MODULE 17

FUNCTIONS OF LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

1. Return excess fluid back into the blood stream.
2. Helps the immune system in catching any invading bacteria
3. Absorb digestive fats
Lymphatic System – carries fluid from tissues to circulatory system.
Lymph – excess fluid that flows down within lymphatic system
Lymphatic Capillaries – closed-ended vessels that helps maintain
blood pressure
Lymphatic Vessels – where lymphatic capillaries join; form a
complex network throughout your body
DUCTS WHERE LYMPHATIC VESSELS EMPTY INTO THE BLOOD
• Right Lymphatic Duct – drains lymph from the right arm and right
side of head and thorax; empties into right subclavian vein
• Thoracic Duct – receives lymph from the rest of the body; empties
into the left subclavian vein
Lymphatic Tissue – housed many lymphocytes and other defense
cells (macrophages)
Tonsil – form a protective ring of lymphatic tissue; body’s first line
of defense against invaders
• Palatine Tonsil – must be removed through tonsillectomy
• Pharyngeal Tonsil – can be removed through adenoidectomy
• Lingual Tonsil – less often infected and more difficult to remove
Lymph Nodes – distributed along lymphatic vessels; monitor and
cleanse lymph
Capsule – surrounds each node;
• Lymphatic Nodules – dense aggregation of tissue which contains
germinal centers
• Lymphatic Sinuses – space between lymphatic tissue
Spleen – located in abdominal cavity which filters blood
• White Pulp – surrounds the arteries within spleen; produces WBC
• Red Pulp – associated with veins; rid damaged blood cells
Splenectomy – surgical removal of spleen
Thymus – bilobed gland; trains special white blood cells called T-
cells
• Cortex – dark-staining areas formed by numerous lymphocytes
• Medulla – lighter-staining areas that has fewer lymphocytes
Immunity – ability to resist damage from pathogens
Innate Immunity – present at birth
1. Physical Barriers – prevent the pathogens from entering the body
by skin and mucous membrane (prevent the entry) and tears,
saliva, and urine (wash substances from the body surfaces
2. Chemical Mediators – molecules which include:
• Lysosome – found in tears and saliva that kills certain bacteria
• Mucus – prevents entry of some pathogens
• Complements – group of more than 20 plasma that enhances the
effectiveness of both innate and adaptive defenses
• Interferons – proteins that protect the body from viral infections
• Histamine, Prostaglandins, and Leukotrienes – promote
inflammation by causing vasodilation
3. White Blood Cells – move toward damaged tissues; fights viruses
• Phagocytic Cells: ingest and destroy pathogens
1. Neutrophils – kills bacteria, fungi and foreign debris; first to
respond but die quickly
2. Macrophage – large monocytes that engulf and digest
microorganisms
• Cells of Inflammation: produce inflammatory response to fight
pathogens
1. Basophils – motile WBC that produce an allergic response like
coughing
2. Mast Cells – located at points where pathogens may enter the
body such as skin; kills bacteria or alert other blood cells to help
destroy it
3. Eosinophils – associated with allergies and plasma; kills parasites
and cancer cells
• Natural Killer Cells – recognize class of cells such as tumor cells
4. Inflammatory Response – stimulates release of chemical
mediators
Local Inflammation – confined to specific area of body: produces
redness, heat, swelling, pain, and loss of function
Systemic Inflammation – distributed throughout the body;
produces local symptoms
Adaptive Immunity – body recognized & destroys pathogens, but
the response improves each time the pathogen is encountered due
to two certain characteristics:
• Specificity – ability to recognize particular substance
• Memory – ability to remember previous encounters resulting to
faster response
Antigens – substances that stimulate adaptive immune responses
1. Foreign Antigens – introduced from outside the body (ex: drug
causing allergic reaction)
2. Self-Antigens – produced by the body that stimulates immune
system response (ex: autoimmune disease)
Lymphocytes – responsible for the responses of adaptive immunity
• Pre-T cells – divide and processes into T-cells
• Pre-B cells – processed in red bone marrow into B cells
TWO EVENTS OF LYMPHOCYTES IN ADAPTIVE IMMUNITY
1. Antigen Recognition
° B & T cells have antigen receptors on surfaces.
° Major Histocompatibility Complex Molecules – functions as
“serving tray that hold processed antigen on outer surface of cell
membrane
Lymphocyte Proliferation – generates the needed defense cells to
protect the body
CATEGORIES OF ADAPTIVE IMMUNITY
1. Antibody-Mediated Immunity – has B cell lympho and proteins;
Antibodies – produced by plasma cells; protect the body when an
unwanted substance enter
• Variable Region – function as an antigen binding site
• Constant Region – activate complement
Gamma Globulins – other term for antibody since they found
mostly in gamma globulin; important in injections to boost one’s
immunity
Immunoglobulins – another term for antibody since they are
globulin proteins; involves in the immunity to recognize pathogens
EFFECTS OF ANTIBODIES
• Inactivate antigen
• Bind antigens together
• Facilitate phagocytosis
ANTIBODY PRODUCTION
• Primary Response – results from 15 exposure of B cell to an
antigen
• Secondary Response – responsible for formation of new memory
cells
2. Cell-Mediated Immunity – involves the actions of T cells;
functions in control of tumors
TYPES OF T CELLS:
1. Cytotoxic T Cells – responsible for immediate immune response
2. Helper T Cells – promote the activities of both adaptive
immunities
3. Memory T Cells – provide a long lasting immunity
Immunotherapy – treats disease by altering immune system
function
MODULE 23
Meiosis – where gametes formed
* Has two divisions: Meiosis I and II (each division has prophase,
metaphase, anaphase, and telophase)
* Has 46 chromosomes
* Crossing cover – exchange of genetic material bet. chromosomes
* Produce 4 daughter cells each contains 23 chromo from parents
Male Reproductive System – consist of testes
Scrotum – saclike structure containing the testes
Testes – organs within scrotum
• Seminiferous Tubules – site of sperm cell development
° Leydig Cells – secrete testosterone
° Germ Cells – where sperm cell begin
° Sertoli Cells – nourish the germ cell
• Spermatogenesis – formation of sperm cells from puberty
• Spermatogonia – undeveloped sperm cells
• Sperm cells – consist of head, midpiece of tail
° Acrosonic – necessary for sperm cells to penetrate oocyte
° Capacitation – final changes in sperm cell
Rete Testis – where seminiferous tubules converge
Efferent Ductules – where rete testis empties
Epididymis – where sperm cells continue to mature
Vas Deferens – associated with nerves that supply the testis
° Ampulla of Ductus Deferens – located before the prostate gland
Spermatic Cord – surrounded by cremasteric muscle
Urethra – passageway for both urine and male reproductive fluids
PARTS OF URETHRA
1. Prostatic Urethra – passes through prostate gland
2. Membranous Urethra – passes through the floor of pelvis
3. Spongy Urethra – extends the length of penis
Penis – transferring of sperm cells from male to female
* Consist of three erectile tissues: two corpora covernosa and and
one corpus spongiosum
* Glans Penis – expansion of corpus spongiosum
* External Urethral Orifice – opening of spongy urethra
* Foreskin – covers the glans penis
Semen – mixture of sperm cells
Seminal Vesicle – forms ejaculatory duct; contains:
• Fructose – nourish the sperm
• Coagulation Protein – keeps sperm cell in vagina for a longer
period of time
• Enzymes – destroy abnormal sperm cells
• Prostaglandins – stimulate the smooth muscle contraction of
female reproductive tract
2. Prostate Gland – secretes prostatic fluid; 30% seminal fluid (pH:
6.0–6.5)
3. Cowper Gland – mucus-secreting; 5% seminal fluid
PHYSIOLOGY OF MALE REPRODUCTION
* Hormonal Mechanisms for the development of reproductive
structure
* Neural Mechanism for controlling the sexual development
Regulation of Reproductive Hormone Secretion
• Luteinizing Hormone – interstitial cells that secrete testosterone
• Follicle-stimulating hormone – promote sperm cell development
Puberty – child to young adult (12 and 14 to 18 yrs.)
Erection – first component of male sex act
Emission – movement of semen to urethra
Ejaculation – expulsion of secretions that have accumulated the
urethra
Orgasm – sensation during male sex act
Resolution – occurs after ejaculation
Female Reproductive System – consist of ovaries
• Ovaries – contains ovarian follicle; ligaments:
° Suspensory Ligaments – extends from each ovary
° Ovarian Ligaments – attaches the ovaries to superior margin of
uterus
° Broad Ligaments – attaches to the ovaries and urine tubes
• Mesovarium – folds in peritoneum
Ovulation – release of an oocyte from an ovary
Fertilization – sperm cell penetrates the cytoplasm
Zygote – when fertilization is completed
Oviduct – open into the peritoneal cavity
• Fimbriae – surround the surface of ovary
• Ampulla – where the fertilization usually occurs
Implantation – fertilized oocyte travels to the uterus
Uterus – pear-sized organ
• Fundus – superior part to the entrance of uterus
• Body – main part of uterus
• Cervix –
• Uterine cavity – in fundus that continues to the cervix
• Cervical canal – opens into the vagina
• Uterine wall – composed of serous and muscular and
endometrium
° Serous Layer – formed from visceral peritoneum
° Muscular Layer – accounts for bulk of the uterine wall
° Endometrium – superficial sloughed off during menstruation
Vagina – receives the penis during intercourse
° Hymen – covers the vagina during young age
Vulva – consist of vestibule
• Vestibule – both the vagina & urethra open
° Greater Vestibular Glands – maintain the moistness of the
vestibule
• Labia Minora – folds the border of vestibule
• Clitoris – erectile structure in the margin of vestibule
• Prepuce – two labia minora unite over the clitoris
• Mons pubis – labia majora unite
• Pudendal Cleft – space bet. labia majora
• Clinical Perineum – region between vagina and anus
Episiotomy – incision made during childbirth to prevent the tearing
of skin in perineum
Mammary Glands – milk production in breast
• Lactiferous Duct – opens to the surface of nipple
• Myoepithelial Cells – expel milk from aveoli
Nipple – breast surrounded by circular
Menarche – first menstrual bleeding
Menstrual Cycle – changes in sexually mature
• Menses – period of mild hemorrhage
Menopause – menstrual cycle occurs at the age of 40-50 yrs.
• Female Climacteric – irregular cycles to their complete cessation
CONTROL OF PREGNANCY
• Behavioral Methods
1. Abstinence – refraining from sexual intercourse
2. Withdrawal – removal of penis from vagina
3. Natural Family Planning – abstaining from sexual intercourse
4. Lactation – often stops the menstrual cycle
• Barriers Method
1. Male condom – place cover the erect penis
2. Female condom – barrier placed into the vagina
3. Diaphragm – cup placed over the cervix
4. Cervical cup – same with diaphragm but smaller
5. Spermicidal Agents – creams inserted in vagina
6. Intrauterine Devices – inserted in uterus through cervix
• Chemical Methods
1. Oral Contraceptives – most effective call contraceptives
• Mini-pill – reduces the mucus of cervix
2. Depo-provera – progesterone injected intramuscularly
3. Patch – patch containing synthetic estrogen
4. Nuva Ring – inserted in vagina where it release estrogen
5. Mifepristone – blocks the action of progesterone
6. Morning-after pills – doubling the number of birth control pills
• Surgical Method
1. Vasectomy – cutting the ductus deferens from each testis
2. Tubal Ligation – permanent birth control in females
MODULE 9
FUNCTIONS OF NERVOUS SYSTEM
• Receiving sensory input
• Integrating information
• Controlling muscles and glands
• Maintaining homeostasis
• Establishing and maintaining mental activity
DIVISIONS OF NERVOUS SYSTEM
1. Central Nervous System – consist of brain and spinal cord
2. Peripheral Nervous System – consist of all nervous tissue outside
the CNS
• Sensory Division – conduct action potentials by sensory neurons
• Motor Division – conduct action potentials by motor neuron
° Somatic Nervous System (Voluntary) – innervates skeletal muscle
° Autonomic Nervous System (Involuntary) – innervates cardiac
muscle
2 AUTONOMIC NS
• Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Division
• Enteric Nervous System – both has sensory and motor neurons
CELL OF N.S
1. Neurons – cells that conduct action potential
• Cell body – contains processes stimulus
• Dendrites – receive stimulus from other neurons
• Axon – transmit stimulus to a gland
1. Glial cells – cells that do not conduct action potential
Myelin Sheaths – insulator that prevents all ion movements
• Nodes of Ranvier – gaps in myelin sheath
ORGANIZATION OF NERVOUS TISSUE
1. Gray matter – groups of neuron and dendrites
• Cortex – located on the surface of brain
• Nuclei – located deeper within the brain
• Ganglion – neuron cell bodies in PNS
1. White matter – bundles of parallel axons with their myelin
sheaths
• Nerve Tracts – propagate action potential from one are of CNS to
another
• Nerves – axons located in PNS
Resting Membrane Potential – point of equilibrium
Sodium Potassium Pump – occur to compensate the leakage of ion
across the membrane
ION CHANNELS
1. Leak Channels – always open channel
2. Gated Channels – closed channel
• Chemically Gated – open by neurotransmitter
• Voltage-Gated – opened by a change in membrane potential
Action Potential – charge across the cell membrane is briefly
reversed
ACTION POTENTIAL CONDUCTION TYPES
• Continuous Conduction – occurs in unmyelinated axons
• Saltatory Conduction – occurs in myelinated axons
Synapse – axon of one neuron interacts with another neurons
COMPONENTS
1. Presynaptic Terminal – end of axon
2. Postsynaptic Membrane – membrane of dendrite
3. Synaptic Cleft – space separating presynaptic terminal and
postsynaptic membrane
Reflexes – involuntary reactions in response to a stimulus applied
to periphery
Reflex Arc – neuronal pathway by which flex occurs
COMPONENTS OF REFLEX ARC
1. Sensory Receptor – pick up the stimulus
2. Sensory Neuron – send stimulus to interneurons
3. Interneurons – process stimulus to some reflexes
4. Motor Neuron – send response to effector
5. Effector – muscles or glands
NEURONAL PATHWAYS
• Converging Pathway – allows transmitted information to
converge into single pathway
• Diverging Pathway – allows transmitted information to diverge
into more pathway
Summation – allows the integration of multiple subthreshold
• Spatial Summation – local potentials originate from different
locations
• Temporal Summation – local action potentials overlap in time
Spinal Cord – extends from foramen magnum to second lumbar
vertebra
ORGANIZATION OF SPINAL CORD
1. Gray Matter – collection is cell bodies at the center of spinal cord
• Posterior Horns – contains axons which synapse with
interneurons
° Dorsal root ganglion – passes through spinal nerves
• Anterior Horn – contain somatic neuron
• Lateral Horn – contain autonomic neuron
• Central Canal – fluid filled space in cord
1. White matter –located at superficial portion of spinal cord
• Ascending Tracts – conduct action potentials toward the brain
• Descending Tracts – conduct action potentials away from the
brain
SPINAL CORD REFLEXES
1. Knee-Jerk Reflex – measures the posture maintenance of muscle
activity
2. Withdrawal Reflex – remove limb from painful stimulus
Spinal Nerves – arise along spinal cord
° Dermatome – area of skin supplied with sensory innervation
Plexus – neurons of spinal nerves come together
Brain – consist of brainstem, cerebellum, diencephalon, and
cerebrum
Brainstem – connects spinal cord to the remainder of brain
BRAINSTEM COMPONENT
1. Medulla Oblongata
2. Pons
3. Midbrain
Reticular Formation – regulates cyclical motor function
Cerebellum – little brain ; maintain balance and muscle tone
° Comparator – serve as sensing device that compares motor and
peripheral
° Proprioceptive Neurons – send action potentials to cerebellum
Diencephalon – part of brain between brainstem and cerebrum;
consist of:
• Thalamus – detect pain
• Epithalamus – visceral response to odor
• Hypothalamus – control body temp
Cerebrum – largest part of brain
LOBES OF CEREBRAL HEMISPHERE
1. Frontal Lobe – control voluntary motor function
2. Parietal Lobe – receive most sensory information
3. Occipital Lobe – receive visual input
4. Temporal Lobe – involved in olfactory and auditory sensations
• Psychic Cortex – associated with abstract thought and judgement
5. Insula – process interoception (information on physiologic
condition of the body)
Cerebral Cortex – controls thinking and communicating
FEATURES
1. Gyri – folds on cerebral cortex
2. Sulci – intervening grooves
3. Lateral Fissure – separate temporal from cerebrum

MODULE 10
Ascending Tracts – transmit information via action potentials
TYPES OF ASCENDING TRACTS
1. Spinothalamic – pain, temperature, light touch
2. Dorsal Column – touch, deep pressure, vibration
3. Spinocerebellar – proprioception to the cerebellum
SENSORY AREAS OF CEREBRAL CORTEX
1. Primary Sensory Areas – where sensations are perceived
• Association Areas – process of recognition
2. General Sensory Area – receives information from sensory fibers
MOTOR NEURONS IN VOLUNTARY MOVEMENTS
1. Upper Motor Neuron – have cell bodies in cerebral cortex
2. Lower Motor Neurons – have cell bodies in spinal cord
AREAS OF CEREBRAL CORTEX
1. Primary Motor Cortex – control voluntary motor movements
2. Premotor Area – motor functions are organized before initiation
3. Prefrontal Area – regulation of emotional behavior
Descending Tracts – control different types of movement
• Direct Pathway – extends upper motor neurons in cerebral cortex
° Lateral Corticospinal – muscle tone and skilled movements
° Anterior Corticospinal – movement of trunk muscles
• Indirect Pathway – no direct connection exist between cortical
and spinal neurons
° Rubrospinal – movement coordination
° Reticulospinal – posture adjustment
° Vestibulospinal – posture and balance
° Tectospinal – movement in response to visual reflexes
Basal Nuclei – vital in planning motor movements
FEEDBACK LOOPS
• Stimulatory Circuit – initiate an action
• Inhibitory Circuit – inhibit random movements
Commissures – share the received sensory information
• Corpus Callosum – nerve tracts at the base of longitudinal fissure
° Right Cerebral Hemisphere – receive sensory input in the left half
of the body
• Left Cerebral Hemisphere – receives input in the right half of the
body
Speech – hast two cortical areas
1. Sensory Speech – functions in understanding and formulating
coherent speech
2. Motor Speech – controls movement necessary for speech
Electroencephalogram – electrodes place on a person’s scalp to
record brain’s electrical activity
TYPES OF BRAIN WAVE
• Alpha Waves – normal person is awake but in a quiet resting rate
• Beta Waves – occur during intense mental activity
• Delta Waves – occur during sleep, in infants and patients with
severe brain disorder
• Theta Waves – common in children, may occur in adults
THREE STAGES OF MEMORY
1. Working Memory – task associated memory
2. Short Term Memory – can retain information for few minutes
• Consolidation – gradual process of stronger synaptic connections
3. Long Term Memory – can store information or become
permanent
• Declarative Memory – retention of facts
• Procedural Memory – development of motor skills; small amount
of memory is lost over time
Memory Engrams – long-term retention of given piece of
information
Limbic system – influences long-term declarative memory
Meninges – protective wrap around brain
TYPES OF MENINGES
1. Dura Mater – adheres tightly to cranial bone
• Dural Folds – hold the brain in place within skull
• Dural Venous Sinuses – collect blood from the small veins of brain
Epidural Space – space of vertebral canal
2. Arachnoid Mater – wispy second layer
• Subdural Space – space between dura and arachnoid mater
3. Pia Mater – tightly bound to surface of brain
• Subarachnoid Space – space between arachnoid and pia mater
Ventricle – fluid filled cavities of CNS
• Lateral Ventricle – cavity within cerebral hemisphere
• Third Ventricle – cavity located in diencephalon
• Cerebral Aqueduct – connect third and fourth ventricle
• Fourth Ventricle – located at the base of cerebellum
Cerebrospinal Fluid – provides a cushion around CNS
Arachnoid Granulation – arachnoid tissue that penetrates the
sagittal sinus
Cranial Nerves – have 12 pairs divided by two categories
• Sensory Function – divide into special senses and more general
senses
• Motor Function – subdivided into somatic and parasympathetic
motor
ANS – carry action potentials from CNS to periphery
STRUCTURE
• Preganglionic Neuron – first neuron that innervates from CNS
• Postganglionic Neuron – second neuron that extends to effector
organ
• Autonomic Ganglia – preganglionic neurons synapse with
postganglionic neuron
DIVISIONS OF ANS
1. Sympathetic
2. Parasympathetic
Enteric Nervous System – consist of plexuses within the wall of
digestive tract
MODULE 2
Cells – basic unit of life
Organelles – specialized structures in cells
Cytoplasm – jelly substance that holds organelles
FUNCTIONS OF CELL
• Cell metabolism and energy use
• Synthesis of molecules
• Communication
• Reproduction and inheritance
Cell Membrane – outermost component that forms a selective
barrier
MOLECULAR STRUCTURE
Major Molecules
• Phospholipids – form a double layer which contains 2 regions:
Polar (head) and Non-polar (tail)
• Protein – float among phospholipid molecules as membrane
channels
Other Components
• Cholesterol – limit the amount of phospholipid
• Carbohydrates – modify the functions of CHON
ORGANELLES AND THEIR FUNCTIONS
• Nucleus – site of RNA synthesis
• Ribosomes – site of protein synthesis
• Rough E.R – has ribosomes
• Smooth E.R – site of lipid synthesis
• Golgi Apparatus – modifies CHON structure
• Secretory Vesicle – contains materials produced in cell
• Lysosome – digest material taken into the cell
• Peroxisome – breaks down fatty acids in cell
• Mitochondria – major site of ATP synthesis
• Microtubule – supports cytoplasm
• Centrioles – facilitate the movement of chromosomes
• Cilia – move substances over surfaces of certain cells
• Flagella – proper sperm cells
• Microvilli – increase surface area of certain cells
MOVEMENT THROUGH CELL MEMBRANE
• Passive Membrane Transport – does not require the cell to
expend energy
• Active Membrane Transport – require the cell to expend energy
• Diffusion – movement of solute from higher concentration to
lower concentration
• Concentration Gradient – concentration of solute minus the
concentration of that solute
• Osmosis – diffusion of water across permeable membrane
• Facilitated Diffusion – moves substances from higher to lower
concentration; does not require ATP
• Carrier-Mediated Transport – movement of substance across
membrane by carrier molecule
• Active Transport – substance from lower to higher and requires
ATP
• Secondary Active Transport – use the energy of one substance to
move another substance
Endocytosis – movement of materials into cells by formation of
vesicle
• Receptor Mediated Endocytosis – involves cell receptors
• Phagocytosis – movement of solid material into cells (cell-eating)
• Pinocytosis – ingested is much smaller (cell-drinking)
Exocytosis – secretion of materials from cells
Cytoskeleton – cells framework that enables cell to change shape
TYPES OF CYTOSKELETON
1. Microtubules – largest diameter cytoskeleton
2. Intermediate Filaments – medium diameter cytoskeleton
3. Microfilaments – smallest diameter of cytoskeleton
DNA – double helix nucleus
• Cytosine – Guanine
• Thymine – Adenine
Gene Expression – DNA direct protein synthesis; has two stages
1. Transcription – DNA is read
2. Translation – mRNA is converted into amino acids
Cell Cycle – events that produce new cells; two phases:
1. Interphase – DNA replicates
2. Cell Division – formation of two daughter cells
a. Prophase – two chromatids joined at centromere
b. Metaphase – chromosomes align at the center of cell
c. Anaphase – chromatids separate at centromere
d. Telophase – two nuclei assume their normal structure
Differentiation – cells developed specialized structures
Apoptosis – aka programmed cell death
MODULE 1
Anatomy – study of the structures of the body
Physiology – study of the functions and processes of the body
LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION FOR HUMAN BODY
1. Chemical – involves how atom interact
2. Cell – basic unit of life
3. Tissue – group of similar cells
4. Organ – composed of two or more tissue types
5. Organ system – group of organs classified as unit
6. Organism – complex of organ system
ORGANS OF HUMAN BODY
1. Integumentary – regulates temperature in skin
2. Skeletal – allows body movements
3. Muscular – maintains posture
4. Nervous – detect sensations and control movements
5. Endocrine – influences metabolism
6. Cardiovascular – transport nutrients
7. Lymphatic – removes foreign substance
8. Digestive – performs mechanical and and chemical processes of
digestion
9. Respiratory – exchanges oxygen and carbon dioxide
10. Urinary – removes waste products
11. Reproductive – produces oocytes and sperm cells
ESSENTIAL CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE
1. Organization – relationship of many individual parts of an
organism
2. Metabolism · ability to use energy to perform vital functions
3. Responsiveness – ability of an organism to sense changes
4. Growth – refers to increase in size of organism
5. Development – changes an organism undergoes
6. Reproduction – formation of new cells
Homeostasis – condition in which body functions are maintained
• Negative Feedback Mechanism – regulates most system of the
body
• Positive Feedback Mechanism – when initial stimulus further
stimulates the response
Anatomical Position – person standing upright
Directional Terms – refer to anatomical position
• Right – body’s right side
• Left – body’s left side
• Inferior – below
• Superior – above
• Anterior – front of the body
• Posterior – back of the body
• Dorsal – back
• Ventral – belly
• Proximal – Closer
• Distal – farther
• Lateral – away from the midline of the body
• Medial – toward the midline of the body
• Superficial – on the surface
• Deep – away from the surface
PLANES
• Sagittal – vertically through the body
• Median – passes through the midline of the body
• Transverse – runs parallel
• Frontal – runs vertically
SECTIONS
• Longitudinal – cut along the length of organ
• Cross Section – cut completely through an organ
• Oblique – cut is made diagonally
TRUNK CAVITIES
• Thoracic Cavity – surrounded by rib cage
• Abdominal Cavity – bounded by abdominal muscles
• Pelvic Cavity – small space enclosed by the bones of pelvis
SEROUS MEMBRANE
• Visceral – contact with organs
• Parietal – contact with the walls of cavity