Lymphatic System

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Lymphatic System

The Lymphatic System


• Consists of two semi-independent parts
– Lymphatic vessels
– Lymphoid tissues and organs

• Lymphatic system functions


– Transport fluids back to the blood
– Play essential roles in body defense and resistance
to disease
Lymphatic Characteristics
• Lymph – excess tissue fluid carried by
lymphatic vessels
• Properties of lymphatic vessels
– One way system toward the heart
– No pump
– Lymph moves toward the heart
• Milking action of skeletal muscle
• Rhythmic contraction of smooth muscle in vessel walls
Lymphatic Vessels
• Lymph Capillaries
– Walls overlap to form flap-like minivalves
– Fluid leaks into lymph capillaries
– Capillaries are anchored to connective tissue by
filaments
– Higher pressure on the inside closes minivalves
Lymphatic Vessels
Lymphatic
Vessels
• Lymphatic
collecting vessels
– Collects lymph
from lymph
capillaries
– Carries lymph to
and away from
lymph nodes
Lymphatic
Vessels
• Returns fluid to
circulatory veins
near the heart
– Right lymphatic
duct
– Thoracic duct
Lymph
• Materials returned to the blood
– Water
– Blood cells
– Proteins

• Harmful materials that enter lymph vessels :

– Bacteria
– Viruses
– Cancer cells
– Cell debris

Lymph Nodes
• Filter lymph before it is returned to the blood
• Defense cells within lymph nodes
– Macrophages – engulf and destroy foreign
substances
– Lymphocytes – provide immune response to
antigens
Lymph Nodes
Lymph Node Structure
• Most are kidney-shaped, less than 1 inch long
• Cortex
– Outer part
– Contains follicles – collections of lymphocytes
• Medulla
– Inner part
– Contains phagocytic macrophages

Lymph Node Structure


Flow of Lymph Through Nodes
• Lymph enters the convex side through
afferent lymphatic vessels
• Lymph flows through a number of sinuses
inside the node
• Lymph exits through efferent lymphatic
vessels
• Fewer efferent than afferent vessels causes
flow to be slowed
Other
Lymphoid
Organs
• Several other
organs contribute
to lymphatic
function
– Spleen
– Thymus
– Tonsils
– Peyer’s patches

The Spleen
• Located on the left side of the abdomen
• Filters blood
• Destroys worn out blood cells
• Forms blood cells in the fetus
• Acts as a blood reservoir
The Thymus
• Located low in the throat, overlying the heart
• Functions at peak levels only during childhood
• Produces hormones (like thymosin) to
program lymphocytes

Tonsils
• Small masses of lymphoid tissue around the
pharynx
• Trap and remove bacteria and other foreign
materials
• Tonsillitis is caused by congestion with
bacteria

Peyer’s Patches
• Found in the wall of the small intestine
• Resemble tonsils in structure
• Capture and destroy bacteria in the intestine

Mucosa-Associated Lymphatic Tissue


(MALT)
• Includes:
– Peyer’s patches
– Tonsils
– Other small accumulations of lymphoid tissue
• Acts as a sentinal to protect respiratory and
digestive tracts
Body Defenses
• The body is constantly in contact with
bacteria, fungi, and viruses
• The body has two defense systems for foreign
materials
– Nonspecific defense system
– Specific defense system

Body Defenses
• Nonspecific defense system
– Mechanisms protect against a variety of invaders
– Responds immediately to protect body from
foreign materials
• Specific defense system
– Specific defense is required for each type of
invader
– Also known as the immune system
Body Defenses
Nonspecific Body Defenses
• Body surface coverings
– Intact skin
– Mucous membranes
• Specialized human cells
• Chemicals produced by the body
Surface Membrane Barriers – First Line of
Defense

• The skin
–Physical barrier to foreign materials
–pH of the skin is acidic to inhibit bacterial
growth
• Sebum is toxic to bacteria
• Vaginal secretions are very acidic

• Stomach mucosa
– Secretes hydrochloric acid
– Has protein-digesting enzymes
• Saliva and lacrimal fluid contain lysozyme
• Mucus traps microogranisms in digestive and
respiratory pathways

Defensive Cells
• Phagocytes (neutrophils
and macrophages)
– Engulfs foreign material
into a vacuole
– Enzymes from
lysosomes digest the
material
Events of Phagocytosis
Defensive Cells
• Natural killer cells
– Can lyse and kill cancer cells
– Can destroy virus- infected cells

Inflammatory Response - Second Line


of Defense
• Triggered when body tissues are injured
• Produces four cardinal signs
– Redness
– Heat
– Swelling
– Pain
• Results in a chain of events leading to
protection and healing
Functions of the Inflammatory
Response
• Prevents spread of damaging agents
• Disposes of cell debris and pathogens
• Sets the stage for repair
Steps in the Inflammatory Response
Antimicrobial
Chemicals

• Complement
– A group of at
least 20 plasma
proteins
– Activated when
they encounter
and attach to
cells
(complement fixation)

Antimicrobial
Chemicals

• Complement
– Damage foreign
cell surfaces
– Has
vasodilators, chemotaxis, and opsonization

Antimicrobial Chemicals
• Interferon
– Secreted proteins of virus-infected cells
– Bind to healthy cell surfaces to inhibit viruses
binding

Fever
• Abnormally high body temperature
• Hypothalamus heat regulation can be reset by
pyrogens (secreted by white blood cells)
• High temperatures inhibit the release of iron
and zinc from liver and spleen needed by
bacteria
• Fever also increases the speed of tissue repair

Specific Defense: The Immune System –


Third Line of Defense
• Antigen specific – recognizes and acts against
particular foreign substances
• Systemic – not restricted to the initial
infection site
• Has memory – recognizes and mounts a
stronger attack on previously encountered
pathogens

Types of Immunity
• Humoral immunity
– Antibody-mediated immunity
– Cells produce chemicals for defense
• Cellular immunity
– Cell-mediated immunity
– Cells target virus infected cells

Antigens (Nonself)
• Any substance capable of exciting the immune
system and provoking an immune response
• Examples of common antigens
– Foreign proteins
– Nucleic acids
– Large carbohydrates
– Some lipids
– Pollen grains
– Microorganisms

Self-Antigens
• Human cells have many surface proteins
• Our immune cells do not attack our own
proteins
• Our cells in another person’s body can trigger
an immune response because they are foreign
– Restricts donors for transplants
Allergies
• Many small molecules (called haptens or
incomplete antigens) are not antigenic, but
link up with our own proteins
• The immune system may recognize and
respond to a protein-hapten combination
• The immune response is harmful rather than
protective because it attacks our own cells
Cells of the Immune System
• Lymphocytes
– Originate from hemocytoblasts in the red bone
marrow
– B lymphocytes become immunocompetent in the
bone marrow
– T lymphocytes become immunocompetent in the
thymus
• Macrophages
– Arise from monocytes
– Become widely distributed in lymphoid organs
Activation of Lymphocytes
Humoral (Antibody-Mediated)
Immune Response
• B lymphocytes with specific receptors bind to
a specific antigen
• The binding event activates the lymphocyte to
undergo clonal selection
• A large number of clones are produced
(primary humoral response)
• Most B cells become plasma cells
– Produce antibodies to destroy antigens
– Activity lasts for four or five days
• Some B cells become long-lived memory cells
(secondary humoral response)
Humoral Immune Response
Secondary Response
• Memory cells are
long-lived
• A second exposure
causes a rapid
response
• The secondary
response is stronger
and longer
lasting
Active Immunity
• Your B cells
encounter antigens
and produce
antibodies
• Active immunity
can be naturally or
artificially acquired
Passive Immunity
• Antibodies are obtained from someone else
– Conferred naturally from a mother to her fetus
– Conferred artificially from immune serum or gamma
globulin
• Immunological memory does not occur
• Protection provided by “borrowed antibodies”
Monoclonal Antibodies
• Antibodies prepared for clinical testing or
diagnostic services
• Produced from descendents of a single cell
line
• Examples of uses for monoclonal antibodies
– Diagnosis of pregnancy
– Treatment after exposure to hepatitis and rabies
Antibodies (Immunoglobulins) (Igs)
• Soluble proteins secreted by B cells (plasma
cells)
• Carried in blood plasma
• Capable of binding specifically to an antigen
Antibody Structure
• Four amino acid
chains linked by
disulfide bonds
• Two identical
amino acid chains
are linked to form a
heavy chain
Antibody Structure
• The other two
identical chains are
light chains
• Specific
antigenbinding
sites are present
Antibody Classes
• Antibodies of each class have slightly different
roles
• Five major immunoglobulin classes
– IgM – can fix complement
– IgA – found mainly in mucus
– IgD – important in activation of B cell
– IgG – can cross the placental barrier
– IgE – involved in allergies
Antibody Function
• Antibodies inactivate antigens in a number of
ways
– Complement fixation
– Neutralization
– Agglutination
– Precipitation
Antibody Function
Cellular (Cell-Mediated) Immune Response

• Antigens must be presented by macrophages


to an immunocompetent T cell (antigen
presentation)
• T cells must recognize nonself and self (double
recognition)
• After antigen binding, clones form as with B
cells, but different classes of cells are
produced
Cellular (Cell-Mediated) Immune
Response
T Cell Clones
• Cytotoxic T cells
– Specialize in killing infected cells
– Insert a toxic chemical (perforin)
• Helper T cells
– Recruit other cells to fight the invaders
– Interact directly with B cells

T Cell Clones
• Suppressor T cells
– Release chemicals to suppress the activity of T and
B cells
– Stop the immune response to prevent
uncontrolled activity
• A few members of each clone are memory
cells

Summary of the Immune Response


Organ Transplants and Rejection
• Major types of grafts
– Autografts – tissue transplanted from one site to
another on the same person
– Isografts – tissue grafts from an identical person
(identical twin)
– Allografts – tissue taken from an unrelated person
– Xenografts – tissue taken from a different animal
species
Organ Transplants and Rejection
• Autografts and isografts are ideal donors
• Xenografts are never successful
• Allografts are more successful with a closer
tissue match

Disorders of Immunity: Allergies


(Hypersensitivity)
• Abnormal, vigorous immune responses
• Types of allergies
–Immediate hypersensitivity
• Triggered by release of histamine from IgE binding to
mast cells
• Reactions begin within seconds of contact with
allergen
• Anaphylactic shock – dangerous, systemic response

• Delayed hypersensitivity
– Triggered by the release of lymphokines from
activated helper T cells
– Symptoms usually appear 1–3 days after contact
with antigen
Allergy Mechanisms
Disorders of Immunity:
Immunodeficiencies
• Production or function of immune cells or
complement is abnormal
• May be congenital or acquired
• Includes AIDS – Acquired Immune Deficiency
Syndrome

Disorders of Immunity: Autoimmune


Diseases
• The immune system does not distinguish
between self and nonself
• The body produces antibodies and sensitized T
lymphocytes that attack its own tissues

Examples of autoimmune diseases


• Multiple sclerosis – white matter of brain and
spinal cord are destroyed
• Myasthenia gravis – impairs communication
between nerves and skeletal muscles
• Juvenile diabetes – destroys pancreatic beta
cells that produce insulin
• Rheumatoid arthritis – destroys joints
• Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) – affects
kidney, heart, lung and skin
• Glomerulonephritis – impairment of renal
function

Self Tolerance Breakdown


• Inefficient lymphocyte programming
• Appearance of self-proteins in the circulation
that have not been exposed to the immune
system
– Eggs
– Sperm
– Eye lens

• Cross-reaction of antibodies produced against


foreign antigens with self-antigens
– Rheumatic fever

Developmental Aspects of the


Lymphatic System and Body Defenses
• Except for thymus and spleen, the lymphoid
organs are poorly developed before birth
• A newborn has no functioning lymphocytes at
birth; only passive immunity from the mother
• If lymphatics are removed or lost, severe
edema results, but vessels grow back in time

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