Lymphatic System
Lymphatic System
Lymphatic System
– Bacteria
– Viruses
– Cancer cells
– Cell debris
Lymph Nodes
• Filter lymph before it is returned to the blood
• Defense cells within lymph nodes
– Macrophages – engulf and destroy foreign
substances
– Lymphocytes – provide immune response to
antigens
Lymph Nodes
Lymph Node Structure
• Most are kidney-shaped, less than 1 inch long
• Cortex
– Outer part
– Contains follicles – collections of lymphocytes
• Medulla
– Inner part
– Contains phagocytic macrophages
The Spleen
• Located on the left side of the abdomen
• Filters blood
• Destroys worn out blood cells
• Forms blood cells in the fetus
• Acts as a blood reservoir
The Thymus
• Located low in the throat, overlying the heart
• Functions at peak levels only during childhood
• Produces hormones (like thymosin) to
program lymphocytes
Tonsils
• Small masses of lymphoid tissue around the
pharynx
• Trap and remove bacteria and other foreign
materials
• Tonsillitis is caused by congestion with
bacteria
Peyer’s Patches
• Found in the wall of the small intestine
• Resemble tonsils in structure
• Capture and destroy bacteria in the intestine
Body Defenses
• Nonspecific defense system
– Mechanisms protect against a variety of invaders
– Responds immediately to protect body from
foreign materials
• Specific defense system
– Specific defense is required for each type of
invader
– Also known as the immune system
Body Defenses
Nonspecific Body Defenses
• Body surface coverings
– Intact skin
– Mucous membranes
• Specialized human cells
• Chemicals produced by the body
Surface Membrane Barriers – First Line of
Defense
• The skin
–Physical barrier to foreign materials
–pH of the skin is acidic to inhibit bacterial
growth
• Sebum is toxic to bacteria
• Vaginal secretions are very acidic
• Stomach mucosa
– Secretes hydrochloric acid
– Has protein-digesting enzymes
• Saliva and lacrimal fluid contain lysozyme
• Mucus traps microogranisms in digestive and
respiratory pathways
Defensive Cells
• Phagocytes (neutrophils
and macrophages)
– Engulfs foreign material
into a vacuole
– Enzymes from
lysosomes digest the
material
Events of Phagocytosis
Defensive Cells
• Natural killer cells
– Can lyse and kill cancer cells
– Can destroy virus- infected cells
• Complement
– A group of at
least 20 plasma
proteins
– Activated when
they encounter
and attach to
cells
(complement fixation)
Antimicrobial
Chemicals
• Complement
– Damage foreign
cell surfaces
– Has
vasodilators, chemotaxis, and opsonization
Antimicrobial Chemicals
• Interferon
– Secreted proteins of virus-infected cells
– Bind to healthy cell surfaces to inhibit viruses
binding
Fever
• Abnormally high body temperature
• Hypothalamus heat regulation can be reset by
pyrogens (secreted by white blood cells)
• High temperatures inhibit the release of iron
and zinc from liver and spleen needed by
bacteria
• Fever also increases the speed of tissue repair
Types of Immunity
• Humoral immunity
– Antibody-mediated immunity
– Cells produce chemicals for defense
• Cellular immunity
– Cell-mediated immunity
– Cells target virus infected cells
Antigens (Nonself)
• Any substance capable of exciting the immune
system and provoking an immune response
• Examples of common antigens
– Foreign proteins
– Nucleic acids
– Large carbohydrates
– Some lipids
– Pollen grains
– Microorganisms
Self-Antigens
• Human cells have many surface proteins
• Our immune cells do not attack our own
proteins
• Our cells in another person’s body can trigger
an immune response because they are foreign
– Restricts donors for transplants
Allergies
• Many small molecules (called haptens or
incomplete antigens) are not antigenic, but
link up with our own proteins
• The immune system may recognize and
respond to a protein-hapten combination
• The immune response is harmful rather than
protective because it attacks our own cells
Cells of the Immune System
• Lymphocytes
– Originate from hemocytoblasts in the red bone
marrow
– B lymphocytes become immunocompetent in the
bone marrow
– T lymphocytes become immunocompetent in the
thymus
• Macrophages
– Arise from monocytes
– Become widely distributed in lymphoid organs
Activation of Lymphocytes
Humoral (Antibody-Mediated)
Immune Response
• B lymphocytes with specific receptors bind to
a specific antigen
• The binding event activates the lymphocyte to
undergo clonal selection
• A large number of clones are produced
(primary humoral response)
• Most B cells become plasma cells
– Produce antibodies to destroy antigens
– Activity lasts for four or five days
• Some B cells become long-lived memory cells
(secondary humoral response)
Humoral Immune Response
Secondary Response
• Memory cells are
long-lived
• A second exposure
causes a rapid
response
• The secondary
response is stronger
and longer
lasting
Active Immunity
• Your B cells
encounter antigens
and produce
antibodies
• Active immunity
can be naturally or
artificially acquired
Passive Immunity
• Antibodies are obtained from someone else
– Conferred naturally from a mother to her fetus
– Conferred artificially from immune serum or gamma
globulin
• Immunological memory does not occur
• Protection provided by “borrowed antibodies”
Monoclonal Antibodies
• Antibodies prepared for clinical testing or
diagnostic services
• Produced from descendents of a single cell
line
• Examples of uses for monoclonal antibodies
– Diagnosis of pregnancy
– Treatment after exposure to hepatitis and rabies
Antibodies (Immunoglobulins) (Igs)
• Soluble proteins secreted by B cells (plasma
cells)
• Carried in blood plasma
• Capable of binding specifically to an antigen
Antibody Structure
• Four amino acid
chains linked by
disulfide bonds
• Two identical
amino acid chains
are linked to form a
heavy chain
Antibody Structure
• The other two
identical chains are
light chains
• Specific
antigenbinding
sites are present
Antibody Classes
• Antibodies of each class have slightly different
roles
• Five major immunoglobulin classes
– IgM – can fix complement
– IgA – found mainly in mucus
– IgD – important in activation of B cell
– IgG – can cross the placental barrier
– IgE – involved in allergies
Antibody Function
• Antibodies inactivate antigens in a number of
ways
– Complement fixation
– Neutralization
– Agglutination
– Precipitation
Antibody Function
Cellular (Cell-Mediated) Immune Response
T Cell Clones
• Suppressor T cells
– Release chemicals to suppress the activity of T and
B cells
– Stop the immune response to prevent
uncontrolled activity
• A few members of each clone are memory
cells
• Delayed hypersensitivity
– Triggered by the release of lymphokines from
activated helper T cells
– Symptoms usually appear 1–3 days after contact
with antigen
Allergy Mechanisms
Disorders of Immunity:
Immunodeficiencies
• Production or function of immune cells or
complement is abnormal
• May be congenital or acquired
• Includes AIDS – Acquired Immune Deficiency
Syndrome