EXAMPLES:

 What is love?
 Is love only limited to human relationships? (Brotherly love, familial love or romantic love)
 Is love only limited to romantic relationship?
 Is love directed to non-physical objects fall under the category of love? (Love for the country
or love for profession) Is it possible to love others if you don‘t even love yourself?

ANALYTIC TRADITION

“Analytic Philosophy” or “Linguistic philosophy”

Emphasizes the study of language and the logical analysis of concepts.
For George Edward Moore, “analysis is decomposing complex concepts into their simple
constituents”.

EXAMPLES:

 Does God exist?

 A philosophical question can be approached clearly and accurately by dismissing vagueness in
the terms used in the question.

CONTEXT PRINCIPLE

It is only in the context of a sentence that a word has meaning. ‘

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 We express several things through sentences and that is what makes identifying what is
claimed in a statement quite tricky. The notion of sense and reference is crucial to
understanding this.

Sense-to be understood as meaning (connotation): derived from the context.

Reference-what is referred to (denotation).

Connotation-figurative meaning

Denotation-literal or dictionary meaning.

Example:

Her words are likes knives stabbing my heart. (C)

The knives were used to kill the man. (D)

LUDWIG WILLGENSIEIN

 An analytic philosopher
 “Language is socially conditioned.”
 “The task of philosophy is to carefully analyze ordinary language use” (linguistic analysis).
 “All that is required in language is for human beings to play the same rules in their use of
language.＂

FALLACIES IN REASONING

Faulty Reasoning
Defects in an argument.
A group of statements that appear to be arguments, but fail to support the conclusion.

1. ARGUMENTUM AD MISERICORDIAM (APPEAL TO PITY)

Called “appeal to emotion”.

Someone tries to win support for an argument or idea by exploiting his/her opponents‘feelings
of pity or guilt.

EXAMPLES:

 “You should not find the defendant guilty of murder, since it would break his poor mother‘s
heart to see him sent to jail.”
 “Is it not better to be unjust than just, when the just man, while obeying the law not to resist
arrest, may be beaten, kicked, clubbed, insulted, and abused, by those arresting him?”

2. ARGUMENTUM AD IGNORANTIAM (APPEAL TO IGNORANCE)

The argument offers lack of evidence as if it were evidence to the contrary. The argument
says, "No one knows it is true; therefore it is false," or "No one knows it is false, therefore it is
true."
Whatever has not been proven false must be true and vice versa.
Concluding that something is true since you can‘t prove it is false

EXAMPLES:

 In spite of all the talk, not a single flying saucer report has been authenticated. We may
assume, therefore, there are not such things as flying saucers.
 No one has objected to Lander‘s parking policies during the last month of classes, so I suppose
those policies are very good.
 Since the class has no questions concerning the topics discussed in class, the class is ready for
a test. Biology professor to skittish students in lab: There is no evidence that frogs actually
feel pain; it is true

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  They exhibit pain behavior, but as they have no consciousness, they feel no pain.
 “God must exist, since no one can demonstrate that she does not exist.”

3. EQUIVOCATION

Fallacy of language / ambiguity.

Deceives by using a word in two different ways within an argument.

EXAMPLES:

 P1: A feather is light (WEIGHT).

P2: What is light (COLOR) cannot be dark.
C: Therefore, a feather cannot be dark.
 PREMISE 1: Newspapers have the duty to print stories for public interest.
PREMISE 2: The public has interest in rumors regarding celebrities.
CONCLUSION: Therefore, it is not wrong for newspapers to pass on rumors about celebrities.

4. ARGUMENTUM AD HOMINEM (ARGUMENT TO THE MAN)

Used to convince that someone ‘s argument should be rejected because of his personal
background -character, motives, socio-economic status, history, religion, etc.
Attacking a person‘s character instead of the content of that person’s argument. Not simply
name-calling, this argument suggests that the argument is flawed because of its source.

EXAMPLES:

 Student: Hey, Professor Moore, we shouldn‘t have to read this book by Freud. Everyone knows
he used cocaine.
 Socrates‘ about human excellence are rubbish. What could a man as ugly as he know about
human excellence?
 Yeah, I think everyone‘s opinion counts on moral matters like that, but that Lila sleeps around
with anything. I know of at least one marriage she’s broken up, so why should her opinion
count on anything, much less morality?
 Of course Marx‘ theories about the ideal society are bunk. The guy spent all his time in the
library. We cannot approve of this recycling idea. It was thought of by a bunch of hippie
communist weirdos.
 There‘s no reason to take seriously Nietzsche’s ideas about the Superman. Weak and sickly all
his short life, of course he found this concept captivating. In psychology, we call this
compensation.
 I was assigned a personal trainer at the Rec, and he gave me a new workout program. But I
don‘t have any confidence in his expertise, since he has obvious trouble controlling his own
appetite.
 No. I will not reply. I see no need to defend my views against the objections of ignoramuses.

5. ARGUMENTUM AD POPULUM

(Appeal to people)

Based on the assumption that the opinion of the majority is always valid: “everyone believes
it, so you should too”.

(Appeal to popularity): authority of the many

An argument that appeals or exploits people‘s vanities, desire for esteem and anchoring on
popularity.
However, the Ad Populum fallacy certainly has a powerful psychological effect--sometimes
known as the "bandwagon effect." “Bandwagon fallacy”
The argument supports a position by appealing to the shared opinion of a large group of
people, e.g. the majority, the general public, etc. The presumed authority comes solely from
the size, not the credentials, of the group cited.

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EXAMPLES:

 You should vote for a certain candidate because the majority of people support that candidate
or the candidate is popular. Our cleaner is preferred two-to-one over the next leading brand.
 The number one movie for three weeks in a row!
 This book has been on the New York Times‘ bestseller list for 64 straight weeks.
 Over four million people have switched to our insurance company shouldn‘t you.

LESSON 3: THE HUMAN PERSON AS AN EMBODIED SPIRIT

Man is an important subject in Philosophy & an understanding of the nature and condition of
man is the foremost goal of the discipline.

The word human refers to man as a species.

Humans also share with other animals the so-called primal instincts such as the instincts for survival
and reproduction.

Human have progressed and developed additional traits and capabilities such as the capacity for a
planning and intentional action.

Communication through language &writing

Symbolic interaction as evidenced by religion and art

Culture is considered man‘s most significant achievement w/c sets apart the evolution of humanity
from other species on this planet

Man possesses mental faculties that enable him to possess awareness, a sense of self, & the capacity
to perceive and experience

THE SIGNIFICANT MENTAL FACULTIES &CAPABILITIES OF MAN INCLUDE:

A. THE PSYCHE -refers to the human mind and is divided into the conscious and unconscious mind-
Conscious mind is the part which governs awareness-Unconscious mind consists of latent or
repressed emotions, thoughts and desires

B. RATIONALITY -or the state of being reasonable, the ability to understand experiences in order to
solve problems or do tasks, and engage in decision making and judgment.

C. INTELLIGENCE -or the ability to perceive information, store knowledge, and apply it in various
situations

D. INTROSPECTION -or the ability to examine one‘s own conscious thoughts, feelings, and mental
state, and the capacity for self-reflection.

THEOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE

Considers man as God‘s creation

Man is considered to have a special relationship with the Creator, being created in His image
&given an immortal spirit
Man‘s existence was brought about by the purposive creative act of God, and his ultimate
destiny is part of a divine plan
The self is an essential part of the human being and self- awareness is natural and innate
One of the most unique traits of humans is the awareness of self. Like all other animals,
human beings possess sentience
Self awareness is the ability to feel and experience. Sentience is often seen as the ability to
perceive surroundings and react to stimulus such as pain. However, we humans not only
experience and react to the world around us. We are also able to look into ourselves and be
aware of our distinctness and uniqueness.

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 A human being is considered a person if he or she possesses the ability to determine his her
life through “reasoned free choice”
This view assumes that man possess reason, the capacity for reflection and the ability to
engage in decision making
This perspective is a major influence in determining the legal definition of a human “person”
and the conventional concept of an “adult”
The concept of the self is closely tied w/ the ideas of identity and personhood.
Identity is defined as the distinct personality of an individual Personal identity is composed of
a
Person‘s unique physical characteristics, mental attributes, experiences, memories, ideas, and
views. Identity is said to persist through time, though certain aspects of it may change
Personhood is the recognition of a human person as a distinct entity-a person
The human being has the inherent capacity to function as a person.
It emphasizes the potential of the human being & recognizes that each human possesses the
means to achieve his/her capabilities
On this perspective disable people, the unborn fetus, infants, and children are recognized as
persons although they may not fully possess the cognitive faculties of an adult.

THE PERSON IN RELATION TO OTHERS

Asserts that a human being becomes a person through interactions with other human being
Remove him/her from society and he/she ceases to become a person
Karol Wojtyla [Pope John Paul lII ] asserts that the person is defined by his/her actions and
experiences, and through them achieves self-development and fulfillment.
Being Human is to be aware of two specific elements: 1. Being a body as object. 2. Being a
soul as subject.

THE BODY

Has passive desires.

Sets limitations on life-projects.

THE SOUL

The seat of freedom

*Can transcends bodily limitations.

THREE MAIN SPIRITUAL PHILOSOPHIES

1.HINDUISM

1.Belief in one universal soul.

At the heart of Hinduism, lies the idea of human beings’ quest for absolute truth so that one’s soul
and the Brahman (Absolute Soul) might become one.

2.Belief in the individual immortal soul.

According to Hinduism, human beings have a dual nature: the spiritual / immortal essence (soul) and

Empirical life and character (body). Between the two natures, it is the soul that’s ultimately real.

The existence of the body is considered nothing more than an illusion and an obstacle to an

Individual’s realization of one’s self.

3.Belief in Transmigration or Metempsychosis

Hinduism holds that humanity’s life is a continuous cycle (samsara). While the spirit is neither born
nor it dies, the body goes through a transmigratory series of birth and death.

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Transmigration or metempsychosis = a person’s soul passes into some other creature,human or
animal. If a person has led a good life, the soul goes upward the scale while the soul of the evil
person may pass into the body of an animal.

Hindus generally believe that the soul is eternal but is bound by the Law of Karma (action) to the
world of matter, which can escape only after spiritual progress through an endless series of birth.

4.Belief in the cycle of time

5.Belief in Moksha

Ultimate liberation (freedom from rebirth)

Achieved the moment an individual attains that stage of life emancipation, from which arises the total
realization of the individual’s spiritual nature and the body’s transient character.

Moksha-an enlightened state wherein one attains one’s true selfhood and finds oneself one with the
One, the Ultimate Reality: Brahman.

Oneness of Reality

This oneness is the absolute (Brahman), which the mind can fully grasp or express in words.

Only Brahman is real; everything else is illusory manifestation of it.

The “I” or the self is an illusion for each true self is one with Brahman. When we realize this unity with
the absolute, we realize our true destiny.

The Hindu view of humanity’s reality places a lot of emphasis on the attainment of SELF-KNOWLEDGE
The goal of human life is to overcome CONGINETAL IGNORANCE.

True knowledge (vidya) consists an understanding and realization of the individual’s real self (atman
as opposed to lower knowledge that’s limited to interpretation of reality based solely on the data
offered b sense experience.

6.Belief in Vedas

Rig Vedas-songs of praises

Sama Vedas-sacrificial rights and rituals

Yajur Vedas-sweet songs that destroy sorrows

Atharva Vedas-charms and spells

Belief in Dharma

One’s purpose or duty in life

2. BUDDHISM

EASTERN PHILOSOPHY-The Buddha

Buddhism was founded by Siddhartha Gautama, a highborn prince of the Sakya clan in the kingdon of
Magadha who lived from 560 to 477 B.C.

His life was marred by tragedy right from the start. When he was still only a few days old, his mothe
died of a sudden illness. Despite this painful loss, Siddhartha lived a life of ease and pleasure,wearing
the finest clothes and being fed luxurious foods by his many servants. Throughout his childhood,he
knew very little about the real world.

At the age of 29, Siddhartha left the palace to meet his subjects, against the wishes of his father who
wanted to prevent him from seeing the misery of the common people.

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Outside the palace walls, Siddhartha encountered all sorts of suffering – disease, old age, death -that
he couldn’t understand. He decided that he needed to give up his comfortable life and dedicate
himself to a spiritual journey that would give him a truer understanding of life and death.

At first, he became an ascetic, giving up all pleasures for a life of strict discipline. He nearly starved
himself to death in this period. Eventually, he found himself sitting under a bodhi tree, meditating
and trying to overcome the intense hunger in his stomach. Tradition states that he stayed in
meditation for 49 days, not touching food or water.

Finally, Siddhartha was approached by a young girl carrying a bowl of rice pudding, which had been
his favorite dessert as a child. After years of asceticism, he finally decided to allow himself the
pleasure of accepting her gift.

FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS

1. LIFE IS FULL OF SUFFERING. Everyone gets sick. Everyone experiences loss and disappointments.
In the end. Everyone dies. Suffering is all around us and Buddhists believe we have to acknowledge
that suffering before we can try to address it. This suffering does not end with death. Either.

Many Buddhists believe in reincarnation (the soul moves from body to body, so at the end of each
lifetime you start again in a new form – perhaps another person, an animal or even a tree).

2. SUFFERING IS CAUSED BY PASSIONATE DESIRES, LUSTS AND CRAVINGS. Buddha taught that this
could not be achieved if we were constantly buffeted around by the wing, of desire – spending all our
time wanting more money or a better job. But, when we get these things, they don’t bring lasting
happiness and the disappointment leaves us worse than before.

Buddhists teach that “true happiness can only come when we quiet our desires and focus our
attention elsewhere”.

3.THERE IS A WAY TO END SUFFERING. Even though all life involves suffering, we don’t have to give
up hope.

There are specific practices we can take to minimize our own suffering and that of other people. For
Buddhists, who believe in reincarnation, the answer to suffering is to end the constant cycle of death
and rebirth once we achieve enlightenment, we will no longer be reincarnated and will no longer
suffer.

4. THE WAY TO END SUFFERING IS THROUGH WISDOM, ETHICAL CONDUCT, AND MEDITATION. Also
known as the Noble Eightfold Path.

These practices involve intense meditation and constant effort to be more wise, kind and
compassionate.

Buddhists have developed many different forms of meditation, all with the aim of following the
Eightfold Path and becoming better human beings.

NOBLE EIGHIFOLD PATH

1) Right belief in & acceptance of the “Fourfold truth”;

2) Right aspiration for one’s self and for others:
3) Right speech that harms no one:
4) Right conduct, motivated by goodwill toward all human beings;
5) Right means of livelihood or earning one’s living by honorable means;
6) Right endeavor or effort to direct one’s energies toward wise ends:
7) Right mindfulness in choosing topics for thought;
8) Right meditation or concentration to the point of complete absorption in mystic ecstasy.

PRECEPTS IN BUDDHIST TEACHING

1) Refrain from destroying life;

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 2) Refrain from taking what is not given;
3) Refrain from a misuse of the senses;
4) Refrain from wrong speech (do not lie or deceive);
5) Refrain from taking drugs or drinks that tend to cloud the mind.

BUDDHISM’S FOUR STATES OF SUBLIME CONDITION

1) Love or Loving-Kindness
2) Sorrow of others or Compassion
3) Joy in the joy of others or Sympathetic joy
4) Equanimity= calm emotions when dealing with problems or pressure; right disposition.

Right disposition = you see that everything happens for a reason.

At that moment, he attained his greatest insight: Middle Way.

Siddhartha Gautama achieved enlightenment and became the Buddha (Awakened One). He spent the
rest of his life traveling around India spreading the word about his discovery.

NIRVANA

 The state in which one is absolutely free from all forms of bondage and attachment.
 One has perfect knowledge, perfect peace and perfect wisdom.
 One desires nothing but always works for the well-being and liberation of his fellow beings.

3. CHRISTIANITY

The knowledge of God begins with FAITH and is made perfect by understanding. All knowledge
leads to God, so that faith supplements and enlightens reason that it may proceed to even richer and
fuller understanding.

ST. THOMAS AQUINAS

“Human beings have the unique power to change themselves and things for the better.”

Human beings are moral agents. We are both spiritual and material – the unity of both elements
helps us to understand our complexity as human beings

Through our spirituality, we have a conscience. Thus, the choice of “good” and “evil” becomes our
responsibility.

THE SEVEN DEADLY SINS

1) Pride- being snobbish or boastful; asserting one’s greatness.

2) Envy-the feeling of wanting to have what someone else has.
3) Wrath-extreme anger.
4) Gluttony-the act or habit of eating or drinking too much.
5) Lust-a strong feeling of sexual desire.
6) Sloth-the state of being lazy.
7) Greed-a selfish desire to have more of something (especially money)

THE SEVEN CHRISTIAN VIRTUES

1) Prudence-allows us to judge and distinguish correctly what is right and what is wrong.
2) Justice- moves us to give the rightful due to anyone.
3) Fortitude – fires us up to overcome fear and to be reasonably steady when facing hardships.
4) Temperance-moderates our attraction to pleasures, desires and passion.
5) Faith-opens our senses to believe in God, His revelation and the teachings of the Church.
6) Hope-motivates us to await and trust the promises of Christ and to rely on the grace of Holy
Spirit.

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 LESSON 4: THE HUMAN PERSON IN THEIR ENVIRONMENT

NATURALISTIC INTELLIGENCE

As we know, the Earth that we have before is different from the Earth that we have right now.
Due to change of time, a lot of changes has happened to our Mother Earth. Sadly, some of these
changes have been detrimental to its continuous decline and resulted to its disequilibrium and
disharmony. We abuse land because we see it as a commodity belonging to us. When we see land as
a community to which we belong, we begin to use it with love and respect.” -Aldo Leopold

Commodity = something that is bought and sold; something or someone that is valued or useful.

Climate change has rapidly accelerated because of industrial-scale burning of both fossil fuels and
tropical forest. Waste. Multiple rivers and tributaries have been converted as dumping sites o The
conversions of mountains into settlement areas, agricultural land into golf courses have been the

TWO FRAMEWORKS ON NATURE OR ENVIRONMENT

ANTHROPOCENTRIC MODEL

Animals lost their homes.

Industrialization-negative effects.
Causes of massive destruction of natural habitat and ecosystem.
Humans are superior and central to the universe.
Instrumental value in a sense that they have a value once being used by man.
Human beings are the ones who determine the intrinsic value of environment.

ECOCENTRIC MODEL

Puts the ecosystem first and assumes that the natural world has intrinsic value.
Love, respect, admiration for nature and a high regard for its value is essential.
Plants, animals and other organisms are as equally important as humans.
We are part of nature, therefore, we should co-exist peacefully and treat other organisms with
love and respect.

THEORIES TO SHOW CARE FOR THE ENVIRONMENT

DEEP ECOLOGY

The controlling attitude of humankind is extended to nature, when in fact, humanity is part of
nature.
Deep ecologists encourage humanity to shift away from anthropocentrism to ecocentrism.
Superiority complex of Man towards other living organisms.
Ecological crisis is an outcome of anthropocentrism.
Ecological crisis means unfair or unjust utilization of the environment.

SOCIAL ECOLOGY

Ecological crisis results from authoritarian social structures.

Social ecologists call for small-scale societies, which recognize that humanity is linked with the
well-being of the natural world.

Example: Ang problema sa pagkakakalbo ng ating kagubatan ay dahil sa malakihang industrya ng

illegal na pagpuputol ng puno. Ang higit na nakikinabang sa illegal na gawaing ito ay yung mga taong
nagpapasimuno nito at ang mga politikong prumoprotekta dito, hindi ang mga manggagawa na
sumusunod sa kanilang utos para sa ngalan ng “kabuhayan”.

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ECOFEMINISM

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Argues that the domination of women and the degradation of the environment are
consequences of patriarchy and capitalism. Any strategy to address one must take into
account its impact on the other so that women's equality should not be achieved at the
expense of worsening the environment, and neither should environmental improvements be
gained at the expense of women. Indeed, ecofeminism proposes that only by reversing
current values, thereby privileging care and cooperation over more aggressive and
dominating behaviors, can both society and environment benefit.

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Ecological crisis is a consequence of male dominance.

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For the ecofeminists. “freeing nature and humanity means removing the superior-inferior
relationship”.

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A LOGICAL RELATION BETWEEN HUMAN BEING & ENVIRONMENT

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IT RELATION (ENVIRONMENT AS AN OBJECT OF HUMAN BEING’S EXISTENCE)

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Human beings see the environment through the lens of their own needs and perception. In this case.
Dialogue cannot be materialized because they deny the being of the environment, including its
consciousness.

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The environment is considered a mere object to be experienced and used (commodity). Human
beings do not recognize and experience environment as a bio-community where they belong, live and
where their character is built.

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The relationship between human beings and the environment becomes superficial and manipulative.
In this case, human beings are alienated from the environment and the environment is alienated
from human beings.

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THOU RELATION (ENVIRONMENT AS A SUBJECT)

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This relation demands respect and genuine acceptance of possibilities and consciousness of the
environment as a THOU.

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It actualizes the inherent characteristic of the human self as a relational being.

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The environment must not be treated as means for the satisfaction and fulfillment of the human self’s
needs and wants.

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Human beings do not deal with the environment as a fragmented thing but as a subject in its
wholeness.

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Human beings need to be open to a vast horizon of relationship with the environment and not to be
limited with relationships among rational beings.

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References:

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https://www.montgomerycollege.edu/documents/academics/support/leaming-centers/writing-reading-

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leaming-ctr-rockville/student-resources-tech/fallacies.pdf

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https://www.txstate.edu/philosophy/resources/fallacy-definitions/Ad-Hominem.htm/

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https://www.academia.edu/41336547/The Human Person as an Embodied Spirit

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Abella,Roberto D. Introduction to the Philosophy of the Human Person.Quezon city,Philippines:c & E Publishing, Inc. 2016.

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Maboloc,Christopher Ryan. Introduction to the Philosophy of the Human Person.

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