Class 12 Ncert Maths

Chapter 6
APPLICATION OF
DERIVATIVES
v With the Calculus as a key, Mathematics can be successfully applied
to the explanation of the course of Nature.” — WHITEHEAD v
6.1 Introduction
In Chapter 5, we have learnt how to find derivative of composite functions, inverse
trigonometric functions, implicit functions, exponential functions and logarithmic functions.
In this chapter, we will study applications of the derivative in various disciplines, e.g., in
engineering, science, social science, and many other fields. For instance, we will learn
how the derivative can be used (i) to determine rate of change of quantities, (ii) to find
the equations of tangent and normal to a curve at a point, (iii) to find turning points on
the graph of a function which in turn will help us to locate points at which largest or
smallest value (locally) of a function occurs. We will also use derivative to find intervals
on which a function is increasing or decreasing. Finally, we use the derivative to find
approximate value of certain quantities.
6.2 Rate of Change of Quantities
ds
Recall that by the derivative , we mean the rate of change of distance s with
dt
respect to the time t. In a similar fashion, whenever one quantity y varies with another
dy
quantity x, satisfying some rule y = f ( x ) , then (or f ′(x)) represents the rate of
dx
dy 
change of y with respect to x and dx  (or f ′(x0)) represents the rate of change
x = x0
of y with respect to x at x = x0 .
Further, if two variables x and y are varying with respect to another variable t, i.e.,
if x = f (t ) and y = g (t ) , then by Chain Rule
dy dy dx dx
= , if ≠0
dx dt dt dt
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148 MATHEMATICS
Thus, the rate of change of y with respect to x can be calculated using the rate of
change of y and that of x both with respect to t.
Let us consider some examples.
Example 1 Find the rate of change of the area of a circle per second with respect to
its radius r when r = 5 cm.
Solution The area A of a circle with radius r is given by A = πr2. Therefore, the rate
dA d
of change of the area A with respect to its radius r is given by = ( π r 2 ) = 2π r .
dr dr
dA
When r = 5 cm, = 10π . Thus, the area of the circle is changing at the rate of
dr
10π cm2/s.
Example 2 The volume of a cube is increasing at a rate of 9 cubic centimetres per
second. How fast is the surface area increasing when the length of an edge is 10
centimetres ?
Solution Let x be the length of a side, V be the volume and S be the surface area of
the cube. Then, V = x3 and S = 6x2, where x is a function of time t.
dV
Now = 9cm3/s (Given)
dt
dV d 3 d dx
Therefore 9= = ( x ) = ( x3 ) ⋅ (By Chain Rule)
dt dt dx dt
dx
= 3x ⋅
2
dt
dx 3
or = 2 ... (1)
dt x
dS d d dx
Now = (6 x 2 ) = (6 x 2 ) ⋅ (By Chain Rule)
dt dt dx dt
 3  36
= 12x ⋅  2  = (Using (1))
x  x
dS
Hence, when x = 10 cm, = 3.6 cm2 /s
dt
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APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES 149
Example 3 A stone is dropped into a quiet lake and waves move in circles at a speed
of 4cm per second. At the instant, when the radius of the circular wave is 10 cm, how
fast is the enclosed area increasing?
Solution The area A of a circle with radius r is given by A = πr2. Therefore, the rate
of change of area A with respect to time t is
dA d d dr dr
= (π r 2 ) = (π r 2 ) ⋅ = 2π r (By Chain Rule)
dt dt dr dt dt
dr
It is given that = 4cm/s
dt
dA
Therefore, when r = 10 cm, = 2π (10) (4) = 80π
dt
Thus, the enclosed area is increasing at the rate of 80π cm2/s, when r = 10 cm.
dy
ANote dx
is positive if y increases as x increases and is negative if y decreases
as x increases.
Example 4 The length x of a rectangle is decreasing at the rate of 3 cm/minute and

the width y is increasing at the rate of 2cm/minute. When x =10cm and y = 6cm, find
the rates of change of (a) the perimeter and (b) the area of the rectangle.
Solution Since the length x is decreasing and the width y is increasing with respect to
time, we have
dx dy
= −3 cm/min and = 2 cm/min
dt dt
(a) The perimeter P of a rectangle is given by
P = 2 (x + y)
dP  dx dy 
Therefore = 2  +  = 2 ( −3 + 2) = −2 cm/min
dt  dt dt 
(b) The area A of the rectangle is given by
A=x . y
dA dx dy
Therefore = ⋅ y + x⋅
dt dt dt
= – 3(6) + 10(2) (as x = 10 cm and y = 6 cm)
= 2 cm2/min
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150 MATHEMATICS
Example 5 The total cost C(x) in Rupees, associated with the production of x units of
an item is given by
C (x) = 0.005 x3 – 0.02 x2 + 30x + 5000
Find the marginal cost when 3 units are produced, where by marginal cost we
mean the instantaneous rate of change of total cost at any level of output.
Solution Since marginal cost is the rate of change of total cost with respect to the
output, we have
dC
Marginal cost (MC) = = 0.005(3x 2 ) − 0.02(2 x ) + 30
dx
x = 3, MC = 0.015(3 ) − 0.04(3) + 30
2
When
= 0.135 – 0.12 + 30 = 30.015
Hence, the required marginal cost is ` 30.02 (nearly).
Example 6 The total revenue in Rupees received from the sale of x units of a product
is given by R(x) = 3x2 + 36x + 5. Find the marginal revenue, when x = 5, where by
marginal revenue we mean the rate of change of total revenue with respect to the
number of items sold at an instant.
Solution Since marginal revenue is the rate of change of total revenue with respect to
the number of units sold, we have
dR
Marginal Revenue (MR) = = 6 x + 36
dx
When x = 5, MR = 6(5) + 36 = 66
Hence, the required marginal revenue is ` 66.
EXERCISE 6.1
1. Find the rate of change of the area of a circle with respect to its radius r when
(a) r = 3 cm (b) r = 4 cm
2. The volume of a cube is increasing at the rate of 8 cm3/s. How fast is the
surface area increasing when the length of an edge is 12 cm?
3. The radius of a circle is increasing uniformly at the rate of 3 cm/s. Find the rate
at which the area of the circle is increasing when the radius is 10 cm.
4. An edge of a variable cube is increasing at the rate of 3 cm/s. How fast is the
volume of the cube increasing when the edge is 10 cm long?
5. A stone is dropped into a quiet lake and waves move in circles at the speed of
5 cm/s. At the instant when the radius of the circular wave is 8 cm, how fast is
the enclosed area increasing?
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6. The radius of a circle is increasing at the rate of 0.7 cm/s. What is the rate of
increase of its circumference?
7. The length x of a rectangle is decreasing at the rate of 5 cm/minute and the
width y is increasing at the rate of 4 cm/minute. When x = 8cm and y = 6cm, find
the rates of change of (a) the perimeter, and (b) the area of the rectangle.
8. A balloon, which always remains spherical on inflation, is being inflated by pumping
in 900 cubic centimetres of gas per second. Find the rate at which the radius of
the balloon increases when the radius is 15 cm.
9. A balloon, which always remains spherical has a variable radius. Find the rate at
which its volume is increasing with the radius when the later is 10 cm.
10. A ladder 5 m long is leaning against a wall. The bottom of the ladder is pulled
along the ground, away from the wall, at the rate of 2cm/s. How fast is its height
on the wall decreasing when the foot of the ladder is 4 m away from the wall ?
11. A particle moves along the curve 6y = x3 +2. Find the points on the curve at
which the y-coordinate is changing 8 times as fast as the x-coordinate.
1
12. The radius of an air bubble is increasing at the rate of cm/s. At what rate is the
2
volume of the bubble increasing when the radius is 1 cm?
3
13. A balloon, which always remains spherical, has a variable diameter (2 x + 1) .
2
Find the rate of change of its volume with respect to x.
14. Sand is pouring from a pipe at the rate of 12 cm3/s. The falling sand forms a cone
on the ground in such a way that the height of the cone is always one-sixth of the
radius of the base. How fast is the height of the sand cone increasing when the
height is 4 cm?
15. The total cost C (x) in Rupees associated with the production of x units of an
item is given by
C (x) = 0.007x3 – 0.003x2 + 15x + 4000.
Find the marginal cost when 17 units are produced.
16. The total revenue in Rupees received from the sale of x units of a product is
given by
R (x) = 13x2 + 26x + 15.
Find the marginal revenue when x = 7.
Choose the correct answer for questions 17 and 18.
17. The rate of change of the area of a circle with respect to its radius r at r = 6 cm is
(A) 10π (B) 12π (C) 8π (D) 11π
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152 MATHEMATICS
18. The total revenue in Rupees received from the sale of x units of a product is
given by
R(x) = 3x2 + 36x + 5. The marginal revenue, when x = 15 is
(A) 116 (B) 96 (C) 90 (D) 126
6.3 Increasing and Decreasing Functions
In this section, we will use differentiation to find out whether a function is increasing or
decreasing or none.
Consider the function f given by f (x) = x2, x ∈ R. The graph of this function is a
parabola as given in Fig 6.1.
Values left to origin Values right to origin
x f (x) = x2 x f (x) = x2
–2 4 0 0
3 9 1 1
−
2 4 2 4
–1 1 1 1
1 1 3 9
−
2 4 2 4
0 0 2 4
as we move from left to right, the as we move from left to right, the
height of the graph decreases height of the graph increases
Fig 6.1
First consider the graph (Fig 6.1) to the right of the origin. Observe that as we
move from left to right along the graph, the height of the graph continuously increases.
For this reason, the function is said to be increasing for the real numbers x > 0.
Now consider the graph to the left of the origin and observe here that as we move
from left to right along the graph, the height of the graph continuously decreases.
Consequently, the function is said to be decreasing for the real numbers x < 0.
We shall now give the following analytical definitions for a function which is
increasing or decreasing on an interval.
Definition 1 Let I be an interval contained in the domain of a real valued function f.
Then f is said to be
(i) increasing on I if x1 < x2 in I ⇒ f (x1) < f (x2) for all x1, x2 ∈ I.
(ii) decreasing on I, if x1, x2 in I ⇒ f (x1) < f (x2) for all x1, x2 ∈ I.
(iii) constant on I, if f(x) = c for all x ∈ I, where c is a constant.
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(iv) decreasing on I if x1 < x2 in I ⇒ f (x1) ≥ f (x2) for all x1, x2 ∈ I.

(v) strictly decreasing on I if x1 < x2 in I ⇒ f (x1) > f (x2) for all x1, x2 ∈ I.
For graphical representation of such functions see Fig 6.2.
Strictly Increasing function Strictly Decreasing function Neither Increasing nor

(i) (ii) Decreasing function
(iii)
Fig 6.2
We shall now define when a function is increasing or decreasing at a point.
Definition 2 Let x0 be a point in the domain of definition of a real valued function f.
Then f is said to be increasing, decreasing at x0 if there exists an open interval I
containing x0 such that f is increasing, decreasing, respectively, in I.
Let us clarify this definition for the case of increasing function.
Example 7 Show that the function given by f (x) = 7x – 3 is increasing on R.

Solution Let x1 and x2 be any two numbers in R. Then
x1 < x2 ⇒ 7x1 < 7x2 ⇒ 7x1 – 3 < 7x2 – 3 ⇒ f (x1) < f (x2)
Thus, by Definition 1, it follows that f is strictly increasing on R.
We shall now give the first derivative test for increasing and decreasing functions.
The proof of this test requires the Mean Value Theorem studied in Chapter 5.
Theorem 1 Let f be continuous on [a, b] and differentiable on the open interval
(a,b). Then
(a) f is increasing in [a,b] if f ′(x) > 0 for each x ∈ (a, b)
(b) f is decreasing in [a,b] if f ′(x) < 0 for each x ∈ (a, b)
(c) f is a constant function in [a,b] if f ′(x) = 0 for each x ∈ (a, b)
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154 MATHEMATICS
Proof (a) Let x1, x2 ∈ [a, b] be such that x1 < x2.

Then, by Mean Value Theorem (Theorem 8 in Chapter 5), there exists a point c
between x1 and x2 such that
f (x2) – f (x1) = f ′(c) (x2 – x1)
i.e. f (x2) – f (x1) > 0 (as f ′(c) > 0 (given))
i.e. f (x2) > f (x 1)
Thus, we have
x1 < x2 f ( x1 ) f ( x2 ), for all x1 , x2 [ a, b ]
Hence, f is an increasing function in [a,b].
The proofs of part (b) and (c) are similar. It is left as an exercise to the reader.
Remarks
There is a more generalised theorem, which states that if f¢(x) > 0 for x in an interval
excluding the end points and f is continuous in the interval, then f is increasing. Similarly,
if f¢(x) < 0 for x in an interval excluding the end points and f is continuous in the
interval, then f is decreasing.
Example 8 Show that the function f given by

f (x) = x3 – 3x2 + 4x, x ∈ R
is increasing on R.
Solution Note that
f ′(x) = 3x2 – 6x + 4
= 3(x2 – 2x + 1) + 1
= 3(x – 1)2 + 1 > 0, in every interval of R
Therefore, the function f is increasing on R.
Example 9 Prove that the function given by f (x) = cos x is

(a) decreasing in (0, π)
(b) increasing in (π, 2π), and
(c) neither increasing nor decreasing in (0, 2π).
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Solution Note that f ′(x) = – sin x

(a) Since for each x ∈ (0, π), sin x > 0, we have f ′(x) < 0 and so f is decreasing in
(0, π).
(b) Since for each x ∈ (π, 2π), sin x < 0, we have f ′(x) > 0 and so f is increasing in
(π, 2π).
(c) Clearly by (a) and (b) above, f is neither increasing nor decreasing in (0, 2π).
Example 10 Find the intervals in which the function f given by f (x) = x2 – 4x + 6 is

(a) increasing (b) decreasing
Solution We have
f (x) = x2 – 4x + 6
Fig 6.3
or f ′(x) = 2x – 4
Therefore, f ′(x) = 0 gives x = 2. Now the point x = 2 divides the real line into two
disjoint intervals namely, (– ∞, 2) and (2, ∞) (Fig 6.3). In the interval (– ∞, 2), f ′(x) = 2x
– 4 < 0.
Therefore, f is decreasing in this interval. Also, in the interval (2, ∞) , f ′ ( x) > 0
and so the function f is increasing in this interval.
Example 11 Find the intervals in which the function f given by f (x) = 4x3 – 6x2 – 72x
+ 30 is (a) increasing (b) decreasing.
Solution We have
f (x) = 4x3 – 6x2 – 72x + 30
or f ′(x) = 12x2 – 12x – 72
= 12(x2 – x – 6)
= 12(x – 3) (x + 2)
Therefore, f ′(x) = 0 gives x = – 2, 3. The
points x = – 2 and x = 3 divides the real line into
three disjoint intervals, namely, (– ∞, – 2), (– 2, 3) Fig 6.4
and (3, ∞).
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156 MATHEMATICS
In the intervals (– ∞, – 2) and (3, ∞), f ′(x) is positive while in the interval (– 2, 3),
f ′(x) is negative. Consequently, the function f is increasing in the intervals
(– ∞, – 2) and (3, ∞) while the function is decreasing in the interval (– 2, 3). However,
f is neither increasing nor decreasing in R.
Interval Sign of f ′(x) Nature of function f
(– ∞, – 2) (–) (–) > 0 f is increasing
(– 2, 3) (–) (+) < 0 f is decreasing
(3, ∞) (+) (+) > 0 f is increasing
 π
Example 12 Find intervals in which the function given by f (x) = sin 3x, x ∈ 0,  is
 2
(a) increasing (b) decreasing.
Solution We have
f (x) = sin 3x
or f ′(x) = 3cos 3x
π 3π  π
Therefore, f ′(x) = 0 gives cos 3x = 0 which in turn gives 3x = , (as x ∈  0, 
2 2  2
 3π  π π π  π
implies 3x ∈ 0,  ). So x = and . The point x = divides the interval  0, 
 2 6 2 6  2
 π  π π
into two disjoint intervals 0,  and  ,  .
 6   6 2
Fig 6.5
 π π π
Now, f ′ ( x) > 0 for all x ∈ 0,  as 0 ≤ x < ⇒ 0 ≤ 3 x < and f ′ ( x) < 0 for
 6 6 2
π π π π π 3 π
all x ∈  ,  as < x < ⇒ < 3x < .
6 2 6 2 2 2
 π π π
Therefore, f is increasing in 0,  and decreasing in  , .
 6 6 2
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π
Also, the given function is continuous at x = 0 and x = . Therefore, by Theorem 1,
6
 π π π
f is increasing on  0,  and decreasing on  ,  .
 6 6 2
Example 13 Find the intervals in which the function f given by

f (x) = sin x + cos x, 0 ≤ x ≤ 2π
is increasing or decreasing.
Solution We have
f(x) = sin x + cos x,
or f ′(x) = cos x – sin x
π 5π
Now f ′ ( x) = 0 gives sin x = cos x which gives that x = , as 0 ≤ x ≤ 2π
4 4
π 5π
The points x = and x = divide the interval [0, 2π] into three disjoint intervals,
4 4
 π   π 5π   5π 
namely, 0,  ,  ,  and  , 2π  .
 4 4 4   4 
Fig 6.6
 π   5π 
Note that f ′( x) > 0 if x ∈ 0,  ∪  , 2π 
 4  4 
 π  5π 
or f is increasing in the intervals 0,  and  , 2π 
 4  4 
 π 5π 
Also f ′ ( x ) < 0 if x ∈ , 
4 4
 π 5π 
or f is decreasing in  , 
4 4
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158 MATHEMATICS
Interval Sign of f ′ ( x) Nature of function
 π
0, 4  >0 f is increasing
 π 5π 
 ,  <0 f is decreasing
4 4
 5π 
 , 2π  >0 f is increasing
 4 
EXERCISE 6.2
1. Show that the function given by f (x) = 3x + 17 is increasing on R.
2. Show that the function given by f (x) = e2x is increasing on R.
3. Show that the function given by f (x) = sin x is
 π π 
(a) increasing in  0,  (b) decreasing in  , π 
 2 2 
(c) neither increasing nor decreasing in (0, π)
4. Find the intervals in which the function f given by f (x) = 2x2 – 3x is
5. Find the intervals in which the function f given by f (x) = 2x3 – 3x2 – 36x + 7 is
6. Find the intervals in which the following functions are strictly increasing or
decreasing:
(a) x2 + 2x – 5 (b) 10 – 6x – 2x2
(c) –2x3 – 9x2 – 12x + 1 (d) 6 – 9x – x2
(e) (x + 1)3 (x – 3)3
2x
7. Show that y = log(1 + x ) − , x > – 1, is an increasing function of x
2+ x
throughout its domain.
8. Find the values of x for which y = [x(x – 2)]2 is an increasing function.
4sin θ π
9. Prove that y = − θ is an increasing function of θ in  0,  .
(2 + cos θ)  2 
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10. Prove that the logarithmic function is increasing on (0, ∞).

11. Prove that the function f given by f (x) = x2 – x + 1 is neither strictly increasing
nor decreasing on (– 1, 1).
π
12. Which of the following functions are decreasing on 0, ?
2
(A) cos x (B) cos 2x (C) cos 3x (D) tan x
13. On which of the following intervals is the function f given by f (x) = x100 + sin x –1
decreasing ?
π π
(A) (0,1) (B) ,π (C) 0, (D) None of these
2 2
14. For what values of a the function f given by f (x) = x2 + ax + 1 is increasing on
[1, 2]?
15. Let I be any interval disjoint from [–1, 1]. Prove that the function f given by
1
f ( x) = x + is increasing on I.
x
 π
16. Prove that the function f given by f (x) = log sin x is increasing on  0,  and
 2
π 
decreasing on  , π .
2 
 π
17. Prove that the function f given by f (x) = log |cos x| is decreasing on  0,  and
 2
 3π 
increasing on  , 2π  .
 2 
18. Prove that the function given by f (x) = x3 – 3x2 + 3x – 100 is increasing in R.
19. The interval in which y = x2 e–x is increasing is
(A) (– ∞, ∞) (B) (– 2, 0) (C) (2, ∞) (D) (0, 2)
6.4 Maxima and Minima
In this section, we will use the concept of derivatives to calculate the maximum or
minimum values of various functions. In fact, we will find the ‘turning points’ of the
graph of a function and thus find points at which the graph reaches its highest (or
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160 MATHEMATICS
lowest) locally. The knowledge of such points is very useful in sketching the graph of
a given function. Further, we will also find the absolute maximum and absolute minimum
of a function that are necessary for the solution of many applied problems.
Let us consider the following problems that arise in day to day life.
(i) The profit from a grove of orange trees is given by P(x) = ax + bx2, where a,b
are constants and x is the number of orange trees per acre. How many trees per
acre will maximise the profit?
(ii) A ball, thrown into the air from a building 60 metres high, travels along a path
x2
given by h( x ) = 60 + x − , where x is the horizontal distance from the building
60
and h(x) is the height of the ball . What is the maximum height the ball will
reach?
(iii) An Apache helicopter of enemy is flying along the path given by the curve
f (x) = x2 + 7. A soldier, placed at the point (1, 2), wants to shoot the helicopter
when it is nearest to him. What is the nearest distance?
In each of the above problem, there is something common, i.e., we wish to find out
the maximum or minimum values of the given functions. In order to tackle such problems,
we first formally define maximum or minimum values of a function, points of local
maxima and minima and test for determining such points.
Definition 3 Let f be a function defined on an interval I. Then
(a) f is said to have a maximum value in I, if there exists a point c in I such that
f (c) > f ( x ) , for all x ∈ I.
The number f (c) is called the maximum value of f in I and the point c is called a
point of maximum value of f in I.
(b) f is said to have a minimum value in I, if there exists a point c in I such that
f (c) < f (x), for all x ∈ I.
The number f (c), in this case, is called the minimum value of f in I and the point
c, in this case, is called a point of minimum value of f in I.
(c) f is said to have an extreme value in I if there exists a point c in I such that
f (c) is either a maximum value or a minimum value of f in I.
The number f (c), in this case, is called an extreme value of f in I and the point c
is called an extreme point.
Remark In Fig 6.7(a), (b) and (c), we have exhibited that graphs of certain particular
functions help us to find maximum value and minimum value at a point. Infact, through
graphs, we can even find maximum/minimum value of a function at a point at which it
is not even differentiable (Example 15).
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Fig 6.7
Example 14 Find the maximum and the minimum values, if
any, of the function f given by
f (x) = x2, x ∈ R.
Solution From the graph of the given function (Fig 6.8), we
have f (x) = 0 if x = 0. Also
f (x) ≥ 0, for all x ∈ R.
Therefore, the minimum value of f is 0 and the point of
minimum value of f is x = 0. Further, it may be observed
from the graph of the function that f has no maximum value
and hence no point of maximum value of f in R.
Fig 6.8
A Note If we restrict the domain of f to [– 2, 1] only,
then f will have maximum value(– 2)2 = 4 at x = – 2.
Example 15 Find the maximum and minimum values

of f , if any, of the function given by f (x) = | x |, x ∈ R.
Solution From the graph of the given function

(Fig 6.9) , note that
f (x) ≥ 0, for all x ∈ R and f (x) = 0 if x = 0.
Therefore, the function f has a minimum value 0
and the point of minimum value of f is x = 0. Also, the
graph clearly shows that f has no maximum value in R
and hence no point of maximum value in R. Fig 6.9
A Note
(i) If we restrict the domain of f to [– 2, 1] only, then f will have maximum value
| – 2| = 2.
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162 MATHEMATICS
(ii) One may note that the function f in Example 27 is not differentiable at
x = 0.
Example 16 Find the maximum and the minimum values, if any, of the function
given by
f (x) = x, x ∈ (0, 1).
Solution The given function is an increasing (strictly) function in the given interval
(0, 1). From the graph (Fig 6.10) of the function f , it
seems that, it should have the minimum value at a
point closest to 0 on its right and the maximum value
at a point closest to 1 on its left. Are such points
available? Of course, not. It is not possible to locate
such points. Infact, if a point x0 is closest to 0, then
x0
we find < x0 for all x0 ∈ (0,1) . Also, if x1 is closest
2
x1 + 1
to 1, then > x1 for all x1 ∈ (0,1) .
2 Fig 6.10
Therefore, the given function has neither the
maximum value nor the minimum value in the interval (0,1).
Remark The reader may observe that in Example 16, if we include the points 0 and 1
in the domain of f , i.e., if we extend the domain of f to [0,1], then the function f has
minimum value 0 at x = 0 and maximum value 1 at x = 1. Infact, we have the following
results (The proof of these results are beyond the scope of the present text)
Every monotonic function assumes its maximum/minimum value at the end
points of the domain of definition of the function.
A more general result is
Every continuous function on a closed interval has a maximum and a minimum
value.
A Note By a monotonic function f

increasing in I or decreasing in I.
in an interval I, we mean that f is either
Maximum and minimum values of a function defined on a closed interval will be

discussed later in this section.
Let us now examine the graph of a function as shown in Fig 6.11. Observe that at
points A, B, C and D on the graph, the function changes its nature from decreasing to
increasing or vice-versa. These points may be called turning points of the given
function. Further, observe that at turning points, the graph has either a little hill or a little
valley. Roughly speaking, the function has minimum value in some neighbourhood
(interval) of each of the points A and C which are at the bottom of their respective
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Fig 6.11
valleys. Similarly, the function has maximum value in some neighbourhood of points B
and D which are at the top of their respective hills. For this reason, the points A and C
may be regarded as points of local minimum value (or relative minimum value) and
points B and D may be regarded as points of local maximum value (or relative maximum
value) for the function. The local maximum value and local minimum value of the
function are referred to as local maxima and local minima, respectively, of the function.
We now formally give the following definition
Definition 4 Let f be a real valued function and let c be an interior point in the domain
of f. Then
(a) c is called a point of local maxima if there is an h > 0 such that
f (c) ≥ f (x), for all x in (c – h, c + h), x ≠ c
The value f (c) is called the local maximum value of f.
(b) c is called a point of local minima if there is an h > 0 such that
f (c) ≤ f (x), for all x in (c – h, c + h)
The value f (c) is called the local minimum value of f .
Geometrically, the above definition states that if x = c is a point of local maxima of f,
then the graph of f around c will be as shown in Fig 6.12(a). Note that the function f is
increasing (i.e., f ′(x) > 0) in the interval (c – h, c) and decreasing (i.e., f ′(x) < 0) in the
interval (c, c + h).
This suggests that f ′(c) must be zero.
Fig 6.12
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164 MATHEMATICS
Similarly, if c is a point of local minima of f , then the graph of f around c will be as

shown in Fig 6.14(b). Here f is decreasing (i.e., f ′(x) < 0) in the interval (c – h, c) and
increasing (i.e., f ′(x) > 0) in the interval (c, c + h). This again suggest that f ′(c) must
be zero.
The above discussion lead us to the following theorem (without proof).
Theorem 2 Let f be a function defined on an open interval I. Suppose c ∈ I be any
point. If f has a local maxima or a local minima at x = c, then either f ′(c) = 0 or f is not
differentiable at c.
Remark The converse of above theorem need not

be true, that is, a point at which the derivative vanishes
need not be a point of local maxima or local minima.
For example, if f (x) = x3, then f ′(x) = 3x2 and so
f ′(0) = 0. But 0 is neither a point of local maxima nor
a point of local minima (Fig 6.13).
ANote A point c in the domain of a function f at

which either f ′(c) = 0 or f is not differentiable is
called a critical point of f. Note that if f is continuous
at c and f ′(c) = 0, then there exists an h > 0 such
that f is differentiable in the interval
(c – h, c + h). Fig 6.13
We shall now give a working rule for finding points of local maxima or points of
local minima using only the first order derivatives.
Theorem 3 (First Derivative Test) Let f be a function defined on an open interval I.
Let f be continuous at a critical point c in I. Then
(i) If f ′(x) changes sign from positive to negative as x increases through c, i.e., if
f ′(x) > 0 at every point sufficiently close to and to the left of c, and f ′(x) < 0 at
every point sufficiently close to and to the right of c, then c is a point of local
maxima.
(ii) If f ′(x) changes sign from negative to positive as x increases through c, i.e., if
f ′(x) < 0 at every point sufficiently close to and to the left of c, and f ′(x) > 0 at
every point sufficiently close to and to the right of c, then c is a point of local
minima.
(iii) If f ′(x) does not change sign as x increases through c, then c is neither a point of
local maxima nor a point of local minima. Infact, such a point is called point of
inflection (Fig 6.13).
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ANote If c is a point of local maxima of f , then f (c) is a local maximum value of

f. Similarly, if c is a point of local minima of f , then f(c) is a local minimum value of f.
Figures 6.13 and 6.14, geometrically explain Theorem 3.
Fig 6.14
Example 17 Find all points of local maxima and local minima of the function f
given by
f (x) = x3 – 3x + 3.
Solution We have
f (x) = x3 – 3x + 3
or f ′(x) = 3x2 – 3 = 3 (x – 1) (x + 1)
or f ′(x) = 0 at x = 1 and x = – 1
Thus, x = ± 1 are the only critical points which could possibly be the points of local
maxima and/or local minima of f . Let us first examine the point x = 1.
Note that for values close to 1 and to the right of 1, f ′(x) > 0 and for values close
to 1 and to the left of 1, f ′(x) < 0. Therefore, by first derivative test, x = 1 is a point
of local minima and local minimum value is f (1) = 1. In the case of x = –1, note that
f ′(x) > 0, for values close to and to the left of –1 and f ′(x) < 0, for values close to and
to the right of – 1. Therefore, by first derivative test, x = – 1 is a point of local maxima
and local maximum value is f (–1) = 5.
Values of x Sign of f ′(x) = 3(x – 1) (x + 1)
to the right (say 1.1 etc.) >0
Close to 1
to the left (say 0.9 etc.) <0
to the right (say − 0.9 etc.) <0

Close to –1 to the left (say − 1.1 etc.) >0
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166 MATHEMATICS
Example 18 Find all the points of local maxima and local minima of the function f
given by
f (x) = 2x3 – 6x2 + 6x +5.
Solution We have
f (x) = 2x3 – 6x2 + 6x + 5
or f ′(x) = 6x2 – 12x + 6 = 6 (x – 1)2
or f ′(x) = 0 at x = 1
Thus, x = 1 is the only critical point of f . We shall now examine this point for local
maxima and/or local minima of f. Observe that f ′(x) ≥ 0, for all x ∈ R and in particular
f ′(x) > 0, for values close to 1 and to the left and to the right of 1. Therefore, by first
derivative test, the point x = 1 is neither a point of local maxima nor a point of local
minima. Hence x = 1 is a point of inflexion.
Remark One may note that since f ′(x), in Example 30, never changes its sign on R,
graph of f has no turning points and hence no point of local maxima or local minima.
We shall now give another test to examine local maxima and local minima of a
given function. This test is often easier to apply than the first derivative test.
Theorem 4 (Second Derivative Test) Let f be a function defined on an interval I
and c ∈ I. Let f be twice differentiable at c. Then
(i) x = c is a point of local maxima if f ′(c) = 0 and f ″(c) < 0
The value f (c) is local maximum value of f .
(ii) x = c is a point of local minima if f ′ (c) = 0 and f ″(c) > 0
In this case, f (c) is local minimum value of f .
(iii) The test fails if f ′(c) = 0 and f ″(c) = 0.
In this case, we go back to the first derivative test and find whether c is a point of
local maxima, local minima or a point of inflexion.
A Note As f is twice differentiable at c, we mean

second order derivative of f exists at c.
Example 19 Find local minimum value of the function f

given by f (x) = 3 + | x |, x ∈ R.
Solution Note that the given function is not differentiable
at x = 0. So, second derivative test fails. Let us try first
derivative test. Note that 0 is a critical point of f . Now to Fig 6.15
the left of 0, f (x) = 3 – x and so f ′(x) = – 1 < 0. Also to
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the right of 0, f (x) = 3 + x and so f ′(x) = 1 > 0. Therefore, by first derivative test, x =
0 is a point of local minima of f and local minimum value of f is f (0) = 3.
Example 20 Find local maximum and local minimum values of the function f given by
f (x) = 3x4 + 4x3 – 12x2 + 12
Solution We have
f (x) = 3x4 + 4x3 – 12x2 + 12
or f ′(x) = 12x3 + 12x2 – 24x = 12x (x – 1) (x + 2)
or f ′(x) = 0 at x = 0, x = 1 and x = – 2.
Now f ″(x) = 36x2 + 24x – 24 = 12 (3x2 + 2x – 2)
 f ′′ (0) = −24 < 0

or  f ′′ (1) = 36 > 0
 f ′′ ( −2) = 72 > 0

Therefore, by second derivative test, x = 0 is a point of local maxima and local
maximum value of f at x = 0 is f (0) = 12 while x = 1 and x = – 2 are the points of local
minima and local minimum values of f at x = – 1 and – 2 are f (1) = 7 and f (–2) = –20,
respectively.
Example 21 Find all the points of local maxima and local minima of the function f
given by
f (x) = 2x3 – 6x2 + 6x +5.
Solution We have
f (x) = 2x3 – 6x2 + 6x +5
 f ′( x) = 6 x 2 − 12 x + 6 = 6( x − 1) 2
or 
 f ′′( x) = 12( x − 1)
Now f ′(x) = 0 gives x =1. Also f ″(1) = 0. Therefore, the second derivative test
fails in this case. So, we shall go back to the first derivative test.
We have already seen (Example 18) that, using first derivative test, x =1 is neither
a point of local maxima nor a point of local minima and so it is a point of inflexion.
Example 22 Find two positive numbers whose sum is 15 and the sum of whose
squares is minimum.
Solution Let one of the numbers be x. Then the other number is (15 – x). Let S(x)
denote the sum of the squares of these numbers. Then
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168 MATHEMATICS
S(x) = x2 + (15 – x)2 = 2x2 – 30x + 225

S′( x ) = 4 x − 30
or 
S′′( x ) = 4
15  15 
Now S′(x) = 0 gives x = . Also S′′   = 4 > 0 . Therefore, by second derivative
2 2
15
test, x = is the point of local minima of S. Hence the sum of squares of numbers is
2
15 15 15
minimum when the numbers are and 15 − = .
2 2 2
Remark Proceeding as in Example 34 one may prove that the two positive numbers,
k k
whose sum is k and the sum of whose squares is minimum, are and .
2 2
Example 23 Find the shortest distance of the point (0, c) from the parabola y = x2,
1
where ≤ c ≤ 5.
2
Solution Let (h, k) be any point on the parabola y = x2. Let D be the required distance
between (h, k) and (0, c). Then
D = (h − 0) 2 + ( k − c) 2 = h 2 + ( k − c ) 2 ... (1)
Since (h, k) lies on the parabola y = x2, we have k = h2. So (1) gives
D ≡ D(k) = k + ( k − c) 2
1 + 2(k − c)
or D′(k) =
2 k + ( k − c) 2
2c − 1
Now D′(k) = 0 gives k =
2
2c − 1
Observe that when k < , then 2(k − c ) + 1 < 0 , i.e., D′( k ) < 0 . Also when
2
2c − 1 2c − 1
k> , then D′( k ) > 0 . So, by first derivative test, D (k) is minimum at k = .
2 2
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Hence, the required shortest distance is given by

2
 2c − 1  2c − 1  2c − 1  4c − 1
D = + − c =
 2  2  2  2
A Note The reader may note that in Example 35, we have used first derivative
test instead of the second derivative test as the former is easy and short.
Example 24 Let AP and BQ be two vertical poles at

points A and B, respectively. If AP = 16 m, BQ = 22 m
and AB = 20 m, then find the distance of a point R on
AB from the point A such that RP2 + RQ2 is minimum.
Solution Let R be a point on AB such that AR = x m.

Then RB = (20 – x) m (as AB = 20 m). From Fig 6.16,
we have
RP2 = AR2 + AP2
and RQ2 = RB2 + BQ2 Fig 6.16
2 2 2 2 2 2
Therefore RP + RQ = AR + AP + RB + BQ
= x2 + (16)2 + (20 – x)2 + (22)2
= 2x2 – 40x + 1140
Let S ≡ S(x) = RP2 + RQ2 = 2x2 – 40x + 1140.
Therefore S′(x) = 4x – 40.
Now S′(x) = 0 gives x = 10. Also S″(x) = 4 > 0, for all x and so S″(10) > 0.
Therefore, by second derivative test, x = 10 is the point of local minima of S. Thus, the
distance of R from A on AB is AR = x =10 m.
Example 25 If length of three sides of a trapezium other than base are equal to 10cm,
then find the area of the trapezium when it is maximum.
Solution The required trapezium is as given in Fig 6.17. Draw perpendiculars DP and
Fig 6.17
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170 MATHEMATICS
CQ on AB. Let AP = x cm. Note that ∆APD ~ ∆BQC. Therefore, QB = x cm. Also, by
Pythagoras theorem, DP = QC = 100 − x 2 . Let A be the area of the trapezium. Then
1
A ≡ A(x) = (sum of parallel sides) (height)
2
(2 x + 10 + 10) ( 100 − x 2 )
1
=
2
= ( x + 10) ( 100 − x 2 )
+ ( 100 − x 2 )
(−2 x )
or A′(x) = ( x + 10)
2 100 − x 2
−2 x 2 − 10 x + 100
=
100 − x 2
Now A′(x) = 0 gives 2x2 + 10x – 100 = 0, i.e., x = 5 and x = –10.
Since x represents distance, it can not be negative.
So, x = 5. Now
( −2 x )
100 − x 2 (−4 x − 10) − (−2 x 2 − 10 x + 100)
2 100 − x 2
A″(x) =
100 − x 2
2 x 3 − 300 x − 1000
= 3 (on simplification)
(100 − x2 ) 2
2(5)3 − 300(5) − 1000 −2250 −30

or A″(5) = 3
= = <0
75 75 75
(100 − (5) 2 ) 2
Thus, area of trapezium is maximum at x = 5 and the area is given by
A (5) = (5 + 10) 100 − (5) 2 = 15 75 = 75 3 cm 2
Example 26 Prove that the radius of the right circular cylinder of greatest curved
surface area which can be inscribed in a given cone is half of that of the cone.
Solution Let OC = r be the radius of the cone and OA = h be its height. Let a cylinder
with radius OE = x inscribed in the given cone (Fig 6.18). The height QE of the cylinder
is given by
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QE EC
= (since ∆QEC ~ ∆AOC)
OA OC
QE r−x
or =
h r
h (r − x)
or QE =
r
Let S be the curved surface area of the given
cylinder. Then
2πx h ( r − x ) 2πh
S ≡ S (x) = = ( rx − x 2 )
r r Fig 6.18
 2πh
S′( x) = r ( r − 2 x )
or 
S′′( x) = − 4πh
 r
r r r
Now S′(x) = 0 gives x = . Since S″(x) < 0 for all x, S′′   < 0 . So x = is a
2 2 2
point of maxima of S. Hence, the radius of the cylinder of greatest curved surface area
which can be inscribed in a given cone is half of that of the cone.
6.4.1 Maximum and Minimum Values of a Function in a Closed Interval
Let us consider a function f given by
f (x) = x + 2, x ∈ (0, 1)
Observe that the function is continuous on (0, 1) and neither has a maximum value
nor has a minimum value. Further, we may note that the function even has neither a
local maximum value nor a local minimum value.
However, if we extend the domain of f to the closed interval [0, 1], then f still may
not have a local maximum (minimum) values but it certainly does have maximum value
3 = f (1) and minimum value 2 = f (0). The maximum value 3 of f at x = 1 is called
absolute maximum value (global maximum or greatest value) of f on the interval
[0, 1]. Similarly, the minimum value 2 of f at x = 0 is called the absolute minimum
value (global minimum or least value) of f on [0, 1].
Consider the graph given in Fig 6.19 of a continuous function defined on a closed
interval [a, d]. Observe that the function f has a local minima at x = b and local
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172 MATHEMATICS
Fig 6.19
minimum value is f (b). The function also has a local maxima at x = c and local maximum
value is f (c).
Also from the graph, it is evident that f has absolute maximum value f (a) and
absolute minimum value f (d). Further note that the absolute maximum (minimum)
value of f is different from local maximum (minimum) value of f .
We will now state two results (without proof) regarding absolute maximum and
absolute minimum values of a function on a closed interval I.
Theorem 5 Let f be a continuous function on an interval I = [a, b]. Then f has the
absolute maximum value and f attains it at least once in I. Also, f has the absolute
minimum value and attains it at least once in I.
Theorem 6 Let f be a differentiable function on a closed interval I and let c be any
interior point of I. Then
(i) f ′(c) = 0 if f attains its absolute maximum value at c.
(ii) f ′(c) = 0 if f attains its absolute minimum value at c.
In view of the above results, we have the following working rule for finding absolute
maximum and/or absolute minimum values of a function in a given closed interval
[a, b].
Working Rule
Step 1: Find all critical points of f in the interval, i.e., find points x where either
f ′ ( x) = 0 or f is not differentiable.
Step 2: Take the end points of the interval.
Step 3: At all these points (listed in Step 1 and 2), calculate the values of f .
Step 4: Identify the maximum and minimum values of f out of the values calculated in
Step 3. This maximum value will be the absolute maximum (greatest) value of
f and the minimum value will be the absolute minimum (least) value of f .
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Example 27 Find the absolute maximum and minimum values of a function f given by
f (x) = 2x3 – 15x2 + 36x +1 on the interval [1, 5].
Solution We have
f (x) = 2x3 – 15x2 + 36x + 1
or f ′(x) = 6x2 – 30x + 36 = 6 (x – 3) (x – 2)
Note that f ′(x) = 0 gives x = 2 and x = 3.
We shall now evaluate the value of f at these points and at the end points of the
interval [1, 5], i.e., at x = 1, x = 2, x = 3 and at x = 5. So
f (1) = 2 (13) – 15 (12) + 36 (1) + 1 = 24
f (2) = 2 (23) – 15 (22) + 36 (2) + 1 = 29
f (3) = 2 (33) – 15 (32) + 36 (3) + 1 = 28
f (5) = 2 (53) – 15 (52) + 36 (5) + 1 = 56
Thus, we conclude that absolute maximum value of f on [1, 5] is 56, occurring at
x =5, and absolute minimum value of f on [1, 5] is 24 which occurs at x = 1.
Example 28 Find absolute maximum and minimum values of a function f given by
4 1
f ( x) = 12 x 3 − 6 x 3 , x ∈ [−1, 1]
Solution We have
4 1
f (x) = 12 x 3 − 6 x 3
1
2 2(8 x − 1)
or f ′(x) = 16 x 3 − 2
= 2
x3 x3
1
Thus, f ′(x) = 0 gives x = . Further note that f ′(x) is not defined at x = 0. So the
8
1
critical points are x = 0 and x = . Now evaluating the value of f at critical points
8
1
x = 0, and at end points of the interval x = –1 and x = 1, we have
8
4 1
f (–1) = 12(−1) 3 − 6( −1) 3 = 18
f (0) = 12 (0) – 6 (0) = 0
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174 MATHEMATICS
4 1
1
f   = 12  1  − 6  1  = − 9
3 3
 
8 8 8 4
4 1
f (1) = =6
12(1) 3 − 6(1) 3
Hence, we conclude that absolute maximum value of f is 18 that occurs at x = – 1
−9 1
and absolute minimum value of f is that occurs at x = .
4 8
Example 29 An Apache helicopter of enemy is flying along the curve given by
y = x2 + 7. A soldier, placed at (3, 7), wants to shoot down the helicopter when it is
nearest to him. Find the nearest distance.
Solution For each value of x, the helicopter’s position is at point (x, x 2 + 7).
Therefore, the distance between the helicopter and the soldier placed at (3,7) is
( x − 3) 2 + ( x 2 + 7 − 7) 2 , i.e., ( x − 3) 2 + x 4 .
Let f (x) = (x – 3)2 + x4
or f ′(x) = 2(x – 3) + 4x3 = 2 (x – 1) (2x2 + 2x + 3)
Thus, f ′(x) = 0 gives x = 1 or 2x2 + 2x + 3 = 0 for which there are no real roots.
Also, there are no end points of the interval to be added to the set for which f ′ is zero,
i.e., there is only one point, namely, x = 1. The value of f at this point is given by
f (1) = (1 – 3)2 + (1)4 = 5. Thus, the distance between the solider and the helicopter is
f (1) = 5 .
Note that 5 is either a maximum value or a minimum value. Since
f (0) = (0 − 3) 2 + (0) 4 = 3 > 5 ,
it follows that 5 is the minimum value of f ( x ) . Hence, 5 is the minimum

distance between the soldier and the helicopter.
EXERCISE 6.3
1. Find the maximum and minimum values, if any, of the following functions
given by
(i) f (x) = (2x – 1)2 + 3 (ii) f (x) = 9x2 + 12x + 2
(iii) f (x) = – (x – 1)2 + 10 (iv) g (x) = x3 + 1
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2. Find the maximum and minimum values, if any, of the following functions
given by
(i) f (x) = | x + 2 | – 1 (ii) g (x) = – | x + 1| + 3
(iii) h (x) = sin (2x) + 5 (iv) f (x) = | sin 4x + 3|
(v) h (x) = x + 1, x ∈ (– 1, 1)
3. Find the local maxima and local minima, if any, of the following functions. Find
also the local maximum and the local minimum values, as the case may be:
(i) f (x) = x2 (ii) g (x) = x3 – 3x
π
(iii) h (x) = sin x + cos x, 0 < x <
2
(iv) f (x) = sin x – cos x, 0 < x < 2 π
x 2
(v) f (x) = x3 – 6x2 + 9x + 15 (vi) g ( x ) = + , x>0
2 x
1
(vii) g ( x) = (viii) f ( x ) = x 1 − x , 0 < x < 1
x +2
2
4. Prove that the following functions do not have maxima or minima:

(i) f (x) = ex (ii) g (x) = log x
3 2
(iii) h (x) = x + x + x +1
5. Find the absolute maximum value and the absolute minimum value of the following
functions in the given intervals:
(i) f (x) = x3, x ∈ [– 2, 2] (ii) f (x) = sin x + cos x , x ∈ [0, π]
1  9
(iii) f (x) = 4 x − x 2 , x ∈  −2,  (iv) f ( x ) = ( x − 1) 2 + 3, x ∈[ −3,1]
2  2
6. Find the maximum profit that a company can make, if the profit function is
given by
p (x) = 41 – 72x – 18x2
7. Find both the maximum value and the minimum value of
3x4 – 8x3 + 12x2 – 48x + 25 on the interval [0, 3].
8. At what points in the interval [0, 2π], does the function sin 2x attain its maximum
value?
9. What is the maximum value of the function sin x + cos x?
10. Find the maximum value of 2x3 – 24x + 107 in the interval [1, 3]. Find the
maximum value of the same function in [–3, –1].
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176 MATHEMATICS
11. It is given that at x = 1, the function x4 – 62x2 + ax + 9 attains its maximum value,
on the interval [0, 2]. Find the value of a.
12. Find the maximum and minimum values of x + sin 2x on [0, 2π].
13. Find two numbers whose sum is 24 and whose product is as large as possible.
14. Find two positive numbers x and y such that x + y = 60 and xy3 is maximum.
15. Find two positive numbers x and y such that their sum is 35 and the product x2 y5
is a maximum.
16. Find two positive numbers whose sum is 16 and the sum of whose cubes is
minimum.
17. A square piece of tin of side 18 cm is to be made into a box without top, by
cutting a square from each corner and folding up the flaps to form the box. What
should be the side of the square to be cut off so that the volume of the box is the
maximum possible.
18. A rectangular sheet of tin 45 cm by 24 cm is to be made into a box without top,
by cutting off square from each corner and folding up the flaps. What should be
the side of the square to be cut off so that the volume of the box is maximum ?
19. Show that of all the rectangles inscribed in a given fixed circle, the square has
the maximum area.
20. Show that the right circular cylinder of given surface and maximum volume is
such that its height is equal to the diameter of the base.
21. Of all the closed cylindrical cans (right circular), of a given volume of 100 cubic
centimetres, find the dimensions of the can which has the minimum surface
area?
22. A wire of length 28 m is to be cut into two pieces. One of the pieces is to be
made into a square and the other into a circle. What should be the length of the
two pieces so that the combined area of the square and the circle is minimum?
23. Prove that the volume of the largest cone that can be inscribed in a sphere of
8
radius R is of the volume of the sphere.
27
24. Show that the right circular cone of least curved surface and given volume has
an altitude equal to 2 time the radius of the base.
25. Show that the semi-vertical angle of the cone of the maximum volume and of
given slant height is tan −1 2 .
26. Show that semi-vertical angle of right circular cone of given surface area and
−1  1 
maximum volume is sin   .
 3
Reprint 2024-25
Choose the correct answer in Questions 27 and 29.

27. The point on the curve x2 = 2y which is nearest to the point (0, 5) is
(A) (2 2,4) (B) (2 2,0) (C) (0, 0) (D) (2, 2)
1 − x + x2
28. For all real values of x, the minimum value of is
1 + x + x2
1
(A) 0 (B) 1 (C) 3 (D)
3
1
29. The maximum value of [ x( x − 1) + 1]3 , 0 ≤ x ≤ 1 is

1
 1 3 1
(A)   (B) (C) 1 (D) 0
 3 2
Miscellaneous Examples
Example 30 A car starts from a point P at time t = 0 seconds and stops at point Q. The
distance x, in metres, covered by it, in t seconds is given by
 t
x = t2  2 − 
 3
Find the time taken by it to reach Q and also find distance between P and Q.
Solution Let v be the velocity of the car at t seconds.
 t
Now x = t2  2 − 
 3
dx
Therefore v= = 4t – t2 = t (4 – t)
dt
Thus, v = 0 gives t = 0 and/or t = 4.
Now v = 0 at P as well as at Q and at P, t = 0. So, at Q, t = 4. Thus, the car will
reach the point Q after 4 seconds. Also the distance travelled in 4 seconds is given by
2 4  2  32
x]t = 4 = 4  2 −  = 16   = m
 3 3 3
Reprint 2024-25
178 MATHEMATICS
Example 31 A water tank has the shape of an inverted right circular cone with its axis
vertical and vertex lowermost. Its semi-vertical angle is tan–1 (0.5). Water is poured
into it at a constant rate of 5 cubic metre per hour. Find the rate at which the level of
the water is rising at the instant when the depth of water in the tank is 4 m.
r
Solution Let r, h and α be as in Fig 6.20. Then tan α = .
h
−1  r 
So α = tan   .
h
But α = tan–1 (0.5) (given)
r
or = 0.5
h
h
or r=
2
Let V be the volume of the cone. Then
2 Fig 6.20
1 2 1 h πh3
V = πr h = π   h =
3 3 2 12
dV d  πh3  dh
Therefore =  ⋅ (by Chain Rule)
dt dh  12  dt
π 2 dh
= h
4 dt
dV
Now rate of change of volume, i.e., = 5 m3/h and h = 4 m.
dt
π 2 dh
Therefore 5= (4) ⋅
4 dt
dh 5 35  22 
or = = m/h  π = 
dt 4π 88  7 
35
Thus, the rate of change of water level is m/h .
88
Example 32 A man of height 2 metres walks at a uniform speed of 5 km/h away from
a lamp post which is 6 metres high. Find the rate at which the length of his shadow
increases.
Reprint 2024-25
Solution In Fig 6.21, Let AB be the lamp-post, the

lamp being at the position B and let MN be the man at
a particular time t and let AM = l metres. Then, MS is
the shadow of the man. Let MS = s metres.
Note that ∆MSN ~ ∆ASB
MS MN
or =
AS AB
Fig 6.21
or AS = 3s (as MN =
2 and AB = 6 (given))
Thus AM = 3s – s = 2s. But AM = l
So l = 2s
dl ds
Therefore = 2
dt dt
dl 5
Since = 5 km/h. Hence, the length of the shadow increases at the rate km/h.
dt 2
Example 33 Find intervals in which the function given by

3 4 4 3 36
f (x) = x − x − 3x 2 + x + 11
10 5 5
is (a) increasing (b) decreasing.
Solution We have
3 4 4 3 36
f (x) = x − x − 3x 2 + x + 11
10 5 5
3 4 36
Therefore f ′(x) = (4 x 3 ) − (3x 2 ) − 3(2 x) +
10 5 5
6
= ( x − 1)( x + 2)( x − 3) (on simplification)
5
Reprint 2024-25
180 MATHEMATICS
Now f ′(x) = 0 gives x = 1, x = – 2, or x = 3. The

points x = 1, – 2, and 3 divide the real line into four
disjoint intervals namely, (– ∞, – 2), (– 2, 1), (1, 3) Fig 6.22
and (3, ∞) (Fig 6.22).
Consider the interval (– ∞, – 2), i.e., when – ∞ < x < – 2.
In this case, we have x – 1 < 0, x + 2 < 0 and x – 3 < 0.
(In particular, observe that for x = –3, f ′(x) = (x – 1) (x + 2) (x – 3) = (– 4) (– 1)
(– 6) < 0)
Therefore, f ′(x) < 0 when – ∞ < x < – 2.
Thus, the function f is decreasing in (– ∞, – 2).
Consider the interval (– 2, 1), i.e., when – 2 < x < 1.
In this case, we have x – 1 < 0, x + 2 > 0 and x – 3 < 0
(In particular, observe that for x = 0, f ′(x) = (x – 1) (x + 2) (x – 3) = (–1) (2) (–3)
= 6 > 0)
So f ′(x) > 0 when – 2 < x < 1.
Thus, f is increasing in (– 2, 1).
Now consider the interval (1, 3), i.e., when 1 < x < 3. In this case, we have
x – 1 > 0, x + 2 > 0 and x – 3 < 0.
So, f ′(x) < 0 when 1 < x < 3.
Thus, f is decreasing in (1, 3).
Finally, consider the interval (3, ∞), i.e., when x > 3. In this case, we have x – 1 > 0,
x + 2 > 0 and x – 3 > 0. So f ′(x) > 0 when x > 3.
Thus, f is increasing in the interval (3, ∞).
f (x) = tan–1(sin x + cos x), x > 0
 π
is always an increasing function in  0,  .
 4
Solution We have
f (x) = tan–1(sin x + cos x), x > 0
1
Therefore f ′(x) = (cos x − sin x )
1 + (sin x + cos x) 2
Reprint 2024-25
cos x − sin x
= (on simplification)
2 + sin 2 x
π
Note that 2 + sin 2x > 0 for all x in 0, .
4
Therefore f ′(x) > 0 if cos x – sin x > 0
or f ′(x) > 0 if cos x > sin x or cot x > 1
π
Now cot x > 1 if tan x < 1, i.e., if 0 < x <
4
 π
Thus f ′(x) > 0 in  0, 
 4
 π
Hence f is increasing function in  0,  .
 4
Example 35 A circular disc of radius 3 cm is being heated. Due to expansion, its
radius increases at the rate of 0.05 cm/s. Find the rate at which its area is increasing
when radius is 3.2 cm.
Solution Let r be the radius of the given disc and A be its area. Then
A = πr 2
dA dr
or = 2πr (by Chain Rule)
dt dt
dr
Now approximate rate of increase of radius = dr = ∆t = 0.05 cm/s.
dt
Therefore, the approximate rate of increase in area is given by
dA  dr 
dA = ( ∆t ) = 2πr  ∆t 
dt  dt 
= 2π (3.2) (0.05) = 0.320π cm2/s (r = 3.2 cm)
Example 36 An open topped box is to be constructed by removing equal squares from
each corner of a 3 metre by 8 metre rectangular sheet of aluminium and folding up the
sides. Find the volume of the largest such box.
Reprint 2024-25
182 MATHEMATICS
Solution Let x metre be the length of a side of the removed squares. Then, the height
of the box is x, length is 8 – 2x and breadth is 3 – 2x (Fig 6.23). If V(x) is the volume
of the box, then
Fig 6.23
V (x) = x (3 – 2x) (8 – 2x)
= 4x3 – 22x2 + 24x
V′( x ) = 12 x − 44 x + 24 = 4( x − 3)(3x − 2)
2
Therefore 
V′′( x) = 24 x − 44
2
Now V′(x) = 0 gives x = 3, . But x ≠ 3 (Why?)
3
2  2  2
Thus, we have x = . Now V′′   = 24   − 44 = − 28 < 0 .
3  3  3
2 2
Therefore, x = is the point of maxima, i.e., if we remove a square of side
3 3
metre from each corner of the sheet and make a box from the remaining sheet, then
the volume of the box such obtained will be the largest and it is given by
3 2
2
V   = 4   − 22   + 24  
2 2 2
3 3 3 3
200 3
= m
27
 x 
Example 37 Manufacturer can sell x items at a price of rupees  5 −  each. The
100 
x 
cost price of x items is Rs  + 500 . Find the number of items he should sell to earn
5
maximum profit.
Reprint 2024-25
Solution Let S (x) be the selling price of x items and let C (x) be the cost price of x
items. Then, we have
 x  x2
S(x) =  5 −  x = 5 x −
 100  100
x
and C (x) = + 500
5
Thus, the profit function P (x) is given by
x2 x
P(x) = S( x) − C ( x ) = 5 x − − − 500
100 5
24 x2
i.e. P(x) = x − − 500
5 100
24 x
or P′(x) = −
5 50
−1 −1
Now P′(x) = 0 gives x = 240. Also P′′( x) = . So P′′(240) = <0
50 50
Thus, x = 240 is a point of maxima. Hence, the manufacturer can earn maximum
profit, if he sells 240 items.
Miscellaneous Exercise on Chapter 6
log x
1. Show that the function given by f ( x) = has maximum at x = e.
x
2. The two equal sides of an isosceles triangle with fixed base b are decreasing at
the rate of 3 cm per second. How fast is the area decreasing when the two equal
sides are equal to the base ?
3. Find the intervals in which the function f given by

4sin x − 2 x − x cos x
f ( x) =
2 + cos x
is (i) increasing (ii) decreasing.
1
4. Find the intervals in which the function f given by f ( x) = x3 + , x ≠ 0 is
x3
(i) increasing (ii) decreasing.
Reprint 2024-25
184 MATHEMATICS
x2 y 2
5. Find the maximum area of an isosceles triangle inscribed in the ellipse + =1
a 2 b2
with its vertex at one end of the major axis.
6. A tank with rectangular base and rectangular sides, open at the top is to be
constructed so that its depth is 2 m and volume is 8 m3. If building of tank costs
Rs 70 per sq metres for the base and Rs 45 per square metre for sides. What is
the cost of least expensive tank?
7. The sum of the perimeter of a circle and square is k, where k is some constant.
Prove that the sum of their areas is least when the side of square is double the
radius of the circle.
8. A window is in the form of a rectangle surmounted by a semicircular opening.
The total perimeter of the window is 10 m. Find the dimensions of the window to
admit maximum light through the whole opening.
9. A point on the hypotenuse of a triangle is at distance a and b from the sides of
the triangle.
2 2 3
Show that the minimum length of the hypotenuse is (a 3 + b 3 ) 2 .
10. Find the points at which the function f given by f (x) = (x – 2)4 (x + 1)3 has
(i) local maxima (ii) local minima
(iii) point of inflexion
11. Find the absolute maximum and minimum values of the function f given by
f (x) = cos2 x + sin x, x ∈ [0, π]
12. Show that the altitude of the right circular cone of maximum volume that can be
4r
inscribed in a sphere of radius r is .
3
13. Let f be a function defined on [a, b] such that f ′(x) > 0, for all x ∈ (a, b). Then
prove that f is an increasing function on (a, b).
14. Show that the height of the cylinder of maximum volume that can be inscribed in
2R
a sphere of radius R is . Also find the maximum volume.
3
15. Show that height of the cylinder of greatest volume which can be inscribed in a
right circular cone of height h and semi vertical angle α is one-third that of the
4
cone and the greatest volume of cylinder is πh3 tan 2 α .
27
Reprint 2024-25
16. A cylindrical tank of radius 10 m is being filled with wheat at the rate of 314
cubic metre per hour. Then the depth of the wheat is increasing at the rate of
(A) 1 m/h (B) 0.1 m/h
(C) 1.1 m/h (D) 0.5 m/h
Summary
® If a quantity y varies with another quantity x, satisfying some rule y = f ( x) ,
dy
then (or f ′ ( x) ) represents the rate of change of y with respect to x and
dx
dy
dx (or f ′(x0 ) ) represents the rate of change of y with respect to x at
x = x0
x = x0 .
® If two variables x and y are varying with respect to another variable t, i.e., if
x = f (t ) and y = g (t ) , then by Chain Rule
dy dy dx dx
= , if ≠0.
dx dt dt dt
® A function f is said to be
(a) increasing on an interval (a, b) if
x1 < x2 in (a, b) ⇒ f (x1) < f (x2) for all x1, x2 ∈ (a, b).
Alternatively, if f ′(x) ≥ 0 for each x in (a, b)
(b) decreasing on (a,b) if
x1 < x2 in (a, b) ⇒ f (x1) > f (x2) for all x1, x2 ∈ (a, b).
(c) constant in (a, b), if f (x) = c for all x ∈ (a, b), where c is a constant.
® A point c in the domain of a function f at which either f ′(c) = 0 or f is not
differentiable is called a critical point of f.
® First Derivative Test Let f be a function defined on an open interval I. Let
f be continuous at a critical point c in I. Then
(i) If f ′(x) changes sign from positive to negative as x increases through c,
i.e., if f ′(x) > 0 at every point sufficiently close to and to the left of c,
and f ′(x) < 0 at every point sufficiently close to and to the right of c,
then c is a point of local maxima.
Reprint 2024-25
186 MATHEMATICS
(ii) If f ′(x) changes sign from negative to positive as x increases through c,

i.e., if f ′(x) < 0 at every point sufficiently close to and to the left of c,
and f ′(x) > 0 at every point sufficiently close to and to the right of c,
then c is a point of local minima.
(iii) If f ′(x) does not change sign as x increases through c, then c is neither
a point of local maxima nor a point of local minima. Infact, such a point
is called point of inflexion.
® Second Derivative Test Let f be a function defined on an interval I and
c ∈ I. Let f be twice differentiable at c. Then
(i) x = c is a point of local maxima if f ′(c) = 0 and f ″(c) < 0
The values f (c) is local maximum value of f .
(ii) x = c is a point of local minima if f ′(c) = 0 and f ″(c) > 0
In this case, f (c) is local minimum value of f .
(iii) The test fails if f ′(c) = 0 and f ″(c) = 0.
In this case, we go back to the first derivative test and find whether c is
a point of maxima, minima or a point of inflexion.
® Working rule for finding absolute maxima and/or absolute minima
Step 1: Find all critical points of f in the interval, i.e., find points x where
either f ′(x) = 0 or f is not differentiable.
Step 2:Take the end points of the interval.
Step 3: At all these points (listed in Step 1 and 2), calculate the values of f .
Step 4: Identify the maximum and minimum values of f out of the values
calculated in Step 3. This maximum value will be the absolute maximum
value of f and the minimum value will be the absolute minimum value of f .
—v—
Reprint 2024-25
104 MATHEMATICS
Chapter 5
CONTINUITY AND
DIFFERENTIABILITY
v The whole of science is nothing more than a refinement
of everyday thinking.” — ALBERT EINSTEIN v
5.1 Introduction
This chapter is essentially a continuation of our study of
differentiation of functions in Class XI. We had learnt to
differentiate certain functions like polynomial functions and
trigonometric functions. In this chapter, we introduce the
very important concepts of continuity, differentiability and
relations between them. We will also learn differentiation
of inverse trigonometric functions. Further, we introduce a
new class of functions called exponential and logarithmic
functions. These functions lead to powerful techniques of
differentiation. We illustrate certain geometrically obvious
conditions through differential calculus. In the process, we
will learn some fundamental theorems in this area.
Sir Issac Newton
5.2 Continuity (1642-1727)
We start the section with two informal examples to get a feel of continuity. Consider
the function
1, if x ≤ 0
f ( x) = 
2, if x > 0
This function is of course defined at every
point of the real line. Graph of this function is
given in the Fig 5.1. One can deduce from the
graph that the value of the function at nearby
points on x-axis remain close to each other
except at x = 0. At the points near and to the
left of 0, i.e., at points like – 0.1, – 0.01, – 0.001,
the value of the function is 1. At the points near
and to the right of 0, i.e., at points like 0.1, 0.01, Fig 5.1
Reprint 2024-25
CONTINUITY AND DIFFERENTIABILITY 105
0.001, the value of the function is 2. Using the language of left and right hand limits, we
may say that the left (respectively right) hand limit of f at 0 is 1 (respectively 2). In
particular the left and right hand limits do not coincide. We also observe that the value
of the function at x = 0 concides with the left hand limit. Note that when we try to draw
the graph, we cannot draw it in one stroke, i.e., without lifting pen from the plane of the
paper, we can not draw the graph of this function. In fact, we need to lift the pen when
we come to 0 from left. This is one instance of function being not continuous at x = 0.
Now, consider the function defined as
1, if x ≠ 0
f ( x) = 
2, if x = 0
This function is also defined at every point. Left and the right hand limits at x = 0
are both equal to 1. But the value of the
function at x = 0 equals 2 which does not
coincide with the common value of the left
and right hand limits. Again, we note that we
cannot draw the graph of the function without
lifting the pen. This is yet another instance of
a function being not continuous at x = 0.
Naively, we may say that a function is
continuous at a fixed point if we can draw the
graph of the function around that point without
Fig 5.2
lifting the pen from the plane of the paper.
Mathematically, it may be phrased precisely as follows:
Definition 1 Suppose f is a real function on a subset of the real numbers and let c be
a point in the domain of f. Then f is continuous at c if
lim f ( x ) = f (c )
x→ c
More elaborately, if the left hand limit, right hand limit and the value of the function
at x = c exist and equal to each other, then f is said to be continuous at x = c. Recall that
if the right hand and left hand limits at x = c coincide, then we say that the common
value is the limit of the function at x = c. Hence we may also rephrase the definition of
continuity as follows: a function is continuous at x = c if the function is defined at
x = c and if the value of the function at x = c equals the limit of the function at
x = c. If f is not continuous at c, we say f is discontinuous at c and c is called a point
of discontinuity of f.
Reprint 2024-25
106 MATHEMATICS
Example 1 Check the continuity of the function f given by f (x) = 2x + 3 at x = 1.

Solution First note that the function is defined at the given point x = 1 and its value is 5.
Then find the limit of the function at x = 1. Clearly
lim f ( x ) = lim (2 x + 3) = 2(1) + 3 = 5
x →1 x →1
Thus lim f ( x ) = 5 = f (1)

x →1
Hence, f is continuous at x = 1.
Example 2 Examine whether the function f given by f (x) = x2 is continuous at x = 0.
Solution First note that the function is defined at the given point x = 0 and its value is 0.
Then find the limit of the function at x = 0. Clearly
lim f ( x) = lim x 2 = 02 = 0
x→ 0 x→ 0
Thus lim f ( x ) = 0 = f (0)

x→ 0
Hence, f is continuous at x = 0.
Example 3 Discuss the continuity of the function f given by f(x) = | x | at x = 0.
Solution By definition
 − x, if x < 0
f (x) = 
 x, if x ≥ 0
Clearly the function is defined at 0 and f (0) = 0. Left hand limit of f at 0 is
lim f ( x) = lim− (– x) = 0
x→ 0 − x→ 0
Similarly, the right hand limit of f at 0 is

lim f ( x) = lim+ x = 0
x → 0+ x→ 0
Thus, the left hand limit, right hand limit and the value of the function coincide at
x = 0. Hence, f is continuous at x = 0.
 x + 3, if x ≠ 0
3
f (x) = 
1, if x = 0
is not continuous at x = 0.
Reprint 2024-25
Solution The function is defined at x = 0 and its value at x = 0 is 1. When x ≠ 0, the

function is given by a polynomial. Hence,
lim f ( x ) = lim ( x3 + 3) = 03 + 3 = 3
x→ 0 x→0
Since the limit of f at x = 0 does not coincide with f (0), the function is not continuous
at x = 0. It may be noted that x = 0 is the only point of discontinuity for this function.
Example 5 Check the points where the constant function f (x) = k is continuous.
Solution The function is defined at all real numbers and by definition, its value at any
real number equals k. Let c be any real number. Then
lim f ( x ) = lim k = k
x→ c x→ c
Since f (c) = k = lim

x → c f (x) for any real number c, the function f is continuous at
every real number.
Example 6 Prove that the identity function on real numbers given by f (x) = x is
continuous at every real number.
Solution The function is clearly defined at every point and f (c) = c for every real
number c. Also,
lim f ( x) = lim x = c
x→ c x→c
Thus, lim f (x) = c = f (c) and hence the function is continuous at every real number.
x→ c
Having defined continuity of a function at a given point, now we make a natural
extension of this definition to discuss continuity of a function.
Definition 2 A real function f is said to be continuous if it is continuous at every point
in the domain of f.
This definition requires a bit of elaboration. Suppose f is a function defined on a
closed interval [a, b], then for f to be continuous, it needs to be continuous at every
point in [a, b] including the end points a and b. Continuity of f at a means
lim f ( x) = f (a)
x→ a+
and continuity of f at b means

lim f ( x) = f(b)
x→b –
Observe that lim− f ( x) and lim+ f ( x) do not make sense. As a consequence

x→ a x→b
of this definition, if f is defined only at one point, it is continuous there, i.e., if the
domain of f is a singleton, f is a continuous function.
Reprint 2024-25
108 MATHEMATICS
Example 7 Is the function defined by f (x) = | x |, a continuous function?

Solution We may rewrite f as
 − x, if x < 0
f (x) = 
 x, if x ≥ 0
By Example 3, we know that f is continuous at x = 0.
Let c be a real number such that c < 0. Then f (c) = – c. Also
lim f ( x ) = lim ( − x ) = – c (Why?)
x→ c x→c
Since lim f ( x) = f (c) , f is continuous at all negative real numbers.

x→ c
Now, let c be a real number such that c > 0. Then f (c) = c. Also
lim f ( x ) = lim x = c (Why?)
x→ c x→ c
Since lim f ( x) = f (c) , f is continuous at all positive real numbers. Hence, f

x→ c
is continuous at all points.

Example 8 Discuss the continuity of the function f given by f (x) = x3 + x2 – 1.
Solution Clearly f is defined at every real number c and its value at c is c3 + c2 – 1. We
also know that
lim f ( x ) = lim ( x3 + x 2 − 1) = c3 + c 2 − 1
x→ c x→c
Thus lim f ( x ) = f (c ) , and hence f is continuous at every real number. This means
x→ c
f is a continuous function.
1
Example 9 Discuss the continuity of the function f defined by f (x) = , x ≠ 0.
x
Solution Fix any non zero real number c, we have
1 1
lim f ( x) = lim =
x→c x→c x c
1
Also, since for c ≠ 0, f (c) =
, we have lim f ( x ) = f (c ) and hence, f is continuous
c x→ c
at every point in the domain of f. Thus f is a continuous function.
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We take this opportunity to explain the concept of infinity. This we do by analysing

1
the function f (x) = near x = 0. To carry out this analysis we follow the usual trick of
x
finding the value of the function at real numbers close to 0. Essentially we are trying to
find the right hand limit of f at 0. We tabulate this in the following (Table 5.1).
Table 5.1
x 1 0.3 0.2 0.1 = 10–1 0.01 = 10–2 0.001 = 10–3 10–n

f (x) 1 3.333... 5 10 100 = 102 1000 = 103 10n
We observe that as x gets closer to 0 from the right, the value of f (x) shoots up
higher. This may be rephrased as: the value of f (x) may be made larger than any given
number by choosing a positive real number very close to 0. In symbols, we write
lim f ( x) = + ∞
x → 0+
(to be read as: the right hand limit of f (x) at 0 is plus infinity). We wish to emphasise
that + ∞ is NOT a real number and hence the right hand limit of f at 0 does not exist (as
a real number).
Similarly, the left hand limit of f at 0 may be found. The following table is self
explanatory.
Table 5.2
x –1 – 0.3 – 0.2 – 10–1 – 10–2 – 10–3 – 10–n

f (x) – 1 – 3.333... –5 – 10 – 102 – 103 – 10n
From the Table 5.2, we deduce that the

value of f (x) may be made smaller than any
given number by choosing a negative real
number very close to 0. In symbols,
we write
lim f ( x) = − ∞
x → 0−
(to be read as: the left hand limit of f (x) at 0 is

minus infinity). Again, we wish to emphasise
that – ∞ is NOT a real number and hence the
left hand limit of f at 0 does not exist (as a real
number). The graph of the reciprocal function
given in Fig 5.3 is a geometric representation
of the above mentioned facts. Fig 5.3
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110 MATHEMATICS
Example 10 Discuss the continuity of the function f defined by

 x + 2, if x ≤ 1
f (x) = 
 x − 2, if x > 1
Solution The function f is defined at all points of the real line.
Case 1 If c < 1, then f (c) = c + 2. Therefore, lim f ( x ) = lim( x + 2) = c + 2
x→ c x→c
Thus, f is continuous at all real numbers less than 1.
Case 2 If c > 1, then f (c) = c – 2. Therefore,
lim f ( x) = lim (x – 2) = c – 2 = f (c)
x →c x →c
Thus, f is continuous at all points x > 1.

Case 3 If c = 1, then the left hand limit of f at
x = 1 is
lim f ( x) = lim– ( x + 2) = 1 + 2 = 3
x →1– x →1
The right hand limit of f at x = 1 is

lim f ( x) = lim+ ( x − 2) = 1 − 2 = −1
x→1+ x →1
Since the left and right hand limits of f at x = 1 Fig 5.4
do not coincide, f is not continuous at x = 1. Hence
x = 1 is the only point of discontinuity of f. The graph of the function is given in Fig 5.4.
Example 11 Find all the points of discontinuity of the function f defined by
 x + 2, if x < 1

f (x) =  0, if x = 1
 x − 2, if x > 1

Solution As in the previous example we find that f
is continuous at all real numbers x ≠ 1. The left
hand limit of f at x = 1 is
lim− f ( x) = lim– ( x + 2) = 1 + 2 = 3
x →1 x →1
The right hand limit of f at x = 1 is
lim+ f ( x) = lim+ ( x − 2) = 1 − 2 = −1
x→1 x →1
Since, the left and right hand limits of f at x = 1

do not coincide, f is not continuous at x = 1. Hence
x = 1 is the only point of discontinuity of f. The
graph of the function is given in the Fig 5.5. Fig 5.5
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Example 12 Discuss the continuity of the function defined by
 x + 2, if x < 0
f (x) = 
 − x + 2, if x > 0
Solution Observe that the function is defined at all real numbers except at 0. Domain
of definition of this function is
D1 ∪ D2 where D1 = {x ∈ R : x < 0} and
D2 = {x ∈ R : x > 0}
Case 1 If c ∈ D 1, then lim f ( x) = lim (x + 2)
x →c x →c
= c + 2 = f (c) and hence f is continuous in D1.
Case 2 If c ∈ D2, then lim f ( x) = lim (– x + 2)
x →c x →c
= – c + 2 = f (c) and hence f is continuous in D2.
Since f is continuous at all points in the domain of f,
we deduce that f is continuous. Graph of this
function is given in the Fig 5.6. Note that to graph Fig 5.6
this function we need to lift the pen from the plane
of the paper, but we need to do that only for those points where the function is not
defined.
Example 13 Discuss the continuity of the function f given by
 x, if x ≥ 0
f (x) =  2
 x , if x < 0
Solution Clearly the function is defined at
every real number. Graph of the function is
given in Fig 5.7. By inspection, it seems prudent
to partition the domain of definition of f into
three disjoint subsets of the real line.
Let D1 = {x ∈ R : x < 0}, D2 = {0} and
Fig 5.7
D3 = {x ∈ R : x > 0}
Case 1 At any point in D1, we have f (x) = x2 and it is easy to see that it is continuous
there (see Example 2).
Case 2 At any point in D3, we have f (x) = x and it is easy to see that it is continuous
there (see Example 6).
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112 MATHEMATICS
Case 3 Now we analyse the function at x = 0. The value of the function at 0 is f (0) = 0.
The left hand limit of f at 0 is
lim f ( x) = lim− x 2 = 02 = 0
x →0 – x →0
The right hand limit of f at 0 is
lim f ( x) = lim+ x = 0
x → 0+ x →0
Thus lim f ( x) = 0 = f (0) and hence f is continuous at 0. This means that f is

x →0
continuous at every point in its domain and hence, f is a continuous function.
Example 14 Show that every polynomial function is continuous.
Solution Recall that a function p is a polynomial function if it is defined by
p(x) = a0 + a1 x + ... + an xn for some natural number n, an ≠ 0 and ai ∈ R. Clearly this
function is defined for every real number. For a fixed real number c, we have
lim p ( x) = p (c)
x →c
By definition, p is continuous at c. Since c is any real number, p is continuous at
every real number and hence p is a continuous function.
Example 15 Find all the points of discontinuity of the greatest integer function defined
by f (x) = [x], where [x] denotes the greatest integer less than or equal to x.
Solution First observe that f is defined for all real numbers. Graph of the function is
given in Fig 5.8. From the graph it looks like that f is discontinuous at every integral
point. Below we explore, if this is true.
Fig 5.8
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Case 1 Let c be a real number which is not equal to any integer. It is evident from the
graph that for all real numbers close to c the value of the function is equal to [c]; i.e.,
lim f ( x) = lim [ x] = [c] . Also f (c) = [c] and hence the function is continuous at all real
x →c x →c
numbers not equal to integers.

Case 2 Let c be an integer. Then we can find a sufficiently small real number
r > 0 such that [c – r] = c – 1 whereas [c + r] = c.
This, in terms of limits mean that
lim f (x) = c – 1, lim+ f (x) = c
x →c − x →c
Since these limits cannot be equal to each other for any c, the function is
discontinuous at every integral point.
5.2.1 Algebra of continuous functions
In the previous class, after having understood the concept of limits, we learnt some
algebra of limits. Analogously, now we will study some algebra of continuous functions.
Since continuity of a function at a point is entirely dictated by the limit of the function at
that point, it is reasonable to expect results analogous to the case of limits.
Theorem 1 Suppose f and g be two real functions continuous at a real number c.
Then
(1) f + g is continuous at x = c.
(2) f – g is continuous at x = c.
(3) f . g is continuous at x = c.
 f 
(4)   is continuous at x = c, (provided g (c) ≠ 0).
g
Proof We are investigating continuity of (f + g) at x = c. Clearly it is defined at
x = c. We have
lim( f + g ) ( x ) = lim [ f ( x) + g ( x)] (by definition of f + g)

x →c x →c
= lim f ( x) + lim g ( x) (by the theorem on limits)

x →c x →c
= f (c) + g(c) (as f and g are continuous)

= (f + g) (c) (by definition of f + g)
Hence, f + g is continuous at x = c.
Proofs for the remaining parts are similar and left as an exercise to the reader.
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114 MATHEMATICS
Remarks
(i) As a special case of (3) above, if f is a constant function, i.e., f (x) = λ for some
real number λ, then the function (λ . g) defined by (λ . g) (x) = λ . g(x) is also
continuous. In particular if λ = – 1, the continuity of f implies continuity of – f.
(ii) As a special case of (4) above, if f is the constant function f (x) = λ, then the
λ λ λ
function defined by ( x) = is also continuous wherever g (x) ≠ 0. In
g g g ( x)
1
particular, the continuity of g implies continuity of .
g
The above theorem can be exploited to generate many continuous functions. They
also aid in deciding if certain functions are continuous or not. The following examples
illustrate this:
Example 16 Prove that every rational function is continuous.
Solution Recall that every rational function f is given by
p ( x)
f ( x) = , q ( x) ≠ 0
q( x)
where p and q are polynomial functions. The domain of f is all real numbers except
points at which q is zero. Since polynomial functions are continuous (Example 14), f is
continuous by (4) of Theorem 1.
Example 17 Discuss the continuity of sine function.
Solution To see this we use the following facts
lim sin x = 0
x →0
We have not proved it, but is intuitively clear from the graph of sin x near 0.
Now, observe that f (x) = sin x is defined for every real number. Let c be a real
number. Put x = c + h. If x → c we know that h → 0. Therefore
lim f ( x) = lim sin x
x →c x→c
= lim sin(c + h)
h →0
= lim [sin c cos h + cos c sin h]

h →0
= lim [sin c cos h] + lim [cos c sin h]

h →0 h →0
= sin c + 0 = sin c = f (c)
Thus lim f (x) = f (c) and hence f is a continuous function.
x →c
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Remark A similar proof may be given for the continuity of cosine function.
Example 18 Prove that the function defined by f (x) = tan x is a continuous function.
sin x
Solution The function f (x) = tan x = . This is defined for all real numbers such
cos x
π
that cos x ≠ 0, i.e., x ≠ (2n +1) . We have just proved that both sine and cosine
2
functions are continuous. Thus tan x being a quotient of two continuous functions is
continuous wherever it is defined.
An interesting fact is the behaviour of continuous functions with respect to
composition of functions. Recall that if f and g are two real functions, then
(f o g) (x) = f (g (x))
is defined whenever the range of g is a subset of domain of f. The following theorem
(stated without proof) captures the continuity of composite functions.
Theorem 2 Suppose f and g are real valued functions such that (f o g) is defined at c.
If g is continuous at c and if f is continuous at g (c), then (f o g) is continuous at c.
The following examples illustrate this theorem.
Example 19 Show that the function defined by f (x) = sin (x2) is a continuous function.
Solution Observe that the function is defined for every real number. The function
f may be thought of as a composition g o h of the two functions g and h, where
g (x) = sin x and h (x) = x2. Since both g and h are continuous functions, by Theorem 2,
it can be deduced that f is a continuous function.
Example 20 Show that the function f defined by
f (x) = |1 – x + | x | |,
where x is any real number, is a continuous function.

Solution Define g by g (x) = 1 – x + | x | and h by h (x) = | x | for all real x. Then
(h o g) (x) = h (g (x))
= h (1– x + | x |)
= | 1– x + | x | | = f (x)
In Example 7, we have seen that h is a continuous function. Hence g being a sum
of a polynomial function and the modulus function is continuous. But then f being a
composite of two continuous functions is continuous.
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116 MATHEMATICS
EXERCISE 5.1
1. Prove that the function f (x) = 5x – 3 is continuous at x = 0, at x = – 3 and at x = 5.
2. Examine the continuity of the function f (x) = 2x2 – 1 at x = 3.
3. Examine the following functions for continuity.
1
(a) f (x) = x – 5 (b) f (x) = ,x≠5
x −5
x 2 − 25
(c) f (x) = , x ≠ –5 (d) f (x) = | x – 5 |
x+5
4. Prove that the function f (x) = xn is continuous at x = n, where n is a positive
integer.
5. Is the function f defined by
 x, if x ≤ 1
f ( x) = 
5, if x > 1
continuous at x = 0? At x = 1? At x = 2?
Find all points of discontinuity of f, where f is defined by
| x | +3, if x ≤ − 3
2 x + 3, if x ≤ 2 
6. f ( x) =  7. f ( x) =  −2 x, if − 3 < x < 3
2 x − 3, if x > 2 6 x + 2, if x ≥ 3

| x |  x
 , if x ≠ 0  , if x < 0
8. f ( x) =  x 9. f ( x) =  | x |
 0, if x = 0  −1, if x ≥ 0

 x + 1, if x ≥ 1  x − 3, if x ≤ 2
3
10. f ( x) =  2 11. f ( x) =  2
 x + 1, if x < 1  x + 1, if x > 2
 x − 1, if x ≤ 1
10
12. f ( x) =  2
 x , if x > 1
13. Is the function defined by
 x + 5, if x ≤ 1
f ( x) = 
 x − 5, if x > 1
a continuous function?
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Discuss the continuity of the function f, where f is defined by

3, if 0 ≤ x ≤ 1 2 x, if x < 0
 
14. f ( x) =  4, if 1 < x < 3 15. f ( x) = 0, if 0 ≤ x ≤ 1
5, if 3 ≤ x ≤ 10 4 x, if x > 1
 
−2, if x ≤ − 1

16. f ( x) =  2 x, if − 1 < x ≤ 1
2, if x > 1

17. Find the relationship between a and b so that the function f defined by
ax + 1, if x ≤ 3
f ( x) = 
bx + 3, if x > 3
is continuous at x = 3.
18. For what value of λ is the function defined by
λ ( x 2 − 2 x), if x ≤ 0
f ( x) = 
4 x + 1, if x > 0
continuous at x = 0? What about continuity at x = 1?
19. Show that the function defined by g (x) = x – [x] is discontinuous at all integral
points. Here [x] denotes the greatest integer less than or equal to x.
20. Is the function defined by f (x) = x2 – sin x + 5 continuous at x = π?
21. Discuss the continuity of the following functions:
(a) f (x) = sin x + cos x (b) f (x) = sin x – cos x
(c) f (x) = sin x . cos x
22. Discuss the continuity of the cosine, cosecant, secant and cotangent functions.
23. Find all points of discontinuity of f, where
 sin x
 , if x < 0
f ( x) =  x
 x + 1, if x ≥ 0
24. Determine if f defined by
 2 1
 x sin , if x ≠ 0
f ( x) =  x
0, if x = 0
is a continuous function?
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118 MATHEMATICS
25. Examine the continuity of f, where f is defined by

sin x − cos x, if x ≠ 0
f ( x) = 
 −1, if x = 0
Find the values of k so that the function f is continuous at the indicated point in Exercises
26 to 29.
 k cos x π
 π − 2 x , if x ≠ 2 π
26. f ( x) =  at x =
3, π 2
if x =
 2
kx , if x ≤ 2
2
27. f ( x) =  at x = 2
3, if x > 2
 kx + 1, if x ≤ π
28. f ( x) =  at x = π
cos x, if x > π
 kx + 1, if x ≤ 5
29. f ( x) =  at x = 5
3x − 5, if x > 5
30. Find the values of a and b such that the function defined by
5, if x ≤ 2

f ( x) = ax + b, if 2 < x < 10
21, if x ≥ 10

is a continuous function.
31. Show that the function defined by f (x) = cos (x2) is a continuous function.
32. Show that the function defined by f (x) = | cos x | is a continuous function.
33. Examine that sin | x | is a continuous function.
34. Find all the points of discontinuity of f defined by f (x) = | x | – | x + 1 |.
5.3. Differentiability
Recall the following facts from previous class. We had defined the derivative of a real
function as follows:
Suppose f is a real function and c is a point in its domain. The derivative of f at c is
defined by
f (c + h ) − f (c )
lim
h →0 h
Reprint 2024-25
d
provided this limit exists. Derivative of f at c is denoted by f ′(c) or ( f ( x)) | c . The
dx
function defined by
f ( x + h) − f ( x )
f ′( x) = lim
h →0 h
wherever the limit exists is defined to be the derivative of f. The derivative of f is
d dy
denoted by f ′ (x) or ( f ( x)) or if y = f (x) by or y′. The process of finding
dx dx
derivative of a function is called differentiation. We also use the phrase differentiate
f (x) with respect to x to mean find f ′(x).
The following rules were established as a part of algebra of derivatives:
(1) (u ± v)′ = u′ ± v′
(2) (uv)′ = u′v + uv′ (Leibnitz or product rule)
′
(3)  u  = u′v − uv′ , wherever v ≠ 0 (Quotient rule).
v v2
The following table gives a list of derivatives of certain standard functions:
Table 5.3
f (x) xn sin x cos x tan x
f ′(x) nx n – 1 cos x – sin x sec2 x
Whenever we defined derivative, we had put a caution provided the limit exists.
Now the natural question is; what if it doesn’t? The question is quite pertinent and so is
f (c + h ) − f (c )
its answer. If lim does not exist, we say that f is not differentiable at c.
h →0 h
In other words, we say that a function f is differentiable at a point c in its domain if both
f (c + h ) − f ( c ) f (c + h ) − f (c )
lim– and lim+ are finite and equal. A function is said
h →0 h h →0 h
to be differentiable in an interval [a, b] if it is differentiable at every point of [a, b]. As
in case of continuity, at the end points a and b, we take the right hand limit and left hand
limit, which are nothing but left hand derivative and right hand derivative of the function
at a and b respectively. Similarly, a function is said to be differentiable in an interval
(a, b) if it is differentiable at every point of (a, b).
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120 MATHEMATICS
Theorem 3 If a function f is differentiable at a point c, then it is also continuous at that

point.
Proof Since f is differentiable at c, we have
f ( x ) − f (c )
lim = f ′(c)
x →c x−c
But for x ≠ c, we have
f ( x ) − f (c )
f (x) – f (c) = . ( x − c)
x−c
 f ( x ) − f (c ) 
Therefore lim [ f ( x) − f (c)] = lim  . ( x − c) 
x →c x →c  x−c 
f ( x ) − f (c ) 
or lim [ f ( x)] − lim [ f (c)] = lim  . lim [( x − c)]
x →c x →c 
x →c  x−c  x →c
= f ′(c) . 0 = 0
or lim f ( x) = f (c)
x →c
Hence f is continuous at x = c.
Corollary 1 Every differentiable function is continuous.
We remark that the converse of the above statement is not true. Indeed we have
seen that the function defined by f (x) = | x | is a continuous function. Consider the left
hand limit
f (0 + h) − f (0) −h
lim– = = −1
h →0 h h
The right hand limit
f (0 + h) − f (0) h
lim+ = =1
h →0 h h
f (0 + h) − f (0)
Since the above left and right hand limits at 0 are not equal, lim
h h →0
does not exist and hence f is not differentiable at 0. Thus f is not a differentiable
function.
5.3.1 Derivatives of composite functions
To study derivative of composite functions, we start with an illustrative example. Say,
we want to find the derivative of f, where
f (x) = (2x + 1)3
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One way is to expand (2x + 1)3 using binomial theorem and find the derivative as
a polynomial function as illustrated below.
d d
f ( x) = (2 x + 1)3 
dx dx
d
(8 x 3 + 12 x 2 + 6 x + 1)
=
dx
= 24x2 + 24x + 6
= 6 (2x + 1)2
Now, observe that f (x) = (h o g) (x)
where g(x) = 2x + 1 and h(x) = x3. Put t = g(x) = 2x + 1. Then f(x) = h(t) = t3. Thus
df dh dt
= 6 (2x + 1)2 = 3(2x + 1)2 . 2 = 3t2 . 2 = ⋅
dx dt dx
The advantage with such observation is that it simplifies the calculation in finding
the derivative of, say, (2x + 1)100. We may formalise this observation in the following
theorem called the chain rule.
Theorem 4 (Chain Rule) Let f be a real valued function which is a composite of two
dt dv
functions u and v ; i.e., f = v o u. Suppose t = u (x) and if both and exist, we have
dx dt
df dv dt
= ⋅
dx dt dx
We skip the proof of this theorem. Chain rule may be extended as follows. Suppose
f is a real valued function which is a composite of three functions u, v and w ; i.e.,
f = (w o u) o v. If t = v (x) and s = u (t), then
df d ( w o u ) dt dw ds dt
= ⋅ = ⋅ ⋅
dx dt dx ds dt dx
provided all the derivatives in the statement exist. Reader is invited to formulate chain
rule for composite of more functions.
Example 21 Find the derivative of the function given by f (x) = sin (x2).
Solution Observe that the given function is a composite of two functions. Indeed, if
t = u(x) = x2 and v(t) = sin t, then
f (x) = (v o u) (x) = v(u(x)) = v(x2) = sin x2
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122 MATHEMATICS
dv dt
Put t = u(x) = x2. Observe that = cos t and = 2 x exist. Hence, by chain rule
dt dx
df dv dt
= ⋅ = cos t ⋅ 2 x
dx dt dx
It is normal practice to express the final result only in terms of x. Thus
df
= cos t ⋅ 2 x = 2 x cos x 2
dx
EXERCISE 5.2
Differentiate the functions with respect to x in Exercises 1 to 8.
1. sin (x2 + 5) 2. cos (sin x) 3. sin (ax + b)
sin (ax + b)
4. sec (tan ( x )) 5. cos (cx + d ) 6. cos x3 . sin2 (x5)
7. 2 cot ( x 2 ) 8. cos ( x )
9. Prove that the function f given by
f (x) = | x – 1 |, x ∈ R
is not differentiable at x = 1.
10. Prove that the greatest integer function defined by
f (x) = [x], 0 < x < 3
is not differentiable at x = 1 and x = 2.
5.3.2 Derivatives of implicit functions

Until now we have been differentiating various functions given in the form y = f (x).
But it is not necessary that functions are always expressed in this form. For example,
consider one of the following relationships between x and y:
x–y–π=0
x + sin xy – y = 0
In the first case, we can solve for y and rewrite the relationship as y = x – π. In
the second case, it does not seem that there is an easy way to solve for y. Nevertheless,
there is no doubt about the dependence of y on x in either of the cases. When a
relationship between x and y is expressed in a way that it is easy to solve for y and
write y = f (x), we say that y is given as an explicit function of x. In the latter case it
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is implicit that y is a function of x and we say that the relationship of the second type,
above, gives function implicitly. In this subsection, we learn to differentiate implicit
functions.
dy
Example 22 Find if x – y = π.
dx
Solution One way is to solve for y and rewrite the above as
y=x–π
dy
But then =1
dx
Alternatively, directly differentiating the relationship w.r.t., x, we have
d dπ
( x − y) =
dx dx
dπ
Recall that means to differentiate the constant function taking value π
dx
everywhere w.r.t., x. Thus
d d
( x) − ( y ) = 0
dx dx
which implies that
dy dx
= =1
dx dx
dy
Example 23 Find , if y + sin y = cos x.
dx
Solution We differentiate the relationship directly with respect to x, i.e.,
dy d d
+ (sin y ) = (cos x)
dx dx dx
which implies using chain rule
dy dy
+ cos y ⋅ = – sin x
dx dx
dy sin x
This gives = −
dx 1 + cos y
where y ≠ (2n + 1) π
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124 MATHEMATICS
5.3.3 Derivatives of inverse trigonometric functions

We remark that inverse trigonometric functions are continuous functions, but we will
not prove this. Now we use chain rule to find derivatives of these functions.
Example 24 Find the derivative of f given by f (x) = sin–1 x assuming it exists.
Solution Let y = sin–1 x. Then, x = sin y.
Differentiating both sides w.r.t. x, we get
dy
1 = cos y
dx
dy 1 1
which implies that = =
dx cos y cos (sin −1 x)
π π
Observe that this is defined only for cos y ≠ 0, i.e., sin–1 x ≠ − , , i.e., x ≠ – 1, 1,
2 2
i.e., x ∈ (– 1, 1).
To make this result a bit more attractive, we carry out the following manipulation.
Recall that for x ∈ (– 1, 1), sin (sin–1 x) = x and hence
cos2 y = 1 – (sin y)2 = 1 – (sin (sin–1 x))2 = 1 – x2
 π π
Also, since y ∈  − ,  , cos y is positive and hence cos y = 1 − x 2
 2 2
Thus, for x ∈ (– 1, 1),
dy 1 1
= =
dx cos y 1 − x2
f (x) sin–1 x cos-1 x tan-1x

1 −1 1
f 1(x) 1 − x2 1 − x2 1 + x2
Domain off (-1, 1) (-1, 1) R
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EXERCISE 5.3
dy
Find in the following:
dx
1. 2x + 3y = sin x 2. 2x + 3y = sin y 3. ax + by2 = cos y
4. xy + y2 = tan x + y 5. x2 + xy + y2 = 100 6. x3 + x2y + xy2 + y3 = 81
 2x 
7. sin2 y + cos xy = κ 8. sin2 x + cos2 y = 1 9. y = sin–1  
 1 + x2 
 3 x − x3  1 1
10. y = tan–1  2 
, − <x<
 1 − 3x  3 3
 1 − x2 
11. y = cos −1  , 0 < x < 1
 1 + x2 
 1 − x2 
12. y = sin −1  , 0 < x < 1
 1 + x2 
 2x  ,
13. y = cos −1   −1 < x < 1
 1 + x2 
14. (
y = sin −1 2 x 1 − x 2 , −)1
<x<
1
2 2
 1 , 1
15. y = sec −1  2  0< x<
 2x −1  2
5.4 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

Till now we have learnt some aspects of different classes of functions like polynomial
functions, rational functions and trigonometric functions. In this section, we shall
learn about a new class of (related) functions called exponential functions and logarithmic
functions. It needs to be emphasized that many statements made in this section are
motivational and precise proofs of these are well beyond the scope of this text.
The Fig 5.9 gives a sketch of y = f1(x) = x, y = f2(x) = x2, y = f3(x) = x3 and y = f4(x)
4
= x . Observe that the curves get steeper as the power of x increases. Steeper the
curve, faster is the rate of growth. What this means is that for a fixed increment in the
value of x (> 1), the increment in the value of y = fn (x) increases as n increases for n
= 1, 2, 3, 4. It is conceivable that such a statement is true for all positive values of n,
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126 MATHEMATICS
where fn (x) = xn. Essentially, this means

that the graph of y = fn (x) leans more
towards the y-axis as n increases. For
example, consider f10(x) = x10 and f15(x)
= x 15 . If x increases from 1 to 2, f 10
increases from 1 to 2 10 whereas f 15
increases from 1 to 215. Thus, for the same
increment in x, f15 grow faster than f10.
Upshot of the above discussion is that
the growth of polynomial functions is
dependent on the degree of the polynomial
function – higher the degree, greater is
the growth. The next natural question is: Fig 5.9
Is there a function which grows faster than any polynomial function. The answer is in
affirmative and an example of such a function is
y = f (x) = 10x.
Our claim is that this function f grows faster than fn (x) = xn for any positive integer n.
For example, we can prove that 10x grows faster than f100 (x) = x100. For large values
3
of x like x = 103, note that f100 (x) = (103)100 = 10300 whereas f (103) = 1010 = 101000.
Clearly f (x) is much greater than f100 (x). It is not difficult to prove that for all
x > 103, f (x) > f100 (x). But we will not attempt to give a proof of this here. Similarly, by
choosing large values of x, one can verify that f (x) grows faster than fn (x) for any
positive integer n.
Definition 3 The exponential function with positive base b > 1 is the function
y = f (x) = bx
The graph of y = 10x is given in the Fig 5.9.
It is advised that the reader plots this graph for particular values of b like 2, 3 and 4.
Following are some of the salient features of the exponential functions:
(1) Domain of the exponential function is R, the set of all real numbers.
(2) Range of the exponential function is the set of all positive real numbers.
(3) The point (0, 1) is always on the graph of the exponential function (this is a
restatement of the fact that b0 = 1 for any real b > 1).
(4) Exponential function is ever increasing; i.e., as we move from left to right, the
graph rises above.
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(5) For very large negative values of x, the exponential function is very close to 0. In
other words, in the second quadrant, the graph approaches x-axis (but never
meets it).
Exponential function with base 10 is called the common exponential function. In
the Appendix A.1.4 of Class XI, it was observed that the sum of the series
1 1
1+ + + ...
1! 2!
is a number between 2 and 3 and is denoted by e. Using this e as the base we obtain an
extremely important exponential function y = ex.
This is called natural exponential function.
It would be interesting to know if the inverse of the exponential function exists and
has nice interpretation. This search motivates the following definition.
Definition 4 Let b > 1 be a real number. Then we say logarithm of a to base b is x if
bx = a.
Logarithm of a to base b is denoted by logb a. Thus logb a = x if bx = a. Let us
work with a few explicit examples to get a feel for this. We know 23 = 8. In terms of
logarithms, we may rewrite this as log2 8 = 3. Similarly, 104 = 10000 is equivalent to
saying log10 10000 = 4. Also, 625 = 54 = 252 is equivalent to saying log5 625 = 4 or
log25 625 = 2.
On a slightly more mature note, fixing a base b > 1, we may look at logarithm as
a function from positive real numbers to all real numbers. This function, called the
logarithmic function, is defined by
logb : R+ → R
x → logb x = y if by = x
As before if the base b = 10, we say it
is common logarithms and if b = e, then
we say it is natural logarithms. Often
natural logarithm is denoted by ln. In this
chapter, log x denotes the logarithm
function to base e, i.e., ln x will be written
as simply log x. The Fig 5.10 gives the plots
of logarithm function to base 2, e and 10.
Some of the important observations
about the logarithm function to any base
b > 1 are listed below:
Fig 5.10
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128 MATHEMATICS
(1) We cannot make a meaningful definition of logarithm of non-positive numbers

and hence the domain of log function is R+.
(2) The range of log function is the set of all real numbers.
(3) The point (1, 0) is always on the graph of the log function.
(4) The log function is ever increasing,
i.e., as we move from left to right
the graph rises above.
(5) For x very near to zero, the value
of log x can be made lesser than
any given real number. In other
words in the fourth quadrant the
graph approaches y-axis (but
never meets it).
(6) Fig 5.11 gives the plot of y = ex and
y = ln x. It is of interest to observe
that the two curves are the mirror Fig 5.11
images of each other reflected in the line y = x.
Two properties of ‘log’ functions are proved below:
(1) There is a standard change of base rule to obtain loga p in terms of logb p. Let
loga p = α, logb p = β and logb a = γ. This means aα = p, bβ = p and bγ = a.
Substituting the third equation in the first one, we have
(bγ)α = bγα = p
Using this in the second equation, we get
bβ = p = bγα
β
which implies β = αγ or α = . But then
γ
log b p
loga p =
log b a
(2) Another interesting property of the log function is its effect on products. Let
logb pq = α. Then bα = pq. If logb p = β and logb q = γ, then bβ = p and bγ = q.
But then bα = pq = bβbγ = bβ + γ
which implies α = β + γ, i.e.,
logb pq = logb p + logb q
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A particularly interesting and important consequence of this is when p = q. In

this case the above may be rewritten as
logb p2 = logb p + logb p = 2 log p
An easy generalisation of this (left as an exercise!) is
logb pn = n log p
for any positive integer n. In fact this is true for any real number n, but we will
not attempt to prove this. On the similar lines the reader is invited to verify
x
log b = logb x – logb y
y
Example 25 Is it true that x = elog x for all real x?
Solution First, observe that the domain of log function is set of all positive real numbers.
So the above equation is not true for non-positive real numbers. Now, let y = elog x. If
y > 0, we may take logarithm which gives us log y = log (elog x) = log x . log e = log x. Thus
y = x. Hence x = elog x is true only for positive values of x.
One of the striking properties of the natural exponential function in differential
calculus is that it doesn’t change during the process of differentiation. This is captured
in the following theorem whose proof we skip.
Theorem 5*
d x
(1) The derivative of ex w.r.t., x is ex; i.e., (e ) = ex.
dx
1 d 1
(2) The derivative of log x w.r.t., x is ; i.e., (log x) = .
x dx x
Example 26 Differentiate the following w.r.t. x:
(i) e –x (ii) sin (log x), x > 0 (iii) cos–1 (ex) (iv) ecos x
Solution
(i) Let y = e – x. Using chain rule, we have
dy −x d
= e ⋅ (– x) = – e– x
dx dx
(ii) Let y = sin (log x). Using chain rule, we have
dy d cos (log x)
= cos (log x) ⋅ (log x) =
dx dx x
* Please see supplementary material on Page 222.
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130 MATHEMATICS
(iii) Let y = cos–1 (ex). Using chain rule, we have
dy −1 d x −e x
= ⋅ (e ) =
dx 1 − (e x ) 2 dx 1 − e2 x
(iv) Let y = ecos x. Using chain rule, we have
dy
= ecos x ⋅ (− sin x) = − (sin x) ecos x
dx
EXERCISE 5.4
Differentiate the following w.r.t. x:
ex −1 3
1. 2. esin x
3. e x
sin x
2 5
6. e + e + ... + e
x x x
4. sin (tan–1 e–x) 5. log (cos ex)
cos x
7. e x
, x>0 8. log (log x), x > 1 9. log x , x > 0
10. cos (log x + ex), x > 0

5.5. Logarithmic Differentiation
In this section, we will learn to differentiate certain special class of functions given in
the form
y = f (x) = [u(x)]v (x)
By taking logarithm (to base e) the above may be rewritten as
log y = v(x) log [u(x)]
Using chain rule we may differentiate this to get
1 dy 1 .
⋅ = v( x) ⋅ u′(x) + v′(x) . log [u(x)]
y dx u ( x)
which implies that
dy  v( x) 
= y ⋅ u′( x) + v′( x) ⋅ log [ u ( x)]
dx  u ( x ) 
The main point to be noted in this method is that f (x) and u(x) must always be
positive as otherwise their logarithms are not defined. This process of differentiation is
known as logarithms differentiation and is illustrated by the following examples:
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( x − 3) ( x 2 + 4)
Example 27 Differentiate w.r.t. x.
3x 2 + 4 x + 5
( x − 3) ( x 2 + 4)
Solution Let y =
(3 x 2 + 4 x + 5)
Taking logarithm on both sides, we have
1
log y = [log (x – 3) + log (x2 + 4) – log (3x2 + 4x + 5)]
2
Now, differentiating both sides w.r.t. x, we get
1 dy 1 1 2x 6x + 4 
⋅ =  + 2 − 2
y dx 2  ( x − 3) x + 4 3x + 4 x + 5 
dy y 1 2x 6x + 4 
=  + 2 − 2
2  ( x − 3) x + 4 3 x + 4 x + 5 
or
dx
1 ( x − 3) ( x 2 + 4)  1 2x 6x + 4 
= + 2 − 2
2 3x + 4 x + 5  ( x − 3) x + 4 3 x + 4 x + 5 
2 
Example 28 Differentiate ax w.r.t. x, where a is a positive constant.

Solution Let y = ax. Then
log y = x log a
Differentiating both sides w.r.t. x, we have
1 dy
y dx = log a
dy
or = y log a
dx
d x
Thus (a ) = ax log a
dx
d x d x log a d
Alternatively (a ) = (e ) = e x log a ( x log a )
dx dx dx
= ex log a . log a = ax log a.
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132 MATHEMATICS
Example 29 Differentiate xsin x, x > 0 w.r.t. x.

Solution Let y = xsin x. Taking logarithm on both sides, we have
log y = sin x log x
1 dy d d
Therefore . sin x (log x) + log x (sin x)
y dx = dx dx
1 dy 1
or (sin x) + log x cos x
y dx = x
dy  sin x 
or = y + cos x log x 
dx  x 
sin x  sin x 
= x  + cos x log x 
 x 
= xsin x −1 ⋅ sin x + xsin x ⋅ cos x log x
dy
Example 30 Find , if yx + xy + xx = ab.
dx
Solution Given that yx + xy + xx = ab.
Putting u = yx, v = xy and w = xx, we get u + v + w = ab
du dv dw
Therefore + + =0 ... (1)
dx dx dx
Now, u = yx. Taking logarithm on both sides, we have
log u = x log y
1 du d d
⋅ = x (log y ) + log y ( x )
u dx dx dx
1 dy
= x ⋅ + log y ⋅ 1
y dx
du  x dy   x dy 
So = u + log y  = y x  + log y  ... (2)
dx  y dx   y dx 
Also v = xy
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log v = y log x
1 dv d dy
⋅ = y (log x) + log x
v dx dx dx
1 dy
= y ⋅ + log x ⋅
x dx
dv y dy 
So = v  + log x 
dx  x dx 
y y dy 
= x  + log x  ... (3)
x dx 
Again w = xx
log w = x log x.
1 dw d d
⋅ = x (log x) + log x ⋅ ( x)
w dx dx dx
1
= x ⋅ + log x ⋅ 1
x
dw
i.e. = w (1 + log x)
dx
= xx (1 + log x) ... (4)
From (1), (2), (3), (4), we have
 x dy  y dy 
yx  + log y  + x y  + log x  + xx (1 + log x) = 0
 y dx  x dx 
dy
or (x . yx – 1 + xy . log x) = – xx (1 + log x) – y . xy–1 – yx log y
dx
dy − [ y x log y + y . x y −1 + x x (1 + log x)]
Therefore =
dx x . y x −1 + x y log x
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134 MATHEMATICS
EXERCISE 5.5
Differentiate the functions given in Exercises 1 to 11 w.r.t. x.
( x − 1) ( x − 2)
1. cos x . cos 2x . cos 3x 2.
( x − 3) ( x − 4) ( x − 5)
3. (log x)cos x 4. xx – 2sin x
x  1
 1 1+ 
5. (x + 3)2 . (x + 4)3 . (x + 5)4 6.  x +  + x x 
 x
7. (log x)x + xlog x 8. (sin x)x + sin–1 x
x2 + 1
9. xsin x + (sin x)cos x 10. x x cos x +
x2 − 1
1
11. (x cos x)x + ( x sin x) x
dy
Find of the functions given in Exercises 12 to 15.
dx
12. xy + yx = 1 13. yx = xy
14. (cos x)y = (cos y)x 15. xy = e(x – y)
16. Find the derivative of the function given by f (x) = (1 + x) (1 + x2) (1 + x4) (1 + x8)
and hence find f ′(1).
17. Differentiate (x2 – 5x + 8) (x3 + 7x + 9) in three ways mentioned below:
(i) by using product rule
(ii) by expanding the product to obtain a single polynomial.
(iii) by logarithmic differentiation.
Do they all give the same answer?
18. If u, v and w are functions of x, then show that
d du dv dw
(u. v. w) = v. w + u . .w+u.v
dx dx dx dx
in two ways - first by repeated application of product rule, second by logarithmic
differentiation.
5.6 Derivatives of Functions in Parametric Forms
Sometimes the relation between two variables is neither explicit nor implicit, but some
link of a third variable with each of the two variables, separately, establishes a relation
between the first two variables. In such a situation, we say that the relation between
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them is expressed via a third variable. The third variable is called the parameter. More
precisely, a relation expressed between two variables x and y in the form
x = f (t), y = g (t) is said to be parametric form with t as a parameter.
In order to find derivative of function in such form, we have by chain rule.
dy dy dx
= ⋅
dt dx dt
dy
dy  dx 
or = dt  whenever ≠ 0
dx dx  dt 
dt
dy g ′(t )  dy dx 
Thus =  as = g ′(t ) and = f ′(t )  [provided f ′(t) ≠ 0]
dx f ′(t )  dt dt 
dy
Example 31 Find , if x = a cos θ, y = a sin θ.
dx
Solution Given that
x = a cos θ, y = a sin θ
dx dy
Therefore = – a sin θ, = a cos θ
dθ dθ
dy
dy d θ = a cos θ = − cot θ
Hence =
dx dx − a sin θ
dθ
dy
Example 32 Find , if x = at2, y = 2at.
dx
Solution Given that x = at2, y = 2at
dx dy
So = 2at and = 2a
dt dt
dy
dy dt = 2a = 1
Therefore =
dx dx 2at t
dt
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136 MATHEMATICS
dy
Example 33 Find , if x = a (θ + sin θ), y = a (1 – cos θ).
dx
dx dy
Solution We have = a(1 + cos θ), = a (sin θ)
dθ dθ
dy
dy d θ = a sin θ = tan θ
Therefore =
dx dx a (1 + cos θ) 2
dθ
dy
ANote It may be noted here that
dx
is expressed in terms of parameter only
without directly involving the main variables x and y.
2 2 2
Example 34 Find dy , if x 3 + y 3 = a 3 .
dx
Solution Let x = a cos3 θ, y = a sin3 θ. Then
2 2 2 2
= (a cos θ) 3 + (a sin θ) 3
3 3
x3 + y3
2 2
= a 3 (cos θ + (sin θ) = a 3
2 2
2 2 2
Hence, x = a cos3 θ, y = a sin3 θ is parametric equation of x 3 + y 3 = a 3
dx dy
Now = – 3a cos2 θ sin θ and = 3a sin2 θ cos θ
dθ dθ
dy
d θ = 3a sin θ cos θ = − tan θ = − 3 y
2
dy
Therefore =
dx dx − 3a cos 2 θ sin θ x
dθ
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EXERCISE 5.6
If x and y are connected parametrically by the equations given in Exercises 1 to 10,

dy
without eliminating the parameter, Find .
dx
1. x = 2at2, y = at4 2. x = a cos θ, y = b cos θ
4
3. x = sin t, y = cos 2t 4. x = 4t, y =
t
5. x = cos θ – cos 2θ, y = sin θ – sin 2θ
sin 3 t cos3 t
6. x = a (θ – sin θ), y = a (1 + cos θ) 7. x = , y=
cos 2t cos 2t
 t
8.x = a  cos t + log tan  y = a sin t 9. x = a sec θ, y = b tan θ
 2
10. x = a (cos θ + θ sin θ), y = a (sin θ – θ cos θ)
−1 −1 dy y
11. If x = a sin t , y = a cos t , show that =−
dx x
5.7 Second Order Derivative
Let y = f (x). Then
dy
= f ′(x) ... (1)
dx
If f ′(x) is differentiable, we may differentiate (1) again w.r.t. x. Then, the left hand
d  dy 
side becomes   which is called the second order derivative of y w.r.t. x and
dx  dx 
d2y
is denoted by . The second order derivative of f (x) is denoted by f ″(x). It is also
dx 2
denoted by D2 y or y″ or y2 if y = f (x). We remark that higher order derivatives may be
defined similarly.
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138 MATHEMATICS
d2y
Example 35 Find , if y = x3 + tan x.
dx 2
Solution Given that y = x3 + tan x. Then
dy
= 3x2 + sec2 x
dx
d2y d ( 2
Therefore 2 =
3x + sec2 x )
dx dx
= 6x + 2 sec x . sec x tan x = 6x + 2 sec2 x tan x
d2y
Example 36 If y = A sin x + B cos x, then prove that + y=0.
dx 2
Solution We have
dy
= A cos x – B sin x
dx
d2y d
and 2 = (A cos x – B sin x)
dx dx
= – A sin x – B cos x = – y
d2y
Hence +y=0
dx 2
d2y dy
Example 37 If y = 3e2x + 2e3x, prove that 2
− 5 + 6y = 0 .
dx dx
Solution Given that y = 3e2x + 2e3x. Then
dy
= 6e2x + 6e3x = 6 (e2x + e3x)
dx
d2y
Therefore = 12e2x + 18e3x = 6 (2e2x + 3e3x)
dx 2
d2y dy
Hence 2
−5 + 6y = 6 (2e2x + 3e3x)
dx dx
– 30 (e2x + e3x) + 6 (3e2x + 2e3x) = 0
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d2y dy
Example 38 If y = sin–1 x, show that (1 – x2) 2
−x =0.
dx dx
Solution We have y = sin–1 x. Then
dy 1
=
dx (1 − x 2 )
dy
or (1 − x 2 ) =1
dx
d  dy 
 (1 − x ) .  = 0
2
So
dx  dx 
or (1 − x 2 ) ⋅
d 2 y dy d
+ ⋅
dx 2 dx dx
( )
(1 − x 2 ) = 0
d 2 y dy 2x
or (1 − x 2 ) ⋅ 2
− ⋅ =0
dx dx 2 1 − x 2
d2y dy
Hence (1 − x 2 )2
−x =0
dx dx
Alternatively, Given that y = sin–1 x, we have
1
y1 = , i.e., (1 − x 2 ) y 2 = 1
1 − x2 1
So (1 − x 2 ) . 2 y1 y2 + y12 (0 − 2 x) = 0
Hence (1 – x2) y2 – xy1 = 0
EXERCISE 5.7
Find the second order derivatives of the functions given in Exercises 1 to 10.
1. x2 + 3x + 2 2. x 20 3. x . cos x
4. log x 5. x3 log x 6. ex sin 5x
7. e6x cos 3x 8. tan–1 x 9. log (log x)
10. sin (log x)
d2y
11. If y = 5 cos x – 3 sin x, prove that + y=0
dx 2
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140 MATHEMATICS
d2y
12. If y = cos–1 x, Find in terms of y alone.
dx 2
13. If y = 3 cos (log x) + 4 sin (log x), show that x2 y2 + xy1 + y = 0
d2y dy
mx nx
14. If y = Ae + Be , show that 2
− (m + n) + mny = 0
dx dx
d2y
15. If y = 500e7x + 600e– 7x, show that = 49 y
dx 2
2
d 2 y  dy 
16. If ey (x + 1) = 1, show that = 
dx 2  dx 
17. If y = (tan–1 x)2, show that (x2 + 1)2 y2 + 2x (x2 + 1) y1 = 2
Example 39 Differentiate w.r.t. x, the following function:
1
(i) 3x + 2 + (ii) log7 (log x)
2x2 + 4
Solution
1 1
1 −
(i) Let y = 3x + 2 + = (3x + 2) 2 + (2 x + 4)
2 2
2 x2 + 4
2
Note that this function is defined at all real numbers x > − . Therefore
3
1 1
dy 1 −1 d  1 − −1 d
= (3 x + 2) 2 ⋅ (3 x + 2) +  −  (2 x + 4) 2 ⋅ (2 x + 4)
2 2
dx 2 dx  2 dx
1 3
1 −  1 −
= (3x + 2) 2 ⋅ (3) −   (2 x + 4) 2 ⋅ 4 x
2
2 2
3 2x
= − 3
2 3x + 2
( 2x2 + 4) 2
2
This is defined for all real numbers x > − .
3
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log (log x)
(ii) Let y = log7 (log x) = (by change of base formula).
log 7
The function is defined for all real numbers x > 1. Therefore
dy 1 d
= (log (log x))
dx log 7 dx
1 1 d
= ⋅ (log x)
log 7 log x dx
1
=
x log 7 log x
Example 40 Differentiate the following w.r.t. x.
 sin x   2 x +1 
(i) cos – 1 (sin x) (ii) tan −1   (iii) sin −1  
 1 + cos x   1 + 4x 
Solution
(i) Let f (x) = cos – 1 (sin x). Observe that this function is defined for all real numbers.
We may rewrite this function as
f (x) = cos – 1 (sin x)
 π 
= cos −1  cos  − x 
  2 
π
= −x
2
Thus f ′(x) = – 1.
 sin x 
(ii) Let f (x) = tan – 1   . Observe that this function is defined for all real
 1 + cos x 
numbers, where cos x ≠ – 1; i.e., at all odd multiplies of π. We may rewrite this
function as
−1  sin x 
f (x) = tan  
 1 + cos x 
  x  x 
 2 sin   cos   
−1 2 2
= tan  
 2 x 
2cos
 2 
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142 MATHEMATICS
−1   x  x
= tan  tan    =
  2  2
 x
Observe that we could cancel cos   in both numerator and denominator as it
2
1.
is not equal to zero. Thus f ′(x) =
2
 2x + 1 
(iii) Let f (x) = sin – 1   . To find the domain of this function we need to find all
 1 + 4x 
2 x +1
x such that −1 ≤ ≤ 1 . Since the quantity in the middle is always positive,
1 + 4x
2 x +1
we need to find all x such that ≤ 1 , i.e., all x such that 2x + 1 ≤ 1 + 4x. We
1+ 4 x
1
may rewrite this as 2 ≤ + 2x which is true for all x. Hence the function
2x
is defined at every real number. By putting 2x = tan θ, this function may be
rewritten as
x +1
−1  2 
f (x) = sin  x
1 + 4 
−1  2 ⋅ 2 
x
= sin  2
1 + ( 2 x ) 
−1  2 tan θ 
= sin 
1 + tan 2 θ 
= sin – 1 [sin 2θ]
= 2θ = 2 tan – 1 (2x)
1 d x
Thus f ′(x) = 2 ⋅ ⋅ (2 )
1 + (2 )
x 2 dx
2
= ⋅ (2 x )log 2
1 + 4x
2 x + 1 log 2
=
1 + 4x
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Example 41 Find f ′(x) if f (x) = (sin x)sin x for all 0 < x < π.
Solution The function y = (sin x)sin x is defined for all positive real numbers. Taking
logarithms, we have
log y = log (sin x)sin x = sin x log (sin x)
1 dy d
Then = (sin x log (sin x))
y dx dx
1 d
= cos x log (sin x) + sin x . ⋅ (sin x)
sin x dx
= cos x log (sin x) + cos x
= (1 + log (sin x)) cos x
dy
Thus = y((1 + log (sin x)) cos x) = (1 + log (sin x)) ( sin x)sin x cos x
dx
dy
Example 42 For a positive constant a find , where
dx
1 a
t+  1
y=a and x =  t + 
t,
 t
Solution Observe that both y and x are defined for all real t ≠ 0. Clearly
( )
1
dy d t +1 t+ d  1
= a t = a t
 t +  ⋅ log a
dt dt dt  t 
1
t+  1
 1 − 2  log a
t
= a
 t 
a −1
dx  1 d  1
Similarly = a t +  ⋅ t + 
dt  t dt  t
a −1
 1  1
= a t +  ⋅ 1 − 2 
 t  t 
dx
≠ 0 only if t ≠ ± 1. Thus for t ≠ ± 1,
dt
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144 MATHEMATICS
1
t+  1
dy a t  1 − 2  log a
dy dt  t 
= = a −1
dx dx  1  1
a t +  ⋅  1 − 2 
dt  t  t 
1
t+
a t log a
= a −1
 1
at + 
 t
2 cos x
Example 43 Differentiate sin x w.r.t. e .
Solution Let u (x) = sin2 x and v (x) = e cos x. We want to find du = du / dx . Clearly
dv dv / dx
du dv
= 2 sin x cos x and = e cos x (– sin x) = – (sin x) e cos x
dx dx
du 2sin x cos x 2cos x

Thus = = − cos x
dv − sin x e cos x
e

Differentiate w.r.t. x the function in Exercises 1 to 11.
1. (3x2 – 9x + 5)9 2. sin3 x + cos6 x
3. (5x) 3 cos 2x 4. sin–1(x x ), 0 ≤ x ≤ 1
x
cos −1
5. 2 ,–2<x<2
2x + 7
 1 + sin x + 1 − sin x  π
6. cot −1  ,0<x<
 1 + sin x − 1 − sin x  2
7. (log x)log x, x > 1
8. cos (a cos x + b sin x), for some constant a and b.
π 3π
9. (sin x – cos x) (sin x – cos x), < x <
4 4
10. xx + xa + ax + aa, for some fixed a > 0 and x > 0
Reprint 2024-25
x2
−3
+ ( x − 3) , for x > 3
2
11. xx
dy π π
12. Find , if y = 12 (1 – cos t), x = 10 (t – sin t), − < t <
dx 2 2
dy
13. Find , if y = sin–1 x + sin–1 1 − x 2 , 0 < x < 1
dx
14. If x 1 + y + y 1 + x = 0 , for , – 1 < x < 1, prove that
dy 1
=−
dx (1 + x )2
15. If (x – a)2 + (y – b)2 = c2, for some c > 0, prove that
3
  dy 2  2
1 +   
  dx  
d2y
dx 2
is a constant independent of a and b.
dy cos 2 ( a + y )
16. If cos y = x cos (a + y), with cos a ≠ ± 1, prove that = .
dx sin a
d2y
17. If x = a (cos t + t sin t) and y = a (sin t – t cos t), find .
dx 2
18. If f (x) = | x |3, show that f ″(x) exists for all real x and find it.
19. Using the fact that sin (A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B and the differentiation,
obtain the sum formula for cosines.
20. Does there exist a function which is continuous everywhere but not differentiable
at exactly two points? Justify your answer.
f ( x) g ( x ) h( x ) f ′( x) g ′( x) h′( x)
dy
21. If y = l m n , prove that = l m n
dx
a b c a b c
2
, – 1 ≤ x ≤ 1, show that (1 − x 2 ) d y − x dy − a 2 y = 0 .
−1
22. If y = ea cos x
dx 2 dx
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146 MATHEMATICS
Summary
® A real valued function is continuous at a point in its domain if the limit of the
function at that point equals the value of the function at that point. A function
is continuous if it is continuous on the whole of its domain.
® Sum, difference, product and quotient of continuous functions are continuous.
i.e., if f and g are continuous functions, then
(f ± g) (x) = f (x) ± g (x) is continuous.
(f . g) (x) = f (x) . g (x) is continuous.
 f  f ( x)
 g  ( x) = g ( x) (wherever g (x) ≠ 0) is continuous.
 
® Every differentiable function is continuous, but the converse is not true.
® Chain rule is rule to differentiate composites of functions. If f = v o u, t = u (x)
dt dv
and if both and exist then
dx dt
df dv dt
= ⋅
dx dt dx
® Following are some of the standard derivatives (in appropriate domains):
d ( −1 ) 1 d ( −1 ) 1
sin x = cos x = −
dx 1 − x2 dx 1 − x2
d ( −1 ) 1
tan x =
dx 1 + x2
d ( x) x d 1
e =e ( log x ) =
dx dx x
® Logarithmic differentiation is a powerful technique to differentiate functions
of the form f (x) = [u (x)]v (x). Here both f (x) and u (x) need to be positive for
this technique to make sense.
—v —
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76 MATHEMATICS
Chapter 4
DETERMINANTS
v All Mathematical truths are relative and conditional. — C.P. STEINMETZ v

4.1 Introduction
In the previous chapter, we have studied about matrices
and algebra of matrices. We have also learnt that a system
of algebraic equations can be expressed in the form of
matrices. This means, a system of linear equations like
a1 x + b1 y = c 1
a2 x + b2 y = c 2
a b   x c 
can be represented as  1 1    =  1  . Now, this
 a2 b2   y  c2 
system of equations has a unique solution or not, is
determined by the number a1 b2 – a2 b1. (Recall that if
a1 b1 P.S. Laplace
≠ or, a1 b2 – a2 b1 ≠ 0, then the system of linear
a2 b2 (1749-1827)
equations has a unique solution). The number a1 b2 – a2 b1
a b 
which determines uniqueness of solution is associated with the matrix A =  1 1 
 a2 b2 
and is called the determinant of A or det A. Determinants have wide applications in
Engineering, Science, Economics, Social Science, etc.
In this chapter, we shall study determinants up to order three only with real entries.
Also, we will study various properties of determinants, minors, cofactors and applications
of determinants in finding the area of a triangle, adjoint and inverse of a square matrix,
consistency and inconsistency of system of linear equations and solution of linear
equations in two or three variables using inverse of a matrix.
4.2 Determinant
To every square matrix A = [aij] of order n, we can associate a number (real or
complex) called determinant of the square matrix A, where aij = (i, j)th element of A.
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DETERMINANTS 77
This may be thought of as a function which associates each square matrix with a
unique number (real or complex). If M is the set of square matrices, K is the set of
numbers (real or complex) and f : M → K is defined by f (A) = k, where A ∈ M and
k ∈ K, then f (A) is called the determinant of A. It is also denoted by | A | or det A or ∆.
a b  a b
If A =   , then determinant of A is written as | A| = = det (A)
c d  c d
Remarks
(i) For matrix A, | A | is read as determinant of A and not modulus of A.
(ii) Only square matrices have determinants.
4.2.1 Determinant of a matrix of order one
Let A = [a ] be the matrix of order 1, then determinant of A is defined to be equal to a
4.2.2 Determinant of a matrix of order two
 a11 a12 
Let A=   be a matrix of order 2 × 2,
 a21 a22 
then the determinant of A is defined as:
det (A) = |A| = ∆ = = a11a22 – a21a12
2 4
Example 1 Evaluate .
–1 2
2 4
Solution We have = 2 (2) – 4(–1) = 4 + 4 = 8.
–1 2
x x +1
Example 2 Evaluate
x –1 x
Solution We have
x x +1
= x (x) – (x + 1) (x – 1) = x2 – (x2 – 1) = x2 – x2 + 1 = 1
x –1 x
4.2.3 Determinant of a matrix of order 3 × 3

Determinant of a matrix of order three can be determined by expressing it in terms of
second order determinants. This is known as expansion of a determinant along
a row (or a column). There are six ways of expanding a determinant of order
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78 MATHEMATICS
3 corresponding to each of three rows (R1, R2 and R3) and three columns (C1, C2 and
C3) giving the same value as shown below.
Consider the determinant of square matrix A = [aij]3 × 3
a11 a12 a13

i.e., | A | = a21 a22 a23
a31 a32 a33
Expansion along first Row (R1)
Step 1 Multiply first element a11 of R1 by (–1)(1 + 1) [(–1)sum of suffixes in a11] and with the
second order determinant obtained by deleting the elements of first row (R1) and first
column (C1) of | A | as a11 lies in R1 and C1,
a22 a23
i.e., (–1)1 + 1 a11
a32 a33
Step 2 Multiply 2nd element a12 of R1 by (–1)1 + 2 [(–1)sum of suffixes in a12] and the second
order determinant obtained by deleting elements of first row (R1) and 2nd column (C2)
of | A | as a12 lies in R1 and C2,
a21 a23
i.e., (–1)1 + 2 a12
a31 a33
Step 3 Multiply third element a13 of R1 by (–1)1 + 3 [(–1)sum of suffixes in a ] and the second
13
order determinant obtained by deleting elements of first row (R1) and third column (C3)
of | A | as a13 lies in R1 and C3,
a21 a22
i.e., (–1)1 + 3 a13 a a32
31
Step 4 Now the expansion of determinant of A, that is, | A | written as sum of all three
terms obtained in steps 1, 2 and 3 above is given by
a22 a23 a a23
det A = |A| = (–1)1 + 1 a11 a + (–1)1 + 2 a12 21
32 a33 a31 a33
1+ 3 a21 a22
+ (–1) a13
a31 a32
or |A| = a11 (a22 a33 – a32 a23) – a12 (a21 a33 – a31 a23)
+ a13 (a21 a32 – a31 a22)
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DETERMINANTS 79
= a11 a22 a33 – a11 a32 a23 – a12 a21 a33 + a12 a31 a23 + a13 a21 a32
– a13 a31 a22 ... (1)
ANote We shall apply all four steps together.

Expansion along second row (R2)
a 11 a 12 a 13
| A | = a 21 a 22 a 23
a 31 a 32 a 33
Expanding along R2, we get
2 +1 a12 a13 a a
| A | = (–1) a21 + (–1)2 + 2 a22 11 13
a32 a33 a31 a33
a11 a12
+ (–1) 2 + 3 a23
a31 a32
= – a21 (a12 a33 – a32 a13) + a22 (a11 a33 – a31 a13)
– a23 (a11 a32 – a31 a12)
| A | = – a21 a12 a33 + a21 a32 a13 + a22 a11 a33 – a22 a31 a13 – a23 a11 a32
+ a23 a31 a12
– a13 a31 a22 ... (2)
Expansion along first Column (C1)
a11 a12 a13
| A | = a21 a22 a23
a31 a32 a33
By expanding along C1, we get
1 + 1 a22 a23 a a13

| A | = a11 (–1) + a21 (−1) 2 + 1 12
a32 a33 a32 a33
3 + 1 a 12 a13
+ a31 (–1) a22 a23
= a11 (a22 a33 – a23 a32) – a21 (a12 a33 – a13 a32) + a31 (a12 a23 – a13 a22)
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80 MATHEMATICS
| A | = a11 a22 a33 – a11 a23 a32 – a21 a12 a33 + a21 a13 a32 + a31 a12 a23
– a31 a13 a22
– a13 a31 a22 ... (3)
Clearly, values of | A | in (1), (2) and (3) are equal. It is left as an exercise to the
reader to verify that the values of |A| by expanding along R3, C2 and C3 are equal to the
value of | A | obtained in (1), (2) or (3).
Hence, expanding a determinant along any row or column gives same value.
Remarks
(i) For easier calculations, we shall expand the determinant along that row or column
which contains maximum number of zeros.
(ii) While expanding, instead of multiplying by (–1)i + j, we can multiply by +1 or –1
according as (i + j) is even or odd.
2 2 1 1
(iii) Let A =   and B =   . Then, it is easy to verify that A = 2B. Also
4 0 2 0
| A | = 0 – 8 = – 8 and | B | = 0 – 2 = – 2.
Observe that, | A | = 4 (– 2) = 22 | B | or | A | = 2n | B |, where n = 2 is the order of
square matrices A and B.
In general, if A = kB where A and B are square matrices of order n, then | A| = kn
| B |, where n = 1, 2, 3
1 2 4
Example 3 Evaluate the determinant ∆ = –1 3 0 .
4 1 0
Solution Note that in the third column, two entries are zero. So expanding along third
column (C3), we get
–1 3 1 2 1 2
∆= 4 –0 +0
4 1 4 1 –1 3
= 4 (–1 – 12) – 0 + 0 = – 52
0 sin α – cos α
Example 4 Evaluate ∆ = – sin α 0 sin β .
cos α – sin β 0
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DETERMINANTS 81
Solution Expanding along R1, we get
0 sin β – sin α sin β – sin α 0

∆= 0 – sin α – cos α
– sin β 0 cos α 0 cos α – sin β
= 0 – sin α (0 – sin β cos α) – cos α (sin α sin β – 0)
= sin α sin β cos α – cos α sin α sin β = 0
3 x 3 2
Example 5 Find values of x for which = .
x 1 4 1
3 x 3 2
Solution We have =
x 1 4 1
i.e. 3 – x2 = 3 – 8
i.e. x2 = 8
Hence x= ±2 2
EXERCISE 4.1
Evaluate the determinants in Exercises 1 and 2.
2 4
1.
–5 –1
cos θ – sin θ x2 – x + 1 x – 1
2. (i) (ii)
sin θ cos θ x +1 x +1
1 2
3. If A =   , then show that | 2A | = 4 | A |
4 2
1 0 1
 
4. If A =  0 1 2  , then show that | 3 A | = 27 | A |
 0 0 4 
5. Evaluate the determinants
3 –1 –2 3 –4 5
(i) 0 0 –1 (ii) 1 1 –2
3 –5 0 2 3 1
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82 MATHEMATICS
0 1 2 2 –1 –2
(iii) –1 0 –3 (iv) 0 2 –1
–2 3 0 3 –5 0
 1 1 –2 
 
6. If A =  2 1 –3  , find | A |
 5 4 –9 
7. Find values of x, if
2 4 2x 4 2 3 x 3
(i) = (ii) =
5 1 6 x 4 5 2x 5
x 2 6 2
8. If = , then x is equal to
18 x 18 6
(A) 6 (B) ± 6 (C) – 6 (D) 0
4.3 Area of a Triangle
In earlier classes, we have studied that the area of a triangle whose vertices are
1
(x1, y1), (x2, y2) and (x3, y3), is given by the expression [x (y –y ) + x2 (y3–y1) +
2 1 2 3
x3 (y1–y2)]. Now this expression can be written in the form of a determinant as
x1 y1 1
1
∆= x2 y2 1 ... (1)
2
x3 y3 1
Remarks
(i) Since area is a positive quantity, we always take the absolute value of the
determinant in (1).
(ii) If area is given, use both positive and negative values of the determinant for
calculation.
(iii) The area of the triangle formed by three collinear points is zero.
Example 6 Find the area of the triangle whose vertices are (3, 8), (– 4, 2) and (5, 1).
Solution The area of triangle is given by
3 8 1
1
∆= –4 2 1
2
5 1 1
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DETERMINANTS 83
1
3 ( 2 – 1) – 8 ( – 4 – 5) + 1( – 4 – 10 ) 
2
=
1 61
= ( 3 + 72 – 14 ) =
2 2
Example 7 Find the equation of the line joining A(1, 3) and B (0, 0) using determinants
and find k if D(k, 0) is a point such that area of triangle ABD is 3sq units.
Solution Let P (x, y) be any point on AB. Then, area of triangle ABP is zero (Why?). So
0 0 1
1
1 3 1 =0
2
x y 1
1
This gives ( y – 3 x ) = 0 or y = 3x,
2
which is the equation of required line AB.
Also, since the area of the triangle ABD is 3 sq. units, we have
1 3 1
1
0 0 1 =±3
2
k 0 1
− 3k
This gives, = ± 3 , i.e., k = ∓ 2.
2
EXERCISE 4.2
1. Find area of the triangle with vertices at the point given in each of the following :
(i) (1, 0), (6, 0), (4, 3) (ii) (2, 7), (1, 1), (10, 8)
(iii) (–2, –3), (3, 2), (–1, –8)
2. Show that points
A (a, b + c), B (b, c + a), C (c, a + b) are collinear.
3. Find values of k if area of triangle is 4 sq. units and vertices are
(i) (k, 0), (4, 0), (0, 2) (ii) (–2, 0), (0, 4), (0, k)
4. (i) Find equation of line joining (1, 2) and (3, 6) using determinants.
(ii) Find equation of line joining (3, 1) and (9, 3) using determinants.
5. If area of triangle is 35 sq units with vertices (2, – 6), (5, 4) and (k, 4). Then k is
(A) 12 (B) –2 (C) –12, –2 (D) 12, –2
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84 MATHEMATICS
4.4 Minors and Cofactors

In this section, we will learn to write the expansion of a determinant in compact form
using minors and cofactors.
Definition 1 Minor of an element aij of a determinant is the determinant obtained by
deleting its ith row and jth column in which element aij lies. Minor of an element aij is
denoted by Mij.
Remark Minor of an element of a determinant of order n(n ≥ 2) is a determinant of
order n – 1.
1 2 3
Example 8 Find the minor of element 6 in the determinant ∆ = 4 5 6
7 8 9
Solution Since 6 lies in the second row and third column, its minor M23 is given by
1 2
M23 = = 8 – 14 = – 6 (obtained by deleting R2 and C3 in ∆).
7 8
Definition 2 Cofactor of an element aij , denoted by Aij is defined by
Aij = (–1)i + j Mij , where Mij is minor of aij .
1 –2
Example 9 Find minors and cofactors of all the elements of the determinant
4 3
Solution Minor of the element aij is Mij

Here a11 = 1. So M11 = Minor of a11= 3
M12 = Minor of the element a12 = 4
M21 = Minor of the element a21 = –2
M22 = Minor of the element a22 = 1
Now, cofactor of aij is Aij. So
A11 = (–1)1 + 1 M11 = (–1)2 (3) = 3
A12 = (–1)1 + 2 M12 = (–1)3 (4) = – 4
A21 = (–1)2 + 1 M21 = (–1)3 (–2) = 2
A22 = (–1)2 + 2 M22 = (–1)4 (1) = 1
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DETERMINANTS 85
Example 10 Find minors and cofactors of the elements a11, a21 in the determinant
a11 a12 a13

∆ = a21 a22 a23
a31 a32 a33
Solution By definition of minors and cofactors, we have

a22 a23
Minor of a11 = M11 = = a22 a33– a23 a32
a32 a33
Cofactor of a11 = A11 = (–1)1+1 M11 = a22 a33 – a23 a32
a12 a13
Minor of a21 = M21 = = a12 a33 – a13 a32
a32 a33
Cofactor of a21 = A21 = (–1)2+1 M21 = (–1) (a12 a33 – a13 a32) = – a12 a33 + a13 a32
Remark Expanding the determinant ∆, in Example 21, along R1, we have
a22 a23 a21 a23 a21 a22
∆ = (–1) a11 a
1+1 1+2
a + (–1) a12 a
1+3
a + (–1) a13 a31 a32
32 33 31 33
= a11 A11 + a12 A12 + a13 A13, where Aij is cofactor of aij
= sum of product of elements of R1 with their corresponding cofactors
Similarly, ∆ can be calculated by other five ways of expansion that is along R2, R3,
C1, C2 and C3.
Hence ∆ = sum of the product of elements of any row (or column) with their
corresponding cofactors.
A Note If elements of a row (or column) are multiplied with cofactors of any
other row (or column), then their sum is zero. For example,
∆ = a11 A21 + a12 A22 + a13 A23
a12 a13 a11 a13 a a

= a11 (–1)1+1 + a12 (–1)1+2 + a13 (–1)1+3 11 12
a32 a33 a31 a33 a31 a32
a11 a12 a13
= a11 a12 a13 = 0 (since R and R are identical)
1 2
a31 a32 a33
Similarly, we can try for other rows and columns.
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86 MATHEMATICS
Example 11 Find minors and cofactors of the elements of the determinant
2 –3 5
6 0 4 and verify that a11 A31 + a12 A32 + a13 A33= 0
1 5 –7
0 4
Solution We have M11 = = 0 –20 = –20; A11 = (–1)1+1 (–20) = –20
5 –7
6 4
M12 = = – 42 – 4 = – 46; A12 = (–1)1+2 (– 46) = 46
1 –7
6 0
M13 = = 30 – 0 = 30; A13 = (–1)1+3 (30) = 30
1 5
–3 5
M21 = = 21 – 25 = – 4; A21 = (–1)2+1 (– 4) = 4
5 –7
2 5
M22 = = –14 – 5 = –19; A22 = (–1)2+2 (–19) = –19
1 –7
2 –3
M23 = = 10 + 3 = 13; A23 = (–1)2+3 (13) = –13
1 5
–3 5
M31 = = –12 – 0 = –12; A31 = (–1)3+1 (–12) = –12
0 4
2 5
M32 = = 8 – 30 = –22; A32 = (–1)3+2 (–22) = 22
6 4
2 –3
and M33 = = 0 + 18 = 18; A33 = (–1)3+3 (18) = 18
6 0
Now a11 = 2, a12 = –3, a13 = 5; A31 = –12, A32 = 22, A33 = 18
So a11 A31 + a12 A32 + a13 A33
= 2 (–12) + (–3) (22) + 5 (18) = –24 – 66 + 90 = 0
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DETERMINANTS 87
EXERCISE 4.3
Write Minors and Cofactors of the elements of following determinants:
2 –4 a c
1. (i) (ii)
0 3 b d
1 0 0 1 0 4
2. (i) 0 1 0 (ii) 3 5 –1
0 0 1 0 1 2
5 3 8
3. Using Cofactors of elements of second row, evaluate ∆ = 2 0 1 .
1 2 3
1 x yz
4. Using Cofactors of elements of third column, evaluate ∆ = 1 y zx .
1 z xy
a11 a12 a13

5. If ∆ = a21 a22 a23 and Aij is Cofactors of aij , then value of ∆ is given by
a31 a32 a33
(A) a11 A31+ a12 A32 + a13 A33 (B) a11 A11+ a12 A21 + a13 A31
(C) a21 A11+ a22 A12 + a23 A13 (D) a11 A11+ a21 A21 + a31 A31
4.5 Adjoint and Inverse of a Matrix
In the previous chapter, we have studied inverse of a matrix. In this section, we shall
discuss the condition for existence of inverse of a matrix.
To find inverse of a matrix A, i.e., A–1 we shall first define adjoint of a matrix.
4.5.1 Adjoint of a matrix
Definition 3 The adjoint of a square matrix A = [aij]n × n is defined as the transpose of
the matrix [Aij]n × n, where Aij is the cofactor of the element aij . Adjoint of the matrix A
is denoted by adj A.
 a11 a12 a13 

Let A =  a21 a22 a23 
 a31 a32 a33 
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88 MATHEMATICS
 A11 A12 A13   A11 A 21 A31 

Then adj A = Transpose of  A 21 A 22 A 23  =  A12 A 22 A 32 
 A 31 A 32 A 33   A13 A 23 A33 
2 3
Example 12 Find adj A for A =  
1 4 
Solution We have A11 = 4, A12 = –1, A21 = –3, A22 = 2
 A11 A 21   4 –3
Hence adj A =   = 
 A12 A 22   –1 2 
Remark For a square matrix of order 2, given by
 a11 a12 
A=  
 a21 a22 
The adj A can also be obtained by interchanging a11 and a22 and by changing signs
of a12 and a21, i.e.,
We state the following theorem without proof.

Theorem 1 If A be any given square matrix of order n, then
A(adj A) = (adj A) A = A I ,
where I is the identity matrix of order n
Verification
 a11 a12 a13   A11 A 21 A 31 

a  
Let A =  21 a22 a23  , then adj A =  A12 A 22 A 32 
 a31 a32 a33   A13 A 23 A33 
Since sum of product of elements of a row (or a column) with corresponding
cofactors is equal to | A | and otherwise zero, we have
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DETERMINANTS 89
A 0 0 1 0 0 
 
A (adj A) =  0 A 0  = A 0 1 0 = A I
 
 0 0 A   0 0 1 
Similarly, we can show (adj A) A = A I
Hence A (adj A) = (adj A) A = A I
Definition 4 A square matrix A is said to be singular if A = 0.
 1 2
For example, the determinant of matrix A =  4 8  is zero
 
Hence A is a singular matrix.
Definition 5 A square matrix A is said to be non-singular if A ≠ 0
1 2  1 2
Let A=   . Then A = = 4 – 6 = – 2 ≠ 0.
3 4  3 4
Hence A is a nonsingular matrix
We state the following theorems without proof.
Theorem 2 If A and B are nonsingular matrices of the same order, then AB and BA
are also nonsingular matrices of the same order.
Theorem 3 The determinant of the product of matrices is equal to product of their
respective determinants, that is, AB = A B , where A and B are square matrices of
the same order
A 0 0 
 
Remark We know that (adj A) A = A I =  0 A 0 , A ≠ 0
 0 0 A 
Writing determinants of matrices on both sides, we have
A 0 0
(adj A) A = 0 A 0
0 0 A
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90 MATHEMATICS
1 0 0
3
i.e. |(adj A)| |A| = A 0 1 0 (Why?)
0 0 1
i.e. |(adj A)| |A| = | A |3 (1)
i.e. |(adj A)| = | A | 2
In general, if A is a square matrix of order n, then | adj (A) | = | A |n – 1.
Theorem 4 A square matrix A is invertible if and only if A is nonsingular matrix.
Proof Let A be invertible matrix of order n and I be the identity matrix of order n.
Then, there exists a square matrix B of order n such that AB = BA = I
Now AB = I. So AB = I or A B =1 (since I =1, AB = A B )
This gives A ≠ 0. Hence A is nonsingular.
Conversely, let A be nonsingular. Then A ≠ 0
Now A (adj A) = (adj A) A = A I (Theorem 1)
 1   1 
or A adj A  =  adj A  A = I
 | A |   | A | 
1
or AB = BA = I, where B = adj A
|A|
1
Thus A is invertible and A–1 = adj A
|A|
1 3 3
 
Example 13 If A = 1 4 3 , then verify that A adj A = | A | I. Also find A–1.
1 3 4
Solution We have A = 1 (16 – 9) –3 (4 – 3) + 3 (3 – 4) = 1 ≠ 0

Now A11 = 7, A12 = –1, A13 = –1, A21 = –3, A22 = 1,A23 = 0, A31 = –3, A32 = 0,
A33 = 1
 7 −3 −3
 
Therefore adj A =  −1 1 0 
 −1 0 1 
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DETERMINANTS 91
1 3 3   7 −3 −3
  
Now A (adj A) = 1 4 3   −1 1 0 
1 3 4   −1 0 1 
 7 − 3 − 3 −3 + 3 + 0 −3 + 0 + 3 
 
=  7 − 4 − 3 −3 + 4 + 0 −3 + 0 + 3 
 7 − 3 − 4 −3 + 3 + 0 −3 + 0 + 4 
1 0 0  1 0 0 
  0 1 0
=  0 1 0  = (1)   = A .I
 0 0 1   0 0 1 
 7 −3 −3  7 −3 −3
1 1   
Also A–1 = a d j A =  −1 1 0  =  −1 1 0 
A 1
 −1 0 1   −1 0 1 
2 3   1 −2 
Example 14 If A =   and B =   , then verify that (AB) = B A .
–1 –1 –1
1 − 4   −1 3 
2 3  1 −2   −1 5 
Solution We have AB =    −1 3  =  5 −14 
1 − 4     
Since, AB = –11 ≠ 0, (AB)–1 exists and is given by
1 1  −14 −5 = 1 14 5

adj (AB) = −   
11  −5 −1 11  5 1 
(AB)–1 =
AB
Further, A = –11 ≠ 0 and B = 1 ≠ 0. Therefore, A–1 and B–1 both exist and are given by
1  − 4 −3 −1 3 2 
A–1 = − ,B =
11  −1 2  1 1 
 
1 3 2  −4 −3 1  −14 −5 1 14 5
Therefore B−1 A −1 = −     =−   = 
11 1 1   −1 2  11  −5 −1 11  5 1 
Hence (AB)–1 = B–1 A–1
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92 MATHEMATICS
 2 3
Example 15 Show that the matrix A =   satisfies the equation A2 – 4A + I = O,
1 2
where I is 2 × 2 identity matrix and O is 2 × 2 zero matrix. Using this equation, find A–1.
 2 3   2 3   7 12 
Solution We have A 2 = A.A =    = 
1 2  1 2  4 7 
7 12   8 12  1 0   0 0 
Hence A 2 − 4A + I =  −  +  = =O
 4 7   4 8  0 1  0 0
Now A2 – 4A + I = O
Therefore A A – 4A = – I
or A A (A–1) – 4 A A–1 = – I A–1 (Post multiplying by A–1 because |A| ≠ 0)
or A (A A–1) – 4I = – A–1
or AI – 4I = – A–1
4 0  2 3  2 −3
or A–1 = 4I – A =   −  =  
0 4 1 2  −1 2 
 2 −3 
Hence A −1 =  
 −1 2 
EXERCISE 4.4
Find adjoint of each of the matrices in Exercises 1 and 2.
 1 −1 2
1 2  
1. 3 4  2.  2 3 5
   −2 0 1 
Verify A (adj A) = (adj A) A = | A | I in Exercises 3 and 4
1 −1 2 
2 3  
3.  −4 −6 4. 3 0 −2
  1 0 3 
Find the inverse of each of the matrices (if it exists) given in Exercises 5 to 11.
1 2 3
 2 −2  −1 5  
5. 4 3  6.   7. 0 2 4
   −3 2 0 0 5 
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DETERMINANTS 93
1 0 0   2 1 3 1 −1 2 
3 3 0     
8.   9.  4 −1 0 10. 0 2 −3
5 2 −1  −7 2 1  3 −2 4 
1 0 0 
0 cos α sin α 
11. 
0 sin α − cos α 
3 7  6 8
12. Let A =   and B =   . Verify that (AB) = B A .
–1 –1 –1
 2 5   7 9 
 3 1
13. If A =   , show that A – 5A + 7I = O. Hence find A .
2 –1
 −1 2 
3 2 
14. For the matrix A =   , find the numbers a and b such that A2 + aA + bI = O.
1 1 
1 1 1 
 
15. For the matrix A = 1 2 −3
 2 −1 3 
Show that A3– 6A2 + 5A + 11 I = O. Hence, find A–1.
 2 −1 1 
 
16. If A =  −1 2 −1
 1 −1 2 
Verify that A3 – 6A2 + 9A – 4I = O and hence find A–1
17. Let A be a nonsingular square matrix of order 3 × 3. Then | adj A | is equal to
(A) | A | (B) | A | 2 (C) | A | 3 (D) 3 | A |
–1
18. If A is an invertible matrix of order 2, then det (A ) is equal to
1
(A) det (A) (B) det (A) (C) 1 (D) 0
4.6 Applications of Determinants and Matrices

In this section, we shall discuss application of determinants and matrices for solving the
system of linear equations in two or three variables and for checking the consistency of
the system of linear equations.
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94 MATHEMATICS
Consistent system A system of equations is said to be consistent if its solution (one

or more) exists.
Inconsistent system A system of equations is said to be inconsistent if its solution
does not exist.
A Note In this chapter, we restrict ourselves to the system of linear equations

having unique solutions only.
4.6.1 Solution of system of linear equations using inverse of a matrix
Let us express the system of linear equations as matrix equations and solve them using
inverse of the coefficient matrix.
Consider the system of equations
a1 x + b1 y + c 1 z = d1
a2 x + b2 y + c 2 z = d 2
a3 x + b3 y + c 3 z = d 3
 a1 b1c1   x  d1 
 c2  , X =  y  and B =  d 2 
  
Let A =  a2 b2
 a3 b3 c3   z   d3 
Then, the system of equations can be written as, AX = B, i.e.,
 a1 b1 c1   x  d1 
a b2 c2   y  
 2   = d 2 
 a3 b3 c3   z   d3 
Case I If A is a nonsingular matrix, then its inverse exists. Now
AX = B
or A–1 (AX) = A–1 B (premultiplying by A–1)
–1 –1
or (A A) X = A B (by associative property)
–1
or IX=A B
or X = A–1 B
This matrix equation provides unique solution for the given system of equations as
inverse of a matrix is unique. This method of solving system of equations is known as
Matrix Method.
Case II If A is a singular matrix, then | A | = 0.
In this case, we calculate (adj A) B.
If (adj A) B ≠ O, (O being zero matrix), then solution does not exist and the
system of equations is called inconsistent.
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DETERMINANTS 95
If (adj A) B = O, then system may be either consistent or inconsistent according

as the system have either infinitely many solutions or no solution.
Example 16 Solve the system of equations
2x + 5y = 1
3x + 2y = 7
Solution The system of equations can be written in the form AX = B, where
2 5 x 1 
A=   , X =   and B =  
3 2  y 7 
Now, A = –11 ≠ 0, Hence, A is nonsingular matrix and so has a unique solution.
1  2 −5
A–1 = −
11  −3 2 
Note that
1  2 −5  1 
11  −3 2   7 
Therefore X = A–1B = –
x 1  −33  3 
 y = −  =
11  11   −1
i.e.
 
Hence x = 3, y = – 1
Example 17 Solve the following system of equations by matrix method.
3x – 2y + 3z = 8
2x + y – z = 1
4x – 3y + 2z = 4
Solution The system of equations can be written in the form AX = B, where
 3 −2 3   x 8 
A =  2 1 −1 , X =  y  and B =
  1 
 
 4 −3 2   z   4
We see that
A = 3 (2 – 3) + 2(4 + 4) + 3 (– 6 – 4) = – 17 ≠ 0
Hence, A is nonsingular and so its inverse exists. Now
A11 = –1, A12 = – 8, A13 = –10
A21 = –5, A22 = – 6, A23 = 1
A31 = –1, A32 = 9, A33 = 7
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96 MATHEMATICS
 −1 − 5 −1
1  
Therefore A = −  −8 − 6 9 
–1
17
 −10 1 7 
 −1 − 5 −1  8 
1    
X = A B = −  −8 − 6 9   1 
–1
So
17
 −10 1 7   4 
x  −17   1 
 y 1    
i.e.   = − 17  −34  =  2 
 z   −51  3 
Hence x = 1, y = 2 and z = 3.
Example 18 The sum of three numbers is 6. If we multiply third number by 3 and add
second number to it, we get 11. By adding first and third numbers, we get double of the
second number. Represent it algebraically and find the numbers using matrix method.
Solution Let first, second and third numbers be denoted by x, y and z, respectively.
Then, according to given conditions, we have
x+y+z=6
y + 3z = 11
x + z = 2y or x – 2y + z = 0
This system can be written as A X = B, where
1 1 1  x 6
  y
A = 0 1 3 , X =   and B =
11
 
1 2 1  z   0 
Here A = 1 (1 + 6) – (0 – 3) + ( 0 – 1) = 9 ≠ 0 . Now we find adj A

A11 = 1 (1 + 6) = 7, A12 = – (0 – 3) = 3, A13 = – 1
A21 = – (1 + 2) = – 3, A22 = 0, A23 = – (– 2 – 1) = 3
A31 = (3 – 1) = 2, A32 = – (3 – 0) = – 3, A33 = (1 – 0) = 1
 7 –3 2 
 
Hence adj A =  3 0 –3
 –1 3 1 
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DETERMINANTS 97
 7 –3 2 
1 1 
Thus –1
A = adj (A) =  3 0 –3
A 9
 –1 3 1 
Since X = A–1 B
 7 –3 2   6 
1  
X =  3 0 –3 11
9
 –1 3 1   0 
 x  42 − 33 + 0  9 1 
 y 1  18 + 0 + 0  1 18   
or   =   =   =  2
 z  9  −6 + 33 + 0  9  27   3
   
Thus x = 1, y = 2, z = 3
EXERCISE 4.5
Examine the consistency of the system of equations in Exercises 1 to 6.
1. x + 2y = 2 2. 2x – y = 5 3. x + 3y = 5
2x + 3y = 3 x+y=4 2x + 6y = 8
4. x + y + z = 1 5. 3x–y – 2z = 2 6. 5x – y + 4z = 5
2x + 3y + 2z = 2 2y – z = –1 2x + 3y + 5z = 2
ax + ay + 2az = 4 3x – 5y = 3 5x – 2y + 6z = –1
Solve system of linear equations, using matrix method, in Exercises 7 to 14.
7. 5x + 2y = 4 8. 2x – y = –2 9. 4x – 3y = 3
7x + 3y = 5 3x + 4y = 3 3x – 5y = 7
10. 5x + 2y = 3 11. 2x + y + z = 1 12. x – y + z = 4
3
3x + 2y = 5 x – 2y – z = 2x + y – 3z = 0
2
3y – 5z = 9 x+y+z=2
13. 2x + 3y +3 z = 5 14. x – y + 2z = 7
x – 2y + z = – 4 3x + 4y – 5z = – 5
3x – y – 2z = 3 2x – y + 3z = 12
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98 MATHEMATICS
 2 –3 5
3 2 – 4 –1 –1
15. If A =   , find A . Using A solve the system of equations
1 1 –2 
2x – 3y + 5z = 11
3x + 2y – 4z = – 5
x + y – 2z = – 3
16. The cost of 4 kg onion, 3 kg wheat and 2 kg rice is ` 60. The cost of 2 kg onion,
4 kg wheat and 6 kg rice is ` 90. The cost of 6 kg onion 2 kg wheat and 3 kg rice
is ` 70. Find cost of each item per kg by matrix method.
1 1 2  2 0 1
 3 9 2 3 to solve the system of equations
Example 19 Use product 0 2 
 3 2 4   6 1 2
x – y + 2z = 1
2y – 3z = 1
3x – 2y + 4z = 2
1 –1 2  –2 0 1 
 – 3  9 – 3 
Solution Consider the product  0 2  2
 3 –2 4   6 1 – 2 
 − 2 − 9 + 12 0 − 2 + 2 1 + 3 − 4 1 0 0
 0 + 18 − 18 0 + 4 − 3 0 − 6 + 6 0 1 0
=   =  
 − 6 − 18 + 24 0 − 4 + 4 3 + 6 − 8 0 0 1 
1 –1 2   –2 0 1 
–1
Hence  0 2 –3 =  9 2 –3 

   
 3 – 2 4   6 1 – 2
Now, given system of equations can be written, in matrix form, as follows
1 –1 2   x  1 
 0 2 –3  y   
    = 1 
 3 –2 4   z   2 
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DETERMINANTS 99
−1
x 1 −1 2  1   2 0 1 1
 3 1
or y = 0 2 −3 1  =  9 2  

z 3 −2 4   2   6 1 2  2
 −2 + 0 + 2  0 
   
=  9 + 2 − 6  = 5
 6 + 1 − 4   3 
Hence x = 0, y = 5 and z = 3
Miscellaneous Exercises on Chapter 4

x sin θ cos θ
1. Prove that the determinant – sin θ – x 1 is independent of θ.
cos θ 1 x
cos α cos β cos α sin β – sin α

2. Evaluate – sin β cos β 0 .
sin α cos β sin α sin β cos α
 3 –1 1   1 2 –2 
   
3. If A–1 =  –15 6 –5 and B =  –1 3 0  , find ( AB )
–1
 5 –2 2   0 –2 1 
1 2 1
 3 1 . Verify that
4. Let A =  2
 1 1 5
(i) [adj A]–1 = adj (A–1) (ii) (A–1)–1 = A
x y x+ y
5. Evaluate y x+ y x
x+ y x y
1 x y
6. Evaluate 1 x + y y
1 x x+ y
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100 MATHEMATICS
Using properties of determinants in Exercises 11 to 15, prove that:

7. Solve the system of equations
2 3 10
+ + =4
x y z
4 6 5
– + =1
x y z
6 9 20
+ – =2
x y z
Choose the correct answer in Exercise 17 to 19.
 x 0 0
8. If x, y, z are nonzero real numbers, then the inverse of matrix A =  0 y 0  is
 
 0 0 z 
 x −1 0 0   x −1 0 0 
 −1
  −1

(A)  0 y 0  (B) xyz  0 y 0 
   
 0 0 z −1   0 0 z −1 
 x 0 0 1 0 0 
1 
0 y 0 
1 
(C)  (D)  0 1 0 
xyz xyz
 0 0 z  0 0 1 
 1 sin θ 1 
 − sin θ 1 sin θ  , where 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π. Then
9. Let A = 
 −1 − sin θ 1 
(A) Det (A) = 0 (B) Det (A) ∈ (2, ∞)

(C) Det (A) ∈ (2, 4) (D) Det (A) ∈ [2, 4]
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DETERMINANTS 101
Summary
® Determinant of a matrix A = [a11]1 × 1 is given by | a11| = a11
a a12 
® Determinant of a matrix A =  11 is given by
 a21 a22 
a11 a12
A = = a11 a22 – a12 a21
a21 a22
 a1 b1 c1 
® Determinant of a matrix A =  a2 b2 c2  is given by (expanding along R1)
 a3 b3 c3 
a1 b1 c1
b c2 a c2 a b2
A = a2 b2 c2 = a1 2 − b1 2 + c1 2
b3 c3 a3 c3 a3 b3
a3 b3 c3
For any square matrix A, the |A| satisfy following properties.
® Area of a triangle with vertices (x1, y1), (x2, y2) and (x3, y3) is given by
x1 y1 1
1
∆= x2 y2 1
2
x3 y3 1
® Minor of an element aij of the determinant of matrix A is the determinant
obtained by deleting ith row and jth column and denoted by Mij.
® Cofactor of aij of given by Aij = (– 1)i + j Mij
® Value of determinant of a matrix A is obtained by sum of product of elements
of a row (or a column) with corresponding cofactors. For example,
A = a11 A11 + a12 A12 + a13 A13.
® If elements of one row (or column) are multiplied with cofactors of elements
of any other row (or column), then their sum is zero. For example, a11 A21 + a12
A22 + a13 A23 = 0
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102 MATHEMATICS
 a11 a12 a13   A11 A 21 A 31 

a ,
® If A =  21 a a 23  then adj A =  A12 A 22 A32  , where A ij is
22
 
 a31 a32 a33   A13 A 23 A33 
cofactor of aij
® A (adj A) = (adj A) A = | A | I, where A is square matrix of order n.
® A square matrix A is said to be singular or non-singular according as
| A | = 0 or | A | ≠ 0.
® If AB = BA = I, where B is square matrix, then B is called inverse of A.
Also A–1 = B or B–1 = A and hence (A–1)–1 = A.
® A square matrix A has inverse if and only if A is non-singular.
1
® A –1 = (adj A)
A
® If a1 x + b1 y + c1 z = d1
a2 x + b2 y + c2 z = d2
a3 x + b3 y + c 3 z = d3 ,
then these equations can be written as A X = B, where
 a1 b1 c1  x  d1 
A =  a2 b2 c2  , X =  y  and B=  d 2 
  
 a3 b3 c3   z   d3 
® Unique solution of equation AX = B is given by X = A–1 B, where A ≠ 0 .

® A system of equation is consistent or inconsistent according as its solution
exists or not.
® For a square matrix A in matrix equation AX = B
(i) | A | ≠ 0, there exists unique solution
(ii) | A | = 0 and (adj A) B ≠ 0, then there exists no solution
(iii) | A | = 0 and (adj A) B = 0, then system may or may not be consistent.
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DETERMINANTS 103
Historical Note
The Chinese method of representing the coefficients of the unknowns of
several linear equations by using rods on a calculating board naturally led to the
discovery of simple method of elimination. The arrangement of rods was precisely
that of the numbers in a determinant. The Chinese, therefore, early developed the
idea of subtracting columns and rows as in simplification of a determinant
Mikami, China, pp 30, 93.
Seki Kowa, the greatest of the Japanese Mathematicians of seventeenth
century in his work ‘Kai Fukudai no Ho’ in 1683 showed that he had the idea of
determinants and of their expansion. But he used this device only in eliminating a
quantity from two equations and not directly in the solution of a set of simultaneous
linear equations. T. Hayashi, “The Fakudoi and Determinants in Japanese
Mathematics,” in the proc. of the Tokyo Math. Soc., V.
Vendermonde was the first to recognise determinants as independent functions.
He may be called the formal founder. Laplace (1772), gave general method of
expanding a determinant in terms of its complementary minors. In 1773 Lagrange
treated determinants of the second and third orders and used them for purpose
other than the solution of equations. In 1801, Gauss used determinants in his
theory of numbers.
The next great contributor was Jacques - Philippe - Marie Binet, (1812) who
stated the theorem relating to the product of two matrices of m-columns and n-
rows, which for the special case of m = n reduces to the multiplication theorem.
Also on the same day, Cauchy (1812) presented one on the same subject. He
used the word ‘determinant’ in its present sense. He gave the proof of multiplication
theorem more satisfactory than Binet’s.
The greatest contributor to the theory was Carl Gustav Jacob Jacobi, after
this the word determinant received its final acceptance.
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34 MATHEMATICS
Chapter 3
MATRICES
v The essence of Mathematics lies in its freedom. — CANTOR v
3.1 Introduction
The knowledge of matrices is necessary in various branches of mathematics. Matrices
are one of the most powerful tools in mathematics. This mathematical tool simplifies
our work to a great extent when compared with other straight forward methods. The
evolution of concept of matrices is the result of an attempt to obtain compact and
simple methods of solving system of linear equations. Matrices are not only used as a
representation of the coefficients in system of linear equations, but utility of matrices
far exceeds that use. Matrix notation and operations are used in electronic spreadsheet
programs for personal computer, which in turn is used in different areas of business
and science like budgeting, sales projection, cost estimation, analysing the results of an
experiment etc. Also, many physical operations such as magnification, rotation and
reflection through a plane can be represented mathematically by matrices. Matrices
are also used in cryptography. This mathematical tool is not only used in certain branches
of sciences, but also in genetics, economics, sociology, modern psychology and industrial
management.
In this chapter, we shall find it interesting to become acquainted with the
fundamentals of matrix and matrix algebra.
3.2 Matrix
Suppose we wish to express the information that Radha has 15 notebooks. We may
express it as [15] with the understanding that the number inside [ ] is the number of
notebooks that Radha has. Now, if we have to express that Radha has 15 notebooks
and 6 pens. We may express it as [15 6] with the understanding that first number
inside [ ] is the number of notebooks while the other one is the number of pens possessed
by Radha. Let us now suppose that we wish to express the information of possession
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MATRICES 35
of notebooks and pens by Radha and her two friends Fauzia and Simran which
is as follows:
Radha has 15 notebooks and 6 pens,
Fauzia has 10 notebooks and 2 pens,
Simran has 13 notebooks and 5 pens.
Now this could be arranged in the tabular form as follows:
Notebooks Pens
Radha 15 6
Fauzia 10 2
Simran 13 5
and this can be expressed as
or
Radha Fauzia Simran
Notebooks 15 10 13
Pens 6 2 5
which can be expressed as:
In the first arrangement the entries in the first column represent the number of
note books possessed by Radha, Fauzia and Simran, respectively and the entries in the
second column represent the number of pens possessed by Radha, Fauzia and Simran,
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36 MATHEMATICS
respectively. Similarly, in the second arrangement, the entries in the first row represent
the number of notebooks possessed by Radha, Fauzia and Simran, respectively. The
entries in the second row represent the number of pens possessed by Radha, Fauzia
and Simran, respectively. An arrangement or display of the above kind is called a
matrix. Formally, we define matrix as:
Definition 1 A matrix is an ordered rectangular array of numbers or functions. The
numbers or functions are called the elements or the entries of the matrix.
We denote matrices by capital letters. The following are some examples of matrices:
 1
– 2 5  2 + i 3 − 2 
    1 + x x3 3 
A= 0 5  , B =  3.5 –1 2  , C =  
   cos x sin x + 2 tan x 
3 6  5
  3 5 
 7 
In the above examples, the horizontal lines of elements are said to constitute, rows
of the matrix and the vertical lines of elements are said to constitute, columns of the
matrix. Thus A has 3 rows and 2 columns, B has 3 rows and 3 columns while C has 2
rows and 3 columns.
3.2.1 Order of a matrix
A matrix having m rows and n columns is called a matrix of order m × n or simply m × n
matrix (read as an m by n matrix). So referring to the above examples of matrices, we
have A as 3 × 2 matrix, B as 3 × 3 matrix and C as 2 × 3 matrix. We observe that A has
3 × 2 = 6 elements, B and C have 9 and 6 elements, respectively.
In general, an m × n matrix has the following rectangular array:
or A = [aij]m × n, 1≤ i ≤ m, 1≤ j ≤ n i, j ∈ N
Thus the ith row consists of the elements ai1, ai2, ai3,..., ain, while the jth column
consists of the elements a1j, a2j, a3j,..., amj ,
In general aij, is an element lying in the ith row and jth column. We can also call
it as the (i, j)th element of A. The number of elements in an m × n matrix will be
equal to mn.
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MATRICES 37
ANote In this chapter

1. We shall follow the notation, namely A = [aij]m × n to indicate that A is a matrix
of order m × n.
2. We shall consider only those matrices whose elements are real numbers or
functions taking real values.
We can also represent any point (x, y) in a plane by a matrix (column or row) as
 x
 y  (or [x, y]). For example point P(0, 1) as a matrix representation may be given as
 
0
P =   or [0 1].
1 
Observe that in this way we can also express the vertices of a closed rectilinear
figure in the form of a matrix. For example, consider a quadrilateral ABCD with vertices
A (1, 0), B (3, 2), C (1, 3), D (–1, 2).
Now, quadrilateral ABCD in the matrix form, can be represented as
A B C D A 1 0
1 3 1 −1 B  3 2 
X=  or Y=
 0 2 3 2 2 × 4 C 1 3
 
D −1 2  4× 2
Thus, matrices can be used as representation of vertices of geometrical figures in

a plane.
Now, let us consider some examples.
Example 1 Consider the following information regarding the number of men and women
workers in three factories I, II and III
Men workers Women workers
I 30 25
II 25 31
III 27 26
Represent the above information in the form of a 3 × 2 matrix. What does the entry
in the third row and second column represent?
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38 MATHEMATICS
Solution The information is represented in the form of a 3 × 2 matrix as follows:

30 25
A =  25 31
27 26 
The entry in the third row and second column represents the number of women
workers in factory III.
Example 2 If a matrix has 8 elements, what are the possible orders it can have?
Solution We know that if a matrix is of order m × n, it has mn elements. Thus, to find
all possible orders of a matrix with 8 elements, we will find all ordered pairs of natural
numbers, whose product is 8.
Thus, all possible ordered pairs are (1, 8), (8, 1), (4, 2), (2, 4)
Hence, possible orders are 1 × 8, 8 ×1, 4 × 2, 2 × 4
1
Example 3 Construct a 3 × 2 matrix whose elements are given by aij = |i −3j |.
2
 a11 a12 
Solution In general a 3 × 2 matrix is given by A =  a21 a22  .
 
 a31 a32 
1
Now aij = | i − 3 j | , i = 1, 2, 3 and j = 1, 2.
2
1 1 5
Therefore a11 = |1 − 3 × 1| = 1 a12 = |1 − 3 × 2 | =
2 2 2
1 1 1
a21 = | 2 − 3 × 1| = a22 = | 2 − 3× 2 | = 2
2 2 2
1 1 3
a31 = | 3 − 3 × 1| = 0 a32 = | 3 − 3× 2 | =
2 2 2
1 5
 2
1 
Hence the required matrix is given by A =  2 .
2 3
0 
 2
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MATRICES 39
3.3 Types of Matrices

In this section, we shall discuss different types of matrices.
(i) Column matrix
A matrix is said to be a column matrix if it has only one column.
 0 
 
 3
For example, A =  −1  is a column matrix of order 4 × 1.
 
1/ 2 
In general, A = [aij] m × 1 is a column matrix of order m × 1.
(ii) Row matrix
A matrix is said to be a row matrix if it has only one row.
 1
For example, B = −

5 2 3 is a row matrix.
 2 1× 4
In general, B = [bij] 1 × n is a row matrix of order 1 × n.
(iii) Square matrix
A matrix in which the number of rows are equal to the number of columns, is
said to be a square matrix. Thus an m × n matrix is said to be a square matrix if
m = n and is known as a square matrix of order ‘n’.
 3 −1 0
3 
For example A =  3 2 1  is a square matrix of order 3.
2 
4 3 −1

In general, A = [aij] m × m is a square matrix of order m.
ANote If A = [a ] is a square matrix of order n, then elements (entries) a , a , ..., a

ij 11 22 nn
1 −3 1 
 
are said to constitute the diagonal, of the matrix A. Thus, if A = 2 4 −1 .
3 5 6 
Then the elements of the diagonal of A are 1, 4, 6.
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40 MATHEMATICS
(iv) Diagonal matrix

A square matrix B = [bij] m × m is said to be a diagonal matrix if all its non
diagonal elements are zero, that is a matrix B = [bij] m × m is said to be a diagonal
matrix if bij = 0, when i ≠ j.
 −1.1 0 0
 −1 0  
For example, A = [4], B =  , C= 0 2 0 , are diagonal matrices
 0 2   0 0 3
of order 1, 2, 3, respectively.
(v) Scalar matrix
A diagonal matrix is said to be a scalar matrix if its diagonal elements are equal,
that is, a square matrix B = [bij] n × n is said to be a scalar matrix if
bij = 0, when i ≠ j
bij = k, when i = j, for some constant k.
For example
 3 0 0
 −1 0   
A = [3], B= , C= 0 3 0
 0 −1  
0 0 3
are scalar matrices of order 1, 2 and 3, respectively.
(vi) Identity matrix
A square matrix in which elements in the diagonal are all 1 and rest are all zero
is called an identity matrix. In other words, the square matrix A = [aij] n × n is an
1 if i = j
identity matrix, if aij =  .
0 if i ≠ j
We denote the identity matrix of order n by In. When order is clear from the
context, we simply write it as I.
1 0 0 
1 0  0 1 0 
For example [1],  ,   are identity matrices of order 1, 2 and 3,
0 1  0 0 1 
 
respectively.
Observe that a scalar matrix is an identity matrix when k = 1. But every identity
matrix is clearly a scalar matrix.
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MATRICES 41
(vii) Zero matrix

A matrix is said to be zero matrix or null matrix if all its elements are zero.
0 0  0 0 0 
For example, [0],  ,   , [0, 0] are all zero matrices. We denote
0 0  0 0 0 
zero matrix by O. Its order will be clear from the context.
3.3.1 Equality of matrices
Definition 2 Two matrices A = [aij] and B = [bij] are said to be equal if
(i) they are of the same order
(ii) each element of A is equal to the corresponding element of B, that is aij = bij for
all i and j.
 2 3  2 3 3 2  2 3
For example,   and   are equal matrices but   and   are
 0 1 0 1 0 1  0 1 
not equal matrices. Symbolically, if two matrices A and B are equal, we write A = B.
 x y   −1.5 0 
 
If  z a  =  2 6  , then x = – 1.5, y = 0, z = 2, a = 6 , b = 3, c = 2
 
b c  3 2 
 x + 3 z + 4 2 y − 7  0 6 3y − 2 
 −6 a −1  
0  = − 6 −3 2c + 2
Example 4 If 
b − 3 − 21 0   2b + 4 − 21 0 
Find the values of a, b, c, x, y and z.
Solution As the given matrices are equal, therefore, their corresponding elements
must be equal. Comparing the corresponding elements, we get
x + 3 = 0, z + 4 = 6, 2y – 7 = 3y – 2
a – 1 = – 3, 0 = 2c + 2 b – 3 = 2b + 4,
Simplifying, we get
a = – 2, b = – 7, c = – 1, x = – 3, y = –5, z = 2
Example 5 Find the values of a, b, c, and d from the following equation:
 2a + b a − 2b   4 −3
 5c − d 4c + 3d  = 11 24 
   
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42 MATHEMATICS
Solution By equality of two matrices, equating the corresponding elements, we get

2a + b = 4 5c – d = 11
a – 2b = – 3 4c + 3d = 24
Solving these equations, we get
a = 1, b = 2, c = 3 and d = 4
EXERCISE 3.1
2 5 19 −7 
 5 
1. In the matrix A =  35 −2 12  , write:
 2 
 
 3 1 −5 17 
(i) The order of the matrix, (ii) The number of elements,
(iii) Write the elements a13, a21, a33, a24, a23.
2. If a matrix has 24 elements, what are the possible orders it can have? What, if it
has 13 elements?
3. If a matrix has 18 elements, what are the possible orders it can have? What, if it
has 5 elements?
4. Construct a 2 × 2 matrix, A = [aij], whose elements are given by:
(i + j ) 2 i (i + 2 j )2
(i) aij = (ii) aij = (iii) aij =
2 j 2
5. Construct a 3 × 4 matrix, whose elements are given by:
1
(i) aij = | −3i + j | (ii) aij = 2i − j
2
6. Find the values of x, y and z from the following equations:
 x + y + z  9 
 4 3  y z  x + y 2  6 2   x + z  = 5
(i)  =  (ii)  = (iii)
 x 5  1 5 5 + z xy   5 8     
 y + z  7 
7. Find the value of a, b, c and d from the equation:
 a − b 2a + c   −1 5 
 2a − b 3c + d  =  0 13
   
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MATRICES 43
8. A = [aij]m × n\ is a square matrix, if

(A) m < n (B) m > n (C) m = n (D) None of these
9. Which of the given values of x and y make the following pair of matrices equal
3x + 7 5  0 y − 2 
 y + 1 2 − 3 x  , 8 4 
  
−1
(A) x = , y =7 (B) Not possible to find
3
−2 −1 −2
(C) y = 7, x= (D) x = , y=
3 3 3
10. The number of all possible matrices of order 3 × 3 with each entry 0 or 1 is:
(A) 27 (B) 18 (C) 81 (D) 512
3.4 Operations on Matrices
In this section, we shall introduce certain operations on matrices, namely, addition of
matrices, multiplication of a matrix by a scalar, difference and multiplication of matrices.
3.4.1 Addition of matrices
Suppose Fatima has two factories at places A and B. Each factory produces sport
shoes for boys and girls in three different price categories labelled 1, 2 and 3. The
quantities produced by each factory are represented as matrices given below:
Suppose Fatima wants to know the total production of sport shoes in each price
category. Then the total production
In category 1 : for boys (80 + 90), for girls (60 + 50)
80 + 90 60 + 50
This can be represented in the matrix form as 75 + 70 65 + 55 .

90 + 75 85 + 75 
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44 MATHEMATICS
This new matrix is the sum of the above two matrices. We observe that the sum of
two matrices is a matrix obtained by adding the corresponding elements of the given
matrices. Furthermore, the two matrices have to be of the same order.
a11 a12 a13  b11 b12 b13 

Thus, if A =   is a 2 × 3 matrix and B =   is another
a21 a22 a23  b21 b22 b23 
 a11 + b11 a12 + b12 a13 + b13 

2×3 matrix. Then, we define A + B =  .
 a21 + b21 a22 + b22 a23 + b23 
In general, if A = [aij] and B = [bij] are two matrices of the same order, say m × n.
Then, the sum of the two matrices A and B is defined as a matrix C = [cij]m × n, where
cij = aij + bij, for all possible values of i and j.
 3 1 − 1 2 5 1
Example 6 Given A =   
 and B =  1  , find A + B
 2 3 0  −2 3
 2 
Since A, B are of the same order 2 × 3. Therefore, addition of A and B is defined
and is given by
2 + 3 1 + 5 1 − 1  2 + 3 1 + 5 0 
A+B =   
1 =  1

2 − 2 3+3 0+ 0 6
 2  2 
A Note
1. We emphasise that if A and B are not of the same order, then A + B is not
2 3 1 2 3
defined. For example if A =   , B=  , then A + B is not defined.
1 0 1 0 1 
2. We may observe that addition of matrices is an example of binary operation
on the set of matrices of the same order.
3.4.2 Multiplication of a matrix by a scalar

Now suppose that Fatima has doubled the production at a factory A in all categories
(refer to 3.4.1).
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MATRICES 45
Previously quantities (in standard units) produced by factory A were
Revised quantities produced by factory A are as given below:
Boys Girls
1  2 × 80 2 × 60 
2  2 × 75 2 × 65
3  2 × 90 2 × 85 
160 120 
This can be represented in the matrix form as 150 130  . We observe that

180 170 
the new matrix is obtained by multiplying each element of the previous matrix by 2.
In general, we may define multiplication of a matrix by a scalar as follows: if
A = [aij] m × n is a matrix and k is a scalar, then kA is another matrix which is obtained
by multiplying each element of A by the scalar k.
In other words, kA = k [aij] m × n = [k (aij)] m × n, that is, (i, j)th element of kA is kaij
for all possible values of i and j.
 3 1 1.5
 
For example, if A =  5 7 −3  , then
2 0 5
 
 3 1 1.5  9 3 4.5
   
3A = 3  5 7 −3  = 3 5 21 −9 
2 0 5  6 0 15 
  
Negative of a matrix The negative of a matrix is denoted by – A. We define
– A = (– 1) A.
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46 MATHEMATICS
 3 1
For example, let A=   , then – A is given by
 −5 x 
 3 1   −3 −1 
– A = (– 1) A = (−1)  = 
 −5 x   5 − x 
Difference of matrices If A = [aij], B = [bij] are two matrices of the same order,
say m × n, then difference A – B is defined as a matrix D = [dij], where dij = aij – bij,
for all value of i and j. In other words, D = A – B = A + (–1) B, that is sum of the matrix
A and the matrix – B.
1 2 3  3 −1 3 
Example 7 If A =   and B =   , then find 2A – B.
 2 3 1  −1 0 2 
Solution We have
1 2 3  3 −1 3 
2A – B = 2  − 
 2 3 1  −1 0 2
 2 4 6  −3 1 −3
=  + 
 4 6 2   1 0 −2 
 2 − 3 4 + 1 6 − 3   −1 5 3 
=  = 
4 + 1 6 + 0 2 − 2  5 6 0
3.4.3 Properties of matrix addition
The addition of matrices satisfy the following properties:
(i) Commutative Law If A = [aij], B = [bij] are matrices of the same order, say
m × n, then A + B = B + A.
Now A + B = [aij] + [bij] = [aij + bij]
= [bij + aij] (addition of numbers is commutative)
= ([bij] + [aij]) = B + A
(ii) Associative Law For any three matrices A = [aij], B = [bij], C = [cij] of the
same order, say m × n, (A + B) + C = A + (B + C).
Now (A + B) + C = ([aij] + [bij]) + [cij]
= [aij + bij] + [cij] = [(aij + bij) + cij]
= [aij + (bij + cij)] (Why?)
= [aij] + [(bij + cij)] = [aij] + ([bij] + [cij]) = A + (B + C)
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MATRICES 47
(iii) Existence of additive identity Let A = [a ij] be an m × n matrix and

O be an m × n zero matrix, then A + O = O + A = A. In other words, O is the
additive identity for matrix addition.
(iv) The existence of additive inverse Let A = [aij]m × n be any matrix, then we
have another matrix as – A = [– aij]m × n such that A + (– A) = (– A) + A= O. So
– A is the additive inverse of A or negative of A.
3.4.4 Properties of scalar multiplication of a matrix
If A = [aij] and B = [bij] be two matrices of the same order, say m × n, and k and l are
scalars, then
(i) k(A +B) = k A + kB, (ii) (k + l)A = k A + l A
(ii) k (A + B) = k ([aij] + [bij])
= k [aij + bij] = [k (aij + bij)] = [(k aij) + (k bij)]
= [k aij] + [k bij] = k [aij] + k [bij] = kA + kB
(iii) ( k + l) A = (k + l) [aij]
= [(k + l) aij] + [k aij] + [l aij] = k [aij] + l [aij] = k A + l A
8 0   2 −2
   
Example 8 If A = 4 −2 and B =  4 2  , then find the matrix X, such that
3 6  −5 1 
2A + 3X = 5B.
Solution We have 2A + 3X = 5B
or 2A + 3X – 2A = 5B – 2A
or 2A – 2A + 3X = 5B – 2A (Matrix addition is commutative)
or O + 3X = 5B – 2A (– 2A is the additive inverse of 2A)
or 3X = 5B – 2A (O is the additive identity)
1
or X= (5B – 2A)
3
  2 −2  8 0     10 −10   −16 0  
1      1    −8 4  
or X =  5  4 2  − 2  4 −2   =   20 10  +  
3 3   −25 5 
  −5 1   3 6      −6 −12  
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48 MATHEMATICS
 −10 
 −2 3 
 10 − 16 −10 + 0  − 6 −10   
1  1   4 14 
=  20 − 8 10 + 4  = 3 12 14  = 
3 3 
 −25 − 6 5 − 12   −31 −7   
 −31 −7 
 3 3 
5 2 3 6 
Example 9 Find X and Y, if X + Y =   and X − Y =  .
0 9   0 −1
5 2  3 6 
Solution We have ( X + Y ) + ( X − Y ) =  + .
 0 9   0 −1
8 8 8 8 
or (X + X) + (Y – Y) =   ⇒ 2X =  
0 8 0 8 
1 8 8 4 4 
or X= 0 8 = 0 4 
2    
5 2   3 6 
Also (X + Y) – (X – Y) =  − 
 0 9   0 −1
5 − 3 2 − 6   2 −4 
or (X – X) + (Y + Y) =   ⇒ 2Y =  
 0 9 +1  0 10 
1  2 − 4   1 −2 
or Y=  0 10 =  0 5 
2    
Example 10 Find the values of x and y from the following equation:
x 5  3 −4  7 6
2  +  =  
7 y − 3 1 2  15 14
Solution We have
x 5   3 −4  7 6 2x 10   3 − 4   7 6 
2 + ⇒ 
7 y − 3 1 2 
=   + =
2  15 14
15 14 14 2 y − 6 1
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MATRICES 49
2x + 3 10 − 4  7 6 2x + 3 6  7 6
or  14 + 1 2 y − 6 + 2  =  ⇒  =
  
15 14   15 2 y − 4 15 14 
or 2x + 3 = 7 and 2y – 4 = 14 (Why?)
or 2x = 7 – 3 and 2y = 18
4 18
or x= and y=
2 2
i.e. x =2 and y = 9.
Example 11 Two farmers Ramkishan and Gurcharan Singh cultivates only three
varieties of rice namely Basmati, Permal and Naura. The sale (in Rupees) of these
varieties of rice by both the farmers in the month of September and October are given
by the following matrices A and B.
(i) Find the combined sales in September and October for each farmer in each
variety.
(ii) Find the decrease in sales from September to October.
(iii) If both farmers receive 2% profit on gross sales, compute the profit for each
farmer and for each variety sold in October.
Solution
(i) Combined sales in September and October for each farmer in each variety is
given by
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50 MATHEMATICS
(ii) Change in sales from September to October is given by
2
(iii) 2% of B = × B = 0.02 × B
100
= 0.02
Thus, in October Ramkishan receives ` 100, ` 200 and ` 120 as profit in the
sale of each variety of rice, respectively, and Grucharan Singh receives profit of ` 400,
` 200 and ` 200 in the sale of each variety of rice, respectively.
3.4.5 Multiplication of matrices
Suppose Meera and Nadeem are two friends. Meera wants to buy 2 pens and 5 story
books, while Nadeem needs 8 pens and 10 story books. They both go to a shop to
enquire about the rates which are quoted as follows:
Pen – ` 5 each, story book – ` 50 each.
How much money does each need to spend? Clearly, Meera needs ` (5 × 2 + 50 × 5)
that is ` 260, while Nadeem needs (8 × 5 + 50 × 10) `, that is ` 540. In terms of matrix
representation, we can write the above information as follows:
Requirements Prices per piece (in Rupees) Money needed (in Rupees)
2 5  5  5 × 2 + 5 × 50   260 
 8 10   50  8 × 5 + 10 × 50 =  540 
       
Suppose that they enquire about the rates from another shop, quoted as follows:
pen – ` 4 each, story book – ` 40 each.
Now, the money required by Meera and Nadeem to make purchases will be
respectively ` (4 × 2 + 40 × 5) = ` 208 and ` (8 × 4 + 10 × 40) = ` 432
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MATRICES 51
Again, the above information can be represented as follows:

2 5  4  4 × 2 + 40 × 5   208
 8 10   40   8 × 4 + 10 × 4 0 =  432 
       
Now, the information in both the cases can be combined and expressed in terms of
matrices as follows:
2 5  5 4  5 × 2 + 5 × 50 4 × 2 + 40 × 5 
 8 10  50 40  8 × 5 + 10 × 5 0 8 × 4 + 10 × 4 0
     
 260 208 
=  
 540 432 
The above is an example of multiplication of matrices. We observe that, for
multiplication of two matrices A and B, the number of columns in A should be equal to
the number of rows in B. Furthermore for getting the elements of the product matrix,
we take rows of A and columns of B, multiply them element-wise and take the sum.
Formally, we define multiplication of matrices as follows:
The product of two matrices A and B is defined if the number of columns of A is
equal to the number of rows of B. Let A = [aij] be an m × n matrix and B = [bjk] be an
n × p matrix. Then the product of the matrices A and B is the matrix C of order m × p.
To get the (i, k)th element cik of the matrix C, we take the ith row of A and kth column
of B, multiply them elementwise and take the sum of all these products. In other words,
if A = [aij]m × n, B = [bjk]n × p, then the ith row of A is [ai1 ai2 ... ain] and the kth column of
 b1k 
b  n
 2k 
B is  ..  , then cik = ai1 b1k + ai2 b2k + ai3 b3k + ... + ain bnk = ∑ aij b jk .
j =1
 . 
b 
 nk 
The matrix C = [cik]m × p is the product of A and B.
 2 7
1 −1 2  −1 1  , then the product CD is defined
For example, if C =   and D =  
0 3 4   5 − 4
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52 MATHEMATICS
 2 7
1 −1 2  
and is given by CD =    −1 1  . This is a 2 × 2 matrix in which each
 0 3 4  
 5 − 4
entry is the sum of the products across some row of C with the corresponding entries
down some column of D. These four computations are
13 −2 
Thus CD =  
17 −13
6 9 2 6 0 
Example 12 Find AB, if A =   and B =  .
2 3 7 9 8 
Solution The matrix A has 2 columns which is equal to the number of rows of B.
Hence AB is defined. Now
 6(2) + 9(7) 6(6) + 9(9) 6(0) + 9(8) 

AB =  
 2(2) + 3(7) 2(6) + 3(9) 2(0) + 3(8) 
12 + 63 36 + 81 0 + 72  75 117 72 

=  =  
 4 + 21 12 + 27 0 + 24  25 39 24 
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MATRICES 53
Remark If AB is defined, then BA need not be defined. In the above example, AB is

defined but BA is not defined because B has 3 column while A has only 2 (and not 3)
rows. If A, B are, respectively m × n, k × l matrices, then both AB and BA are defined
if and only if n = k and l = m. In particular, if both A and B are square matrices of the
same order, then both AB and BA are defined.
Non-commutativity of multiplication of matrices
Now, we shall see by an example that even if AB and BA are both defined, it is not
necessary that AB = BA.
 2 3
 1 −2 3
Example 13 If A =   and B =  4 5 , then find AB, BA. Show that
− 4 2 5   2 1
AB ≠ BA.
Solution Since A is a 2 × 3 matrix and B is 3 × 2 matrix. Hence AB and BA are both
defined and are matrices of order 2 × 2 and 3 × 3, respectively. Note that
2 3
 1 −2 3 4  2−8+6 3 − 10 + 3   0 − 4 
AB =  5 =  =
− 4 2 5    −8 + 8 + 10 −12 + 10 + 5 10 3 
 2 1 
2 3  2 − 12 − 4 + 6 6 + 15  −10 2 21
 1 −2 3    
and BA =  4 
5   =  4 − 20 −8 + 10 12 + 25 = −16 2 37 
−4 2 5 
 2 1   2 − 4 − 4 + 2 6 + 5   −2 −2 11 
Clearly AB ≠ BA
In the above example both AB and BA are of different order and so AB ≠ BA. But
one may think that perhaps AB and BA could be the same if they were of the same
order. But it is not so, here we give an example to show that even if AB and BA are of
same order they may not be same.
1 0  0 1   0 1
Example 14 If A =   and B =   , then AB =  .
 0 −1 1 0   −1 0 
 0 −1
and BA =   . Clearly AB ≠ BA.
1 0 
Thus matrix multiplication is not commutative.
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54 MATHEMATICS
ANote This does not mean that AB ≠ BA for every pair of matrices A, B for
which AB and BA, are defined. For instance,
1 0  3 0  3 0
If A =   , B=  , then AB = BA =  
0 2  0 4 0 8 
Observe that multiplication of diagonal matrices of same order will be commutative.
Zero matrix as the product of two non zero matrices
We know that, for real numbers a, b if ab = 0, then either a = 0 or b = 0. This need
not be true for matrices, we will observe this through an example.
 0 −1 3 5 
Example 15 Find AB, if A =   and B =  .
0 2  0 0 
 0 −1   3 5   0 0 
Solution We have AB =   = .
0 2  0 0  0 0 
Thus, if the product of two matrices is a zero matrix, it is not necessary that one of
the matrices is a zero matrix.
3.4.6 Properties of multiplication of matrices
The multiplication of matrices possesses the following properties, which we state without
proof.
1. The associative law For any three matrices A, B and C. We have
(AB) C = A (BC), whenever both sides of the equality are defined.
2. The distributive law For three matrices A, B and C.
(i) A (B+C) = AB + AC
(ii) (A+B) C = AC + BC, whenever both sides of equality are defined.
3. The existence of multiplicative identity For every square matrix A, there
exist an identity matrix of same order such that IA = AI = A.
Now, we shall verify these properties by examples.
1 1 −1  1 3
 1 2 3 − 4
Example 16 If A =  2 0 3  , B =  0 2  and C = 
 
 , find
 3 −1 2  −1 4  2 0 −2 1 
A(BC), (AB)C and show that (AB)C = A(BC).
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MATRICES 55
1 1 −1  1 3   1 + 0 + 1 3 + 2 − 4   2 1 
Solution We have AB = 2 0 3   0 2  =  2 + 0 − 3 6 + 0 + 12  = −1 18

3 −1 2  −1 4  3 + 0 − 2 9 − 2 + 8   1 15
2 1  2+ 2 4 + 0 6 − 2 − 8 +1 
1 2 3 − 4  

(AB) (C) = −1 18 


 2 0 −2 1 =  −1 + 36 −2 + 0 −3 − 36 4 + 18
 1 15   
 1 + 30 2 + 0 3 − 30 − 4 + 15
4 4 4 −7 
35 −2 −39 22 
=  
31 2 −27 11
 1 3  1 + 6 2 + 0 3 − 6 −4 + 3 
1 2 3 −4   
Now BC =  0 
2   =  0 + 4 0 + 0 0 − 4 0 + 2
 2 0 −2 1
 −1   
4   −1 + 8 −2 + 0 −3 − 8 4 + 4 
7 2 −3 −1 
 
=  4 0 −4 2 
7 −2 −11 8 
1 1 −1  7 2 −3 −1 
Therefore A(BC) =  2 0 3   4 0 −4 2 
 3 −1 2  7 −2 −11 8 
 7 + 4 − 7 2 + 0 + 2 −3 − 4 + 11 −1 + 2 − 8 
 
= 14 + 0 + 21 4 + 0 − 6 −6 + 0 − 33 −2 + 0 + 24 
 21 − 4 + 14 6 + 0 − 4 −9 + 4 − 22 −3 − 2 + 16 
4 4 4 −7 
35 −2 −39 22 
=   . Clearly, (AB) C = A (BC)
31 2 −27 11
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56 MATHEMATICS
 0 6 7 0 1 1  2
Example 17 If A = − 6 0 8 , B = 1 0 2 , C = −2 
   
     
 7 − 8 0  1 2 0   3 
Calculate AC, BC and (A + B)C. Also, verify that (A + B)C = AC + BC
 0 7 8
 
Solution Now, A + B = −5 0 10 
 8 − 6 0 
 0 7 8 2   0 − 14 + 24  10 
 10  −2  = −10 + 0 + 30  =  20
So (A + B) C = −5 0      
 8 − 6 0   3   16 + 12 + 0   28
 0 6 7   2   0 − 12 + 21  9
      = 12 
Further AC =  −6 0 8  −2  = −12 + 0 + 24   
 7 − 8 0   3   14 + 16 + 0  30
0 1 1   2   0 − 2 + 3  1 
    =  2 + 0 + 6 =  8 
and BC = 1 0 2  −2     
1 2 0   3   2 − 4 + 0 − 2 
9   1  10 
     
So AC + BC = 12  +  8  = 20
30  −2   28
Clearly, (A + B) C = AC + BC
1 2 3
 1 , then show that A3 – 23A – 40 I = O
Example 18 If A =  3 −2
 4 2 1
1 2 3 1 2 3 19 4 8
Solution We have A = A.A = 3 −2
2
1  3 −2 1 = 1 12 8 

4 2 1  4 2 1 14 6 15 
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MATRICES 57
1 2 3 19 4 8   63 46 69
So A = A A =  3 −2
3 2
1 1 12 8  = 69 −6 23

 4 2 1 14 6 15  92 46 63
Now
 63 46 69 1 2 3 1 0 0 
3 69 −6 23 – 23  3 −2 1 – 40 0 1 0 

A – 23A – 40I =   
92 46 63  4 2 1 0 0 1 
 63 46 69   −23 −46 −69  −40 0 0 

69 −6 23 + −69 46 −23 +  0 −40 0 
=     
92 46 63 −92 −46 −23  0 0 −40 
63 − 23 − 40 46 − 46 + 0 69 − 69 + 0 
 
= 69 − 69 + 0 −6 + 46 − 40 23 − 23 + 0 
 92 − 92 + 0 46 − 46 + 0 63 − 23 − 40
 0 0 0
 
=  0 0 0 = O
0 0 0
Example 19 In a legislative assembly election, a political group hired a public relations

firm to promote its candidate in three ways: telephone, house calls, and letters. The
cost per contact (in paise) is given in matrix A as
Cost per contact
 40  Telephone
 100  Housecall
A=  
 50  Letter
The number of contacts of each type made in two cities X and Y is given by
Telephone Housecall Letter
1000 500 5000  → X
B=  . Find the total amount spent by the group in the two
3000 1000 10,000 → Y
cities X and Y.
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58 MATHEMATICS
Solution We have
 40,000 + 50,000 + 250, 000  → X
BA =  
120,000 + 100,000 +500,000  → Y
 340, 000  → X
=  
 720,000  → Y
So the total amount spent by the group in the two cities is 340,000 paise and
720,000 paise, i.e., ` 3400 and ` 7200, respectively.
EXERCISE 3.2
2 4   1 3 −2 5
1. Let A =   ,B=  ,C=
3 2  −2 5 3 4 
Find each of the following:
(i) A + B (ii) A – B (iii) 3A – C
(iv) AB (v) BA
2. Compute the following:
a b  a b a2 + b2 b2 + c2   2ab 2bc 
(i)  + (ii)  2  +  
−b a   b a   a + c
2
a 2 + b 2  −2ac −2ab 
−1
4 −6  12 7 6 
 cos 2 x sin 2 x   sin 2 x cos 2 x 
5 16  +  8 0 5  (iv) 
(iii)  8 + 2 
2 2 2
 2
8 5   3 2 4   sin x cos x  cos x sin x 
3. Compute the indicated products.
1 
a b   a −b   2  1 −2  1 2 3
(i)  (ii)   [2 3 4]
a   b a 
(iii)   
−b  3  2 3   2 3 1
 2 3 4  1 −3 5 2 1
3  1 0 1
(iv)  3 4 5  0 2 4 (v)  2  
   −1 2 1
 4 5 6  3 0 5  −1 1
 2 −3
 3 −1 3   
(vi)   1 0 
−1 0 2  3 1
 
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MATRICES 59
1 2 −3  3 −1 2   4 1 2
     
4. If A = 5 0 2  , B =  4 2 5  and C =  0 3 2 , then compute
1 −1 1   2 0 3  1 −2 3
(A+B) and (B – C). Also, verify that A + (B – C) = (A + B) – C.
2 5 2 3 
3 1  5 1
3 5
   
1 2 4 1 2 4
5. If A =  
and B = 
 , then compute 3A – 5B.
3 3 3 5 5 5
   
 7 2 7 6 2
2
 3 3   5 5 5 
 cos θ sin θ   sin θ − cos θ 

6. Simplify cosθ   + sinθ 
 − sin θ cos θ  cos θ sin θ
7. Find X and Y, if
7 0 3 0
(i) X + Y =   and X – Y =  
 2 5 0 3 
2 3  2 −2
(ii) 2X + 3Y =   and 3X + 2Y =  
4 0   −1 5 
3 2   1 0
8. Find X, if Y =   and 2X + Y =  −3 2 
1 4   
1 3   y 0  5 6 
9. Find x and y, if 2  + = 
 0 x   1 2  1 8 
x z  1 −1   3 5
10. Solve the equation for x, y, z and t, if 2   +3  =3 
y t 0 2   4 6
2  −1  10 
11. If x   + y   =   , find the values of x and y.
3   1  5 
x y  x 6   4 x + y
12. Given 3   =  + , find the values of x, y, z and w.
 z w  −1 2 w  z + w 3 
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60 MATHEMATICS
cos x − sin x 0 
13. If F ( x ) =  sin x cos x 0  , show that F(x) F(y) = F(x + y).
 
 0 0 1 
14. Show that
 5 −1  2 1   2 1   5 −1
(i)   ≠  
6 7  3 4  3 4  6 7 
1 2 3 −1 1 0   −1 1 0  1 2 3 
  1  ≠  0 −1 1  0 1 0 
(ii) 0 1 0   0 −1
1 1 0   2 3 4   2 3 4 1 1 0 
2 0 1
15. Find A – 5A + 6I, if A =  2 1
2
3

1 −1 0 
1 0 2 
16. If A = 0 2 1  , prove that A3 – 6A2 + 7A + 2I = 0
 
2 0 3
 3 −2  1 0 
17. If A =   and I=  2
 , find k so that A = kA – 2I
 4 −2  0 1 
 α
 0 − tan 
18. If A =  2 and I is the identity matrix of order 2, show that

 tan α 0 
 2 
 cos α − sin α 
I + A = (I – A) 
 sin α cos α 
19. A trust fund has ` 30,000 that must be invested in two different types of bonds.
The first bond pays 5% interest per year, and the second bond pays 7% interest
per year. Using matrix multiplication, determine how to divide ` 30,000 among
the two types of bonds. If the trust fund must obtain an annual total interest of:
(a) ` 1800 (b) ` 2000
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MATRICES 61
20. The bookshop of a particular school has 10 dozen chemistry books, 8 dozen
physics books, 10 dozen economics books. Their selling prices are ` 80, ` 60 and
` 40 each respectively. Find the total amount the bookshop will receive from
selling all the books using matrix algebra.
Assume X, Y, Z, W and P are matrices of order 2 × n, 3 × k, 2 × p, n × 3 and p × k,
respectively. Choose the correct answer in Exercises 21 and 22.
21. The restriction on n, k and p so that PY + WY will be defined are:
(A) k = 3, p = n (B) k is arbitrary, p = 2
(C) p is arbitrary, k = 3 (D) k = 2, p = 3
22. If n = p, then the order of the matrix 7X – 5Z is:
(A) p × 2 (B) 2 × n (C) n × 3 (D) p × n
3.5. Transpose of a Matrix
In this section, we shall learn about transpose of a matrix and special types of matrices
such as symmetric and skew symmetric matrices.
Definition 3 If A = [aij] be an m × n matrix, then the matrix obtained by interchanging
the rows and columns of A is called the transpose of A. Transpose of the matrix A is
denoted by A′ or (AT). In other words, if A = [aij]m × n, then A′ = [aji]n × m. For example,
 3 5 3 3 0
   
if A =  3 1  , then A′ =
5 1 −1 
 0 −1   5  2 × 3
 
 5 3 × 2
3.5.1 Properties of transpose of the matrices
We now state the following properties of transpose of matrices without proof. These
may be verified by taking suitable examples.
For any matrices A and B of suitable orders, we have
(i) (A′)′ = A, (ii) (kA)′ = kA′ (where k is any constant)
(iii) (A + B)′ = A′ + B′ (iv) (A B)′ = B′ A′
3 3 2  2 −1 2 
Example 20 If A =   and B = 
2 4 
, verify that
4 2 0 1
(i) (A′)′ = A, (ii) (A + B)′ = A′ + B′,
(iii) (kB)′ = kB′, where k is any constant.
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62 MATHEMATICS
Solution
(i) We have
 3 4
3 3 2   ′ 3 3 2
A=   ⇒ A′ =  3 2 ⇒ ( A′ ) =  =A
 4 2 0   2 0  4 2 0 
 
Thus (A′)′ = A
(ii) We have
3 3 2  2 −1 2  5 3 − 1 4
A=  , B = 1  ⇒A+B= 
4 2 0  2 4 5 4 4
 5 5
 
Therefore (A + B)′ =  3 − 1 4
 4 4

 3 4  2 1
   
Now ′
A′ =  3 2 , B = −1 2 ,
 2 0
   2 4
 5 5
 
So A′ + B′ =  3 −1 4
 4 4

Thus (A + B)′ = A′ + B′
(iii) We have
 2 −1 2   2 k −k 2k 
kB = k  =
1 2 4   k 2k 4 k 
 2k k   2 1
 − k 2k  = k −1 2  = kB′
Then (kB)′ =    
 2k 4k   2 4 
Thus (kB)′ = kB′
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MATRICES 63
 −2
 
Example 21 If A =  4  , B = [1 3 −6] , verify that (AB)′ = B′A′.
 5 
Solution We have
 −2 
 4  , B = 1 3 −6
A=   [ ]
 5 
 −2   −2 −6 12 
then
 4  1 3 −6
AB =   [ ] =  4 12 −24 
 5   5 15 −30 
 1
Now A′ = [–2 4 5] , B′ =  3 
 
− 6 
 1  −2 4 5
 3  −2 4 5 =  −6 12 15  = (AB)′
B′A′ =   [ ] 
− 6  12 −24 −30
Clearly (AB)′ = B′A′
3.6 Symmetric and Skew Symmetric Matrices

Definition 4 A square matrix A = [aij] is said to be symmetric if A′ = A, that is,
[aij] = [aji] for all possible values of i and j.
 3 2 3
 
For example A =  2 −1.5 −1  is a symmetric matrix as A′ = A
 3 −1 1 

Definition 5 A square matrix A = [aij] is said to be skew symmetric matrix if

A′ = – A, that is aji = – aij for all possible values of i and j. Now, if we put i = j, we
have aii = – aii. Therefore 2aii = 0 or aii = 0 for all i’s.
This means that all the diagonal elements of a skew symmetric matrix are zero.
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64 MATHEMATICS
 0 e f
For example, the matrix B =  −e 0 g  is a skew symmetric matrix as B′= –B

− f −g 0 
Now, we are going to prove some results of symmetric and skew-symmetric

matrices.
Theorem 1 For any square matrix A with real number entries, A + A′ is a symmetric
matrix and A – A′ is a skew symmetric matrix.
Proof Let B = A + A′, then
B′ = (A + A′)′
= A′ + (A′)′ (as (A + B)′ = A′ + B′)
= A′ + A (as (A′)′ = A)
= A + A′ (as A + B = B + A)
= B
Therefore B = A + A′ is a symmetric matrix
Now let C = A – A′
C′ = (A – A′)′ = A′ – (A′)′ (Why?)
= A′ – A (Why?)
= – (A – A′) = – C
Therefore C = A – A′ is a skew symmetric matrix.
Theorem 2 Any square matrix can be expressed as the sum of a symmetric and a
skew symmetric matrix.
Proof Let A be a square matrix, then we can write
1 1
A = (A + A′) + (A − A′)
2 2
From the Theorem 1, we know that (A + A′) is a symmetric matrix and (A – A′) is
1
a skew symmetric matrix. Since for any matrix A, (kA)′ = kA′, it follows that (A + A′)
2
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MATRICES 65
1
is symmetric matrix and (A − A′) is skew symmetric matrix. Thus, any square
2
matrix can be expressed as the sum of a symmetric and a skew symmetric matrix.
 2 −2 −4 
Example 22 Express the matrix B = −1 3 4  as the sum of a symmetric and a

 1 −2 −3
Solution Here
 2 −1 1 
B′ = − 2 3 −2
 
 −4 4 −3
 −3 −3 
 2 2 2
 4 −3 −3  
1  −3 1 ,
2 = 
1
Let P = (B + B′) = − 3 6 3

2 2 2
 −3 2 −6   −3 
 1 −3 
−3 −3   2 

 2 2 2
 
−3
Now P′ =  3 1 = P
2 
 
 −3 1 −3 
 2 
1
Thus P = (B + B′) is a symmetric matrix.
2
 −1 −5 
0 2 2
0 −1 −5  
1 1  1
Also, let Q = (B – B′) = 1 0 6  =  0 3

2 2 2
5 −6 0   
 5 −3 0
 2 
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66 MATHEMATICS
 1 5
0 2 3
 
−1
Then Q′ =  0 −3 = − Q
2 
 
 −5 3 0
 2 
1
Thus Q= (B – B′) is a skew symmetric matrix.
2
 −3 −3   −1 −5 
2 2 2 
0
2 2  2
    −2 −4
−3
3  = −1 3 4  = B
1
Now P+Q= 3 1 + 0
2  2 
     1 −2 −3
 −3 1 −3 
 5
−3 0 
 2   2 
Thus, B is represented as the sum of a symmetric and a skew symmetric matrix.
EXERCISE 3.3
1. Find the transpose of each of the following matrices:
5
1  −1 5 6 
 1 −1   
(i)   (ii)   (iii)  3 5 6 
2  2 3
−1   2 3 −1
   
 −1 2 3  −4 1 −5
2. If A = 5 7 9 and B =  1 2 0  , then verify that
 
   
 −2 1 1   1 3 1
(i) (A + B)′ = A′ + B′, (ii) (A – B)′ = A′ – B′
 3 4
 −1 2 1
3. If A′ = −1 2  and B =  , then verify that
 
 1 2 3
 0 1 
(i) (A + B)′ = A′ + B′ (ii) (A – B)′ = A′ – B′
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MATRICES 67
 −2 3  −1 0 
4. If A′ =   and B =   , then find (A + 2B)′
 1 2  1 2
5. For the matrices A and B, verify that (AB)′ = B′A′, where
1 0 
   
(i) A = −4  , B = [ −1 2 1] (ii) A = 1  , B = [1 5 7 ]
 3  2 
 cos α sin α 
6. If (i) A =   , then verify that A′ A = I
 − sin α cos α 
 sin α cos α 
(ii) If A =   , then verify that A′ A = I
 − cos α sin α 
1 −1 5
7. (i) Show that the matrix A = −1 2 1 is a symmetric matrix.

 5 1 3
 0 1 −1 
(ii) Show that the matrix A = −1 0 1  is a skew symmetric matrix.
 
 1 −1 0 
1 5 
8. For the matrix A =   , verify that
6 7 
(i) (A + A′) is a symmetric matrix
(ii) (A – A′) is a skew symmetric matrix
 0 a b
1 1
9. Find ( ′ )
A + A and ( A − A , when A = − a 0
′ ) c 
2 2 
 −b −c 0 
10. Express the following matrices as the sum of a symmetric and a skew symmetric
matrix:
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68 MATHEMATICS
 6 −2 2
3 5  
(i)   (ii) −2 3 −1 
1 −1
 2 −1 3 
 3 3 −1
−2 −2 1  1 5
(iii)   (iv)  
 −1 2 
 −4 −5 2
Choose the correct answer in the Exercises 11 and 12.

11. If A, B are symmetric matrices of same order, then AB – BA is a
(A) Skew symmetric matrix (B) Symmetric matrix
(C) Zero matrix (D) Identity matrix
 cos α − sin α 
12. If A =  , and A + A′ = I, then the value of α is
sin α cos α 
π π
(A) (B)
6 3
3π
(C) π (D)
2
3.7 Invertible Matrices

Definition 6 If A is a square matrix of order m, and if there exists another square
matrix B of the same order m, such that AB = BA = I, then B is called the inverse
matrix of A and it is denoted by A– 1. In that case A is said to be invertible.
2 3  2 −3 
For example, let A=   and B =  −1 2  be two matrices.
1 2   
 2 3   2 −3 
Now AB =   
 1 2   −1 2 
 4 − 3 −6 + 6  1 0
=  = =I
 2 − 2 −3 + 4   0 1 
1 0
Also BA =   = I . Thus B is the inverse of A, in other
0 1 
words B = A– 1 and A is inverse of B, i.e., A = B–1
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MATRICES 69
A Note
1. A rectangular matrix does not possess inverse matrix, since for products BA
and AB to be defined and to be equal, it is necessary that matrices A and B
should be square matrices of the same order.
2. If B is the inverse of A, then A is also the inverse of B.
Theorem 3 (Uniqueness of inverse) Inverse of a square matrix, if it exists, is unique.

Proof Let A = [aij] be a square matrix of order m. If possible, let B and C be two
inverses of A. We shall show that B = C.
Since B is the inverse of A
AB = BA = I ... (1)
Since C is also the inverse of A
AC = CA = I ... (2)
Thus B = BI = B (AC) = (BA) C = IC = C
Theorem 4 If A and B are invertible matrices of the same order, then (AB)–1 = B–1 A–1.
Proof From the definition of inverse of a matrix, we have
(AB) (AB)–1 = 1
or A–1 (AB) (AB)–1 = A –1 I (Pre multiplying both sides by A–1)
or (A–1A) B (AB)–1 = A –1 (Since A–1 I = A–1)
or IB (AB)–1 = A –1
or B (AB)–1 = A –1
or B–1 B (AB)–1 = B –1 A–1
or I (AB)–1 = B –1 A–1
Hence (AB)–1 = B –1 A–1
EXERCISE 3.4
1. Matrices A and B will be inverse of each other only if

(A) AB = BA (B) AB = BA = 0
(C) AB = 0, BA = I (D) AB = BA = I
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70 MATHEMATICS
 cos θ sin θ   cos nθ sin nθ 

Example 23 If A =   , then prove that A n =   , n ∈ N.
 − sin θ cos θ  − sin nθ cos nθ
Solution We shall prove the result by using principle of mathematical induction.

 cos θ sin θ   cos nθ sin nθ 
We have P(n) : If A =   , then A n =  ,n∈N
 − sin θ cos θ  − sin nθ cos nθ
 cos θ sin θ   cos θ sin θ 

, so A = 
1
P(1) : A =   
 − sin θ cos θ  − sin θ cos θ 
Therefore, the result is true for n = 1.
Let the result be true for n = k. So
 cos θ sin θ   cos k θ sin k θ 

, then A = 
k
P(k) : A =   
 − sin θ cos θ  − sin k θ cos k θ 
Now, we prove that the result holds for n = k +1
 cos θ sin θ   cos k θ sin k θ 

Ak + 1 = A ⋅ A = 
k
Now  
 − sin θ cos θ   − sin k θ cos k θ 
 cos θ cos k θ – sin θ sin k θ cos θ sin k θ + sin θ cos k θ 

=  
 − sin θ cos k θ + cos θ sin k θ − sin θ sin k θ + cos θ cos k θ 
 cos (θ + k θ) sin (θ + k θ)   cos( k + 1)θ sin (k + 1)θ 

=  = 
 − sin (θ + k θ) cos (θ + k θ)   − sin (k + 1)θ cos (k + 1)θ 
Therefore, the result is true for n = k + 1. Thus by principle of mathematical induction,
 cos n θ sin n θ 
we have A = 
n
, holds for all natural numbers.
− sin n θ cos n θ 
Example 24 If A and B are symmetric matrices of the same order, then show that AB
is symmetric if and only if A and B commute, that is AB = BA.
Solution Since A and B are both symmetric matrices, therefore A′ = A and B′ = B.
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MATRICES 71
Let AB be symmetric, then (AB)′ = AB

But (AB)′ = B′A′= BA (Why?)
Therefore BA = AB
Conversely, if AB = BA, then we shall show that AB is symmetric.
Now (AB)′ = B′A′
= B A (as A and B are symmetric)
= AB
Hence AB is symmetric.
 2 −1 5 2  2 5
Example 25 Let A =   ,B=  ,C=  . Find a matrix D such that
 3 4 7 4  3 8
CD – AB = O.
Solution Since A, B, C are all square matrices of order 2, and CD – AB is well
defined, D must be a square matrix of order 2.
a b 
Let D=   . Then CD – AB = 0 gives
c d 
 2 5  a b   2 −1  5 2
 3 8  c d  − 3 4 7 4 = O
     
 2a + 5c 2b + 5d   3 0   0 0 
or  3a + 8c 3b + 8d  −  43 22 =  
    0 0 
 2a + 5c − 3 2b + 5d   0 0 
or  3a + 8c − 43 3b + 8d − 22 =  0 0 
   
By equality of matrices, we get
2a + 5c – 3 = 0 ... (1)
3a + 8c – 43 = 0 ... (2)
2b + 5d = 0 ... (3)
and 3b + 8d – 22 = 0 ... (4)
Solving (1) and (2), we get a = –191, c = 77. Solving (3) and (4), we get b = – 110,
d = 44.
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72 MATHEMATICS
 a b   −191 −110 
Therefore D=  = 44 
 c d   77
1. If A and B are symmetric matrices, prove that AB – BA is a skew symmetric

matrix.
2. Show that the matrix B′AB is symmetric or skew symmetric according as A is
symmetric or skew symmetric.
0 2 y z
3. Find the values of x, y, z if the matrix A =  x y − z  satisfy the equation

 x − y z 
A′A = I.
1 2 0   0 
4. For what values of x : [1 2 1]  2 0 1   2  = O?
1 0 2   x 
3 1
5. If A =  , show that A2 – 5A + 7I = 0.
−1 2
 1 0 2  x 
6. Find x, if [ x −5 −1]  0 2 1   4  = O
  
 2 0 3 1 
7. A manufacturer produces three products x, y, z which he sells in two markets.

Annual sales are indicated below:
Market Products
I 10,000 2,000 18,000
II 6,000 20,000 8,000
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MATRICES 73
(a) If unit sale prices of x, y and z are ` 2.50, ` 1.50 and ` 1.00, respectively,
find the total revenue in each market with the help of matrix algebra.
(b) If the unit costs of the above three commodities are ` 2.00, ` 1.00 and
50 paise respectively. Find the gross profit.
1 2 3  −7 −8 −9 
8. Find the matrix X so that X  = 4 6 
4 5 6  2
Choose the correct answer in the following questions:
α β 
9. If A =  is such that A² = I, then
γ −α 
(A) 1 + α² + βγ = 0 (B) 1 – α² + βγ = 0
(C) 1 – α² – βγ = 0 (D) 1 + α² – βγ = 0
10. If the matrix A is both symmetric and skew symmetric, then
(A) A is a diagonal matrix (B) A is a zero matrix
(C) A is a square matrix (D) None of these
2
11. If A is square matrix such that A = A, then (I + A)³ – 7 A is equal to
(A) A (B) I – A (C) I (D) 3A
Summary
® A matrix is an ordered rectangular array of numbers or functions.
® A matrix having m rows and n columns is called a matrix of order m × n.
® [aij]m × 1 is a column matrix.
® [aij]1 × n is a row matrix.
® An m × n matrix is a square matrix if m = n.
® A = [aij]m × m is a diagonal matrix if aij = 0, when i ≠ j.
® A = [aij]n × n is a scalar matrix if aij = 0, when i ≠ j, aij = k, (k is some
constant), when i = j.
® A = [aij]n × n is an identity matrix, if aij = 1, when i = j, aij = 0, when i ≠ j.
® A zero matrix has all its elements as zero.
® A = [aij] = [bij] = B if (i) A and B are of same order, (ii) aij = bij for all
possible values of i and j.
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74 MATHEMATICS
® kA = k[aij]m × n = [k(aij)]m × n
® – A = (–1)A
® A – B = A + (–1) B
® A+ B = B +A
® (A + B) + C = A + (B + C), where A, B and C are of same order.
® k(A + B) = kA + kB, where A and B are of same order, k is constant.
® (k + l ) A = kA + lA, where k and l are constant. n
® c
If A = [aij]m × n and B = [bjk]n × p , then AB = C = [cik]m × p, where ik = ∑a b
j =1
ij jk
® (i) A(BC) = (AB)C, (ii) A(B + C) = AB + AC, (iii) (A + B)C = AC + BC

® If A = [aij]m × n, then A′ or AT = [aji]n × m
® (i) (A′)′ = A, (ii) (kA)′ = kA′, (iii) (A + B)′ = A′ + B′, (iv) (AB)′ = B′A′
® A is a symmetric matrix if A′ = A.
® A is a skew symmetric matrix if A′ = – A.
® Any square matrix can be represented as the sum of a symmetric and a
® If A and B are two square matrices such that AB = BA = I, then B is the
inverse matrix of A and is denoted by A–1 and A is the inverse of B.
® Inverse of a square matrix, if it exists, is unique.
—v —
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MATRICES 75
NOTES
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18 MATHEMATICS
Chapter 2
INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC
FUNCTIONS
v Mathematics, in general, is fundamentally the science of
self-evident things. — FELIX KLEIN v
2.1 Introduction
In Chapter 1, we have studied that the inverse of a function
f, denoted by f –1, exists if f is one-one and onto. There are
many functions which are not one-one, onto or both and
hence we can not talk of their inverses. In Class XI, we
studied that trigonometric functions are not one-one and
onto over their natural domains and ranges and hence their
inverses do not exist. In this chapter, we shall study about
the restrictions on domains and ranges of trigonometric
functions which ensure the existence of their inverses and
observe their behaviour through graphical representations.
Besides, some elementary properties will also be discussed.
The inverse trigonometric functions play an important Aryabhata
(476-550 A. D.)
role in calculus for they serve to define many integrals.
The concepts of inverse trigonometric functions is also used in science and engineering.
2.2 Basic Concepts
In Class XI, we have studied trigonometric functions, which are defined as follows:
sine function, i.e., sine : R → [– 1, 1]
cosine function, i.e., cos : R → [– 1, 1]
π
tangent function, i.e., tan : R – { x : x = (2n + 1) , n ∈ Z} → R
2
cotangent function, i.e., cot : R – { x : x = nπ, n ∈ Z} → R
π
secant function, i.e., sec : R – { x : x = (2n + 1) , n ∈ Z} → R – (– 1, 1)
2
cosecant function, i.e., cosec : R – { x : x = nπ, n ∈ Z} → R – (– 1, 1)
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INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS 19
We have also learnt in Chapter 1 that if f : X→Y such that f (x) = y is one-one and
onto, then we can define a unique function g : Y→X such that g (y) = x, where x ∈ X
and y = f (x), y ∈ Y. Here, the domain of g = range of f and the range of g = domain
of f. The function g is called the inverse of f and is denoted by f –1. Further, g is also
one-one and onto and inverse of g is f. Thus, g –1 = (f –1)–1 = f. We also have
(f –1 o f ) (x) = f –1 (f (x)) = f –1(y) = x
and (f o f –1) (y) = f (f –1(y)) = f (x) = y
Since the domain of sine function is the set of all real numbers and range is the
−π π
closed interval [–1, 1]. If we restrict its domain to  ,  , then it becomes one-one
 2 2
and onto with range [– 1, 1]. Actually, sine function restricted to any of the intervals
 −3π π  ,  −π π  ,  π 3π  etc., is one-one and its range is [–1, 1]. We can,
 2 , 2   2 , 2   2 , 2 
 
therefore, define the inverse of sine function in each of these intervals. We denote the
inverse of sine function by sin–1 (arc sine function). Thus, sin–1 is a function whose
 −3π −π   −π π 
domain is [– 1, 1] and range could be any of the intervals  , , , or
 2 2   2 2 
 π 3π 
 2 , 2  , and so on. Corresponding to each such interval, we get a branch of the
 
 −π π 
function sin–1. The branch with range  ,  is called the principal value branch,
 2 2
whereas other intervals as range give different branches of sin–1. When we refer
to the function sin–1, we take it as the function whose domain is [–1, 1] and range is
 −π π   −π π 
 2 , 2  . We write sin : [–1, 1] →  2 , 2 
–1
   
From the definition of the inverse functions, it follows that sin (sin–1 x) = x
π π
if – 1 ≤ x ≤ 1 and sin–1 (sin x) = x if − ≤ x ≤ . In other words, if y = sin–1 x, then
2 2
sin y = x.
Remarks
(i) We know from Chapter 1, that if y = f (x) is an invertible function, then x = f –1 (y).
Thus, the graph of sin–1 function can be obtained from the graph of original
function by interchanging x and y axes, i.e., if (a, b) is a point on the graph of
sine function, then (b, a) becomes the corresponding point on the graph of inverse
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20 MATHEMATICS
of sine function. Thus, the graph of the function y = sin–1 x can be obtained from
the graph of y = sin x by interchanging x and y axes. The graphs of y = sin x and
y = sin–1 x are as given in Fig 2.1 (i), (ii), (iii). The dark portion of the graph of
y = sin–1 x represent the principal value branch.
(ii) It can be shown that the graph of an inverse function can be obtained from the
corresponding graph of original function as a mirror image (i.e., reflection) along
the line y = x. This can be visualised by looking the graphs of y = sin x and
y = sin–1 x as given in the same axes (Fig 2.1 (iii)).
Fig 2.1 (i)
Fig 2.1 (ii) Fig 2.1 (iii)
Like sine function, the cosine function is a function whose domain is the set of all
real numbers and range is the set [–1, 1]. If we restrict the domain of cosine function
to [0, π], then it becomes one-one and onto with range [–1, 1]. Actually, cosine function
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restricted to any of the intervals [– π, 0], [0,π], [π, 2π] etc., is bijective with range as
[–1, 1]. We can, therefore, define the inverse of cosine function in each of these
intervals. We denote the inverse of the cosine function by cos–1 (arc cosine function).
Thus, cos–1 is a function whose domain is [–1, 1] and range
could be any of the intervals [–π, 0], [0, π], [π, 2π] etc.
Corresponding to each such interval, we get a branch of the
function cos–1. The branch with range [0, π] is called the principal
value branch of the function cos–1. We write
cos–1 : [–1, 1] → [0, π].
The graph of the function given by y = cos–1 x can be drawn
in the same way as discussed about the graph of y = sin–1 x. The
graphs of y = cos x and y = cos–1 x are given in Fig 2.2 (i) and (ii).
Fig 2.2 (i) Fig 2.2 (ii)
Let us now discuss cosec–1x and sec–1x as follows:

1
Since, cosec x = , the domain of the cosec function is the set {x : x ∈ R and
sin x
x ≠ nπ, n ∈ Z} and the range is the set {y : y ∈ R, y ≥ 1 or y ≤ –1} i.e., the set
R – (–1, 1). It means that y = cosec x assumes all real values except –1 < y < 1 and is
not defined for integral multiple of π. If we restrict the domain of cosec function to
 π π
 − 2 , 2  – {0}, then it is one to one and onto with its range as the set R – (– 1, 1). Actually,
 
 −3π −π   −π π 
cosec function restricted to any of the intervals  ,  − {−π} ,  ,  – {0},
 2 2   2 2
 π 3π 
 2 , 2  − {π} etc., is bijective and its range is the set of all real numbers R – (–1, 1).
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22 MATHEMATICS
Thus cosec–1 can be defined as a function whose domain is R – (–1, 1) and range could
 −3π − π   −π π 
be any of the intervals  ,  − {− π} ,  ,  − {0} ,  π , 3π  − {π} etc. The
 2 2   2 2 2 2 
 
 −π π 
function corresponding to the range  ,  − {0} is called the principal value branch
 2 2
of cosec–1. We thus have principal branch as
 −π π 
cosec–1 : R – (–1, 1) →  ,  − {0}
 2 2
–1
The graphs of y = cosec x and y = cosec x are given in Fig 2.3 (i), (ii).
Fig 2.3 (i) Fig 2.3 (ii)
1 π
Also, since sec x = , the domain of y = sec x is the set R – {x : x = (2n + 1) ,
cos x 2
n ∈ Z} and range is the set R – (–1, 1). It means that sec (secant function) assumes
π
all real values except –1 < y < 1 and is not defined for odd multiples of . If we
2
π
restrict the domain of secant function to [0, π] – { }, then it is one-one and onto with
2
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its range as the set R – (–1, 1). Actually, secant function restricted to any of the
−π π 3π
intervals [–π, 0] – { }, [0, π] –   , [π, 2π] – { } etc., is bijective and its range
2
–1
2 2
is R – {–1, 1}. Thus sec can be defined as a function whose domain is R– (–1, 1) and
−π π 3π
range could be any of the intervals [– π, 0] – { }, [0, π] – { }, [π, 2π] – { } etc.
2 2 2
Corresponding to each of these intervals, we get different branches of the function sec–1.
π
The branch with range [0, π] – { } is called the principal value branch of the
2
function sec–1. We thus have
π
sec–1 : R – (–1,1) → [0, π] – { }
2
The graphs of the functions y = sec x and y = sec-1 x are given in Fig 2.4 (i), (ii).
Fig 2.4 (i) Fig 2.4 (ii)
Finally, we now discuss tan–1 and cot–1

We know that the domain of the tan function (tangent function) is the set
π
{x : x ∈ R and x ≠ (2n +1) , n ∈ Z} and the range is R. It means that tan function
2
π
is not defined for odd multiples of . If we restrict the domain of tangent function to
2
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24 MATHEMATICS
 −π π 
 ,  , then it is one-one and onto with its range as R. Actually, tangent function
 2 2 
 −3π −π   −π π   π 3 π 
restricted to any of the intervals  ,  ,  , ,  ,  etc., is bijective
 2 2   2 2 2 2 
and its range is R. Thus tan–1 can be defined as a function whose domain is R and
 −3π −π   −π π   π 3π 
range could be any of the intervals  ,  ,  ,  ,  ,  and so on. These
 2 2   2 2 2 2 
 −π π 
intervals give different branches of the function tan–1. The branch with range  , 
 2 2
is called the principal value branch of the function tan–1.
We thus have
 −π π 
tan–1 : R →  , 
 2 2
The graphs of the function y = tan x and y = tan–1x are given in Fig 2.5 (i), (ii).
Fig 2.5 (i) Fig 2.5 (ii)

We know that domain of the cot function (cotangent function) is the set
{x : x ∈ R and x ≠ nπ, n ∈ Z} and range is R. It means that cotangent function is not
defined for integral multiples of π. If we restrict the domain of cotangent function to
(0, π), then it is bijective with and its range as R. In fact, cotangent function restricted
to any of the intervals (–π, 0), (0, π), (π, 2π) etc., is bijective and its range is R. Thus
cot –1 can be defined as a function whose domain is the R and range as any of the
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intervals (–π, 0), (0, π), (π, 2π) etc. These intervals give different branches of the
function cot –1. The function with range (0, π) is called the principal value branch of
the function cot –1. We thus have
cot–1 : R → (0, π)
The graphs of y = cot x and y = cot–1x are given in Fig 2.6 (i), (ii).
Fig 2.6 (i) Fig 2.6 (ii)

The following table gives the inverse trigonometric function (principal value
branches) along with their domains and ranges.
 π π
sin–1 : [–1, 1] → − 2 , 2 
 
cos –1 : [–1, 1] → [0, π]
 π π
cosec –1 : R – (–1,1) →  − 2 , 2  – {0}
 
π
sec –1 : R – (–1, 1) → [0, π] – { }
2
 −π π 
tan –1 : R →  , 
 2 2
cot –1 : R → (0, π)
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26 MATHEMATICS
A Note 1
1. sin–1x should not be confused with (sin x)–1. In fact (sin x)–1 = and
sin x
similarly for other trigonometric functions.
2. Whenever no branch of an inverse trigonometric functions is mentioned, we
mean the principal value branch of that function.
3. The value of an inverse trigonometric functions which lies in the range of
principal branch is called the principal value of that inverse trigonometric
functions.
We now consider some examples:
 1 
Example 1 Find the principal value of sin–1  .
 2
 1  1
Solution Let sin–1   = y. Then, sin y = .
 2 2
 −π π 
We know that the range of the principal value branch of sin–1 is  ,  and
2 2
π 1  1  π
sin   = . Therefore, principal value of sin–1   is
4 2  2 4
 − 1 
Example 2 Find the principal value of cot–1  
 3
 −1 
Solution Let cot–1   = y. Then,
 3
−1 π  π  2π 
cot y = = − cot   = cot  π −  = cot  
3 3  3  3 
We know that the range of principal value branch of cot–1 is (0, π) and
 2π  −1  −1  2π
cot   = . Hence, principal value of cot–1   is
 3  3  3 3
EXERCISE 2.1
Find the principal values of the following:
 1  3
1. sin–1  −  2. cos–1  2  3. cosec–1 (2)
 2  
 1
4. tan–1 (− 3) 5. cos–1  −  6. tan–1 (–1)
 2
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 2   1 
7. sec–1   8. cot–1 ( 3) 9. cos–1  − 
 3  2
10. cosec–1 ( − 2 )
Find the values of the following:
1 1 1 1
11. tan–1(1) + cos–1 − + sin–1 − 12. cos–1 + 2 sin–1
2 2 2 2
13. If sin–1 x = y, then
π π
(A) 0 ≤ y ≤ π (B) − ≤ y≤
2 2
π π
(C) 0 < y < π (D) − < y<
2 2
14. tan–1 3 − sec −1 ( − 2 ) is equal to
π π 2π
(A) π (B) − (C) (D)
3 3 3
2.3 Properties of Inverse Trigonometric Functions
In this section, we shall prove some important properties of inverse trigonometric
functions. It may be mentioned here that these results are valid within the principal
value branches of the corresponding inverse trigonometric functions and wherever
they are defined. Some results may not be valid for all values of the domains of inverse
trigonometric functions. In fact, they will be valid only for some values of x for which
inverse trigonometric functions are defined. We will not go into the details of these
values of x in the domain as this discussion goes beyond the scope of this textbook.
Let us recall that if y = sin–1x, then x = sin y and if x = sin y, then y = sin–1x. This
is equivalent to
−π π
sin (sin–1 x) = x, x ∈ [– 1, 1] and sin–1 (sin x) = x, x ∈  , 
 2 2
 
For suitable values of domain similar results follow for remaining trigonometric
functions.
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28 MATHEMATICS
We now consider some examples.
Example 3 Show that

1 1
(i) sin–1 ( 2 x 1 − x 2 ) = 2 sin–1 x, − ≤x≤
2 2
1
(ii) sin–1 ( 2 x 1 − x 2 ) = 2 cos–1 x, ≤ x ≤1
2
Solution
(i) Let x = sin θ. Then sin–1 x = θ. We have
(
sin–1 ( 2 x 1 − x 2 ) = sin–1 2sin θ 1 − sin 2 θ )
= sin–1 (2sinθ cosθ) = sin–1 (sin2θ) = 2θ
= 2 sin–1 x
(ii) Take x = cos θ, then proceeding as above, we get, sin–1 ( 2 x 1 − x 2 ) = 2 cos–1 x
cos x − 3π π
Example 4 Express tan −1 , < x < in the simplest form.
1 − sin x 2 2
Solution We write
 x x 
 cos 2 − sin 2 
 cos x  2 2
tan −1   = tan 
–1

 1 − sin x  2 x 2 x
 cos + sin − 2sin cos
x x

 2 2 2 2 
 x x  x x 
  cos 2 + sin 2  cos 2 − sin 2  
–1   
= tan 
  x x2 
  cos − sin  
 2 2
 x x  x
cos + sin  1 + tan 
–1 2 2 –1  2
= tan  = tan 
x x x
 cos − sin   1 − tan 
 2 2  2
–1   π x  π x
= tan  tan  +   = +
  4 2  4 2
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–1  1 
Example 5 Write cot  2  , x > 1 in the simplest form.
 x −1 
Solution Let x = sec θ, then x2 − 1 = sec2 θ − 1 = tan θ
–1 1
Therefore, cot = cot–1 (cot θ) = θ = sec–1 x, which is the simplest form.
x −1
2
EXERCISE 2.2
Prove the following:
 1 1
1. 3sin–1 x = sin–1 (3x – 4x3), x ∈  – , 
 2 2
1 
2. 3cos–1 x = cos–1 (4x3 – 3x), x ∈  , 1
2 
Write the following functions in the simplest form:
1 + x2 − 1  1 − cos x 
3. tan −1 ,x≠0 4. tan −1   , 0 < x < π
x  1 + cos x 
 cos x − sin x  −π 3π
5. tan −1  , <x<
 cos x + sin x  4 4
−1 x
6. tan , |x| < a
a − x2
2
 3a 2 x − x 3  −a a
tan −1  3 <x<
7. 2  , a > 0;
 a − 3ax  3 3
Find the values of each of the following:
  1 
8. tan –1  2 cos  2sin –1  
  2 
1 2x –1 1 − y 
2
9. tan sin –1 + cos  , | x | < 1, y > 0 and xy < 1

2 1 + x2 1 + y2 
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30 MATHEMATICS
Find the values of each of the expressions in Exercises 16 to 18.

–1  2π   3π 
10. sin  sin  11. tan –1  tan 
 3   4 
 3 3
12. tan  sin –1 + cot –1 
 5 2
−1  7π 
13. cos  cos  is equal to
 6 
7π 5π π π
(A) (B) (C) (D)
6 6 3 6
π 1 
14. sin  − sin −1 ( − )  is equal to
3 2 
1 1 1
(A) (B) (C) (D) 1
2 3 4
15. tan −1 3 − cot −1 (− 3) is equal to
π
(A) π (B) − (C) 0 (D) 2 3
2
−1 3π
Example 6 Find the value of sin (sin )
5
−1 3π 3π
Solution We know that sin −1 (sin x) = x . Therefore, sin (sin )=
5 5
3π  π π 
But ∉ − , , which is the principal branch of sin–1 x
5  2 2 
3π 3π 2π 2π  π π 
However sin ( ) = sin(π − ) = sin and ∈ − ,
5 5 5 5  2 2 
3π 2π 2 π
Therefore sin −1 (sin ) = sin −1 (sin ) =
5 5 5
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Find the value of the following:
–1  13π   7π 
1. cos  cos  2. tan –1  tan 
 6   6 
Prove that
3 24 8 3 77
3. 2sin
–1
= tan –1 4. sin
–1
+ sin –1 = tan –1
5 7 17 5 36
–1 4 12 33 12 3 56
5. cos + cos –1 = cos –1 6. cos
–1
+ sin –1 = sin –1
5 13 65 13 5 65
63 5 3
7. tan –1 = sin –1 + cos –1
16 13 5
Prove that
1 1− x
8. tan –1 x = cos –1 , x ∈ [0, 1]
2 1+ x
 1 + sin x + 1 − sin x  x  π
9. cot –1   = , x ∈  0, 
 1 + sin x − 1 − sin x  2  4
 1+ x − 1− x  π 1 1
tan –1   = − cos x , − ≤ x ≤ 1 [Hint: Put x = cos 2θ]
–1
10.
 1+ x + 1− x  4 2 2
Solve the following equations:
1 − x 1 –1
11. 2tan–1 (cos x) = tan–1 (2 cosec x) 12. tan –1 = tan x,( x > 0)
1+ x 2
13. sin (tan–1 x), | x | < 1 is equal to
x 1 1 x
(A) (B) (C) (D)
1 − x2 1 − x2 1 + x2 1 + x2
π
14. sin–1 (1 – x) – 2 sin–1 x = , then x is equal to
2
1 1 1
(A) 0, (B) 1, (C) 0 (D)
2 2 2
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32 MATHEMATICS
Summary
® The domains and ranges (principal value branches) of inverse trigonometric
functions are given in the following table:
Functions Domain Range
(Principal Value Branches)
 −π π 
y = sin–1 x [–1, 1]  2 , 2 
y = cos–1 x [–1, 1] [0, π]
 −π π 
y = cosec–1 x R – (–1,1)  2 , 2  – {0}
 
π
y = sec–1 x R – (–1, 1) [0, π] – { }
2
 π π
y = tan–1 x R − , 
 2 2
y = cot–1 x R (0, π)
1
® sin–1x should not be confused with (sin x)–1. In fact (sin x)–1 =
sin x
and
similarly for other trigonometric functions.
® The value of an inverse trigonometric functions which lies in its principal
value branch is called the principal value of that inverse trigonometric
functions.
For suitable values of domain, we have
® y = sin–1 x ⇒ x = sin y ® x = sin y ⇒ y = sin–1 x
® sin (sin–1 x) = x ® sin–1 (sin x) = x
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Historical Note
The study of trigonometry was first started in India. The ancient Indian
Mathematicians, Aryabhata (476A.D.), Brahmagupta (598 A.D.), Bhaskara I
(600 A.D.) and Bhaskara II (1114 A.D.) got important results of trigonometry. All
this knowledge went from India to Arabia and then from there to Europe. The
Greeks had also started the study of trigonometry but their approach was so
clumsy that when the Indian approach became known, it was immediately adopted
throughout the world.
In India, the predecessor of the modern trigonometric functions, known as
the sine of an angle, and the introduction of the sine function represents one of
the main contribution of the siddhantas (Sanskrit astronomical works) to
mathematics.
Bhaskara I (about 600 A.D.) gave formulae to find the values of sine functions
for angles more than 90°. A sixteenth century Malayalam work Yuktibhasa
contains a proof for the expansion of sin (A + B). Exact expression for sines or
cosines of 18°, 36°, 54°, 72°, etc., were given by Bhaskara II.
The symbols sin–1 x, cos–1 x, etc., for arc sin x, arc cos x, etc., were suggested
by the astronomer Sir John F.W. Hersehel (1813) The name of Thales
(about 600 B.C.) is invariably associated with height and distance problems. He
is credited with the determination of the height of a great pyramid in Egypt by
measuring shadows of the pyramid and an auxiliary staff (or gnomon) of known
height, and comparing the ratios:
H h
= = tan (sun’s altitude)
S s
Thales is also said to have calculated the distance of a ship at sea through
the proportionality of sides of similar triangles. Problems on height and distance
using the similarity property are also found in ancient Indian works.
—v —
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Chapter 1
RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS
vThere is no permanent place in the world for ugly mathematics ... . It may
be very hard to define mathematical beauty but that is just as true of
beauty of any kind, we may not know quite what we mean by a
beautiful poem, but that does not prevent us from recognising
one when we read it. — G. H. HARDY v
1.1 Introduction
Recall that the notion of relations and functions, domain,
co-domain and range have been introduced in Class XI
along with different types of specific real valued functions
and their graphs. The concept of the term ‘relation’ in
mathematics has been drawn from the meaning of relation
in English language, according to which two objects or
quantities are related if there is a recognisable connection
or link between the two objects or quantities. Let A be
the set of students of Class XII of a school and B be the
set of students of Class XI of the same school. Then some
of the examples of relations from A to B are
(i) {(a, b) ∈ A × B: a is brother of b}, Lejeune Dirichlet
(ii) {(a, b) ∈ A × B: a is sister of b}, (1805-1859)
(iii) {(a, b) ∈ A × B: age of a is greater than age of b},
(iv) {(a, b) ∈ A × B: total marks obtained by a in the final examination is less than
the total marks obtained by b in the final examination},
(v) {(a, b) ∈ A × B: a lives in the same locality as b}. However, abstracting from
this, we define mathematically a relation R from A to B as an arbitrary subset
of A × B.
If (a, b) ∈ R, we say that a is related to b under the relation R and we write as
a R b. In general, (a, b) ∈ R, we do not bother whether there is a recognisable
connection or link between a and b. As seen in Class XI, functions are special kind of
relations.
In this chapter, we will study different types of relations and functions, composition
of functions, invertible functions and binary operations.
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2 MATHEMATICS
1.2 Types of Relations

In this section, we would like to study different types of relations. We know that a
relation in a set A is a subset of A × A. Thus, the empty set φ and A × A are two
extreme relations. For illustration, consider a relation R in the set A = {1, 2, 3, 4} given by
R = {(a, b): a – b = 10}. This is the empty set, as no pair (a, b) satisfies the condition
a – b = 10. Similarly, R′ = {(a, b) : | a – b | ≥ 0} is the whole set A × A, as all pairs
(a, b) in A × A satisfy | a – b | ≥ 0. These two extreme examples lead us to the
following definitions.
Definition 1 A relation R in a set A is called empty relation, if no element of A is
related to any element of A, i.e., R = φ ⊂ A × A.
Definition 2 A relation R in a set A is called universal relation, if each element of A
is related to every element of A, i.e., R = A × A.
Both the empty relation and the universal relation are some times called trivial
relations.
Example 1 Let A be the set of all students of a boys school. Show that the relation R
in A given by R = {(a, b) : a is sister of b} is the empty relation and R′ = {(a, b) : the
difference between heights of a and b is less than 3 meters} is the universal relation.
Solution Since the school is boys school, no student of the school can be sister of any
student of the school. Hence, R = φ, showing that R is the empty relation. It is also
obvious that the difference between heights of any two students of the school has to be
less than 3 meters. This shows that R′ = A × A is the universal relation.
Remark In Class XI, we have seen two ways of representing a relation, namely raster
method and set builder method. However, a relation R in the set {1, 2, 3, 4} defined by R
= {(a, b) : b = a + 1} is also expressed as a R b if and only if
b = a + 1 by many authors. We may also use this notation, as and when convenient.
If (a, b) ∈ R, we say that a is related to b and we denote it as a R b.
One of the most important relation, which plays a significant role in Mathematics,
is an equivalence relation. To study equivalence relation, we first consider three
types of relations, namely reflexive, symmetric and transitive.
Definition 3 A relation R in a set A is called
(i) reflexive, if (a, a) ∈ R, for every a ∈ A,
(ii) symmetric, if (a1, a2) ∈ R implies that (a2, a1) ∈ R, for all a1, a2 ∈ A.
(iii) transitive, if (a1, a2) ∈ R and (a2, a3) ∈ R implies that (a1, a3) ∈ R, for all a1, a2,
a3 ∈ A.
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RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS 3
Definition 4 A relation R in a set A is said to be an equivalence relation if R is

reflexive, symmetric and transitive.
Example 2 Let T be the set of all triangles in a plane with R a relation in T given by
R = {(T1, T2) : T1 is congruent to T2}. Show that R is an equivalence relation.
Solution R is reflexive, since every triangle is congruent to itself. Further,
(T1, T2) ∈ R ⇒ T1 is congruent to T2 ⇒ T2 is congruent to T1 ⇒ (T2, T1) ∈ R. Hence,
R is symmetric. Moreover, (T1, T2), (T2, T3) ∈ R ⇒ T1 is congruent to T2 and T2 is
congruent to T3 ⇒ T1 is congruent to T3 ⇒ (T1, T3) ∈ R. Therefore, R is an equivalence
relation.
Example 3 Let L be the set of all lines in a plane and R be the relation in L defined as
R = {(L1, L2) : L1 is perpendicular to L2}. Show that R is symmetric but neither
reflexive nor transitive.
Solution R is not reflexive, as a line L1 can not be perpendicular to itself, i.e., (L1, L1)
∉ R. R is symmetric as (L1, L2) ∈ R
⇒ L1 is perpendicular to L2
⇒ L2 is perpendicular to L1
⇒ (L2, L1) ∈ R.
R is not transitive. Indeed, if L1 is perpendicular to L2 and Fig 1.1
L2 is perpendicular to L3, then L1 can never be perpendicular to
L3. In fact, L1 is parallel to L3, i.e., (L1, L2) ∈ R, (L2, L3) ∈ R but (L1, L3) ∉ R.
Example 4 Show that the relation R in the set {1, 2, 3} given by R = {(1, 1), (2, 2),
(3, 3), (1, 2), (2, 3)} is reflexive but neither symmetric nor transitive.
Solution R is reflexive, since (1, 1), (2, 2) and (3, 3) lie in R. Also, R is not symmetric,
as (1, 2) ∈ R but (2, 1) ∉ R. Similarly, R is not transitive, as (1, 2) ∈ R and (2, 3) ∈ R
but (1, 3) ∉ R.
Example 5 Show that the relation R in the set Z of integers given by
R = {(a, b) : 2 divides a – b}
is an equivalence relation.
Solution R is reflexive, as 2 divides (a – a) for all a ∈ Z. Further, if (a, b) ∈ R, then
2 divides a – b. Therefore, 2 divides b – a. Hence, (b, a) ∈ R, which shows that R is
symmetric. Similarly, if (a, b) ∈ R and (b, c) ∈ R, then a – b and b – c are divisible by
2. Now, a – c = (a – b) + (b – c) is even (Why?). So, (a – c) is divisible by 2. This
shows that R is transitive. Thus, R is an equivalence relation in Z.
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4 MATHEMATICS
In Example 5, note that all even integers are related to zero, as (0, ± 2), (0, ± 4)
etc., lie in R and no odd integer is related to 0, as (0, ± 1), (0, ± 3) etc., do not lie in R.
Similarly, all odd integers are related to one and no even integer is related to one.
Therefore, the set E of all even integers and the set O of all odd integers are subsets of
Z satisfying following conditions:
(i) All elements of E are related to each other and all elements of O are related to
each other.
(ii) No element of E is related to any element of O and vice-versa.
(iii) E and O are disjoint and Z = E ∪ O.
The subset E is called the equivalence class containing zero and is denoted by
[0]. Similarly, O is the equivalence class containing 1 and is denoted by [1]. Note that
[0] ≠ [1], [0] = [2r] and [1] = [2r + 1], r ∈ Z. Infact, what we have seen above is true
for an arbitrary equivalence relation R in a set X. Given an arbitrary equivalence
relation R in an arbitrary set X, R divides X into mutually disjoint subsets Ai called
partitions or subdivisions of X satisfying:
(i) all elements of Ai are related to each other, for all i.
(ii) no element of Ai is related to any element of Aj , i ≠ j.
(iii) ∪ Aj = X and Ai ∩ Aj = φ, i ≠ j.
The subsets Ai are called equivalence classes. The interesting part of the situation
is that we can go reverse also. For example, consider a subdivision of the set Z given
by three mutually disjoint subsets A1, A2 and A3 whose union is Z with
A1 = {x ∈ Z : x is a multiple of 3} = {..., – 6, – 3, 0, 3, 6, ...}
A2 = {x ∈ Z : x – 1 is a multiple of 3} = {..., – 5, – 2, 1, 4, 7, ...}
A3 = {x ∈ Z : x – 2 is a multiple of 3} = {..., – 4, – 1, 2, 5, 8, ...}
Define a relation R in Z given by R = {(a, b) : 3 divides a – b}. Following the
arguments similar to those used in Example 5, we can show that R is an equivalence
relation. Also, A1 coincides with the set of all integers in Z which are related to zero, A2
coincides with the set of all integers which are related to 1 and A3 coincides with the
set of all integers in Z which are related to 2. Thus, A1 = [0], A2 = [1] and A3 = [2].
In fact, A1 = [3r], A2 = [3r + 1] and A3 = [3r + 2], for all r ∈ Z.
Example 6 Let R be the relation defined in the set A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7} by
R = {(a, b) : both a and b are either odd or even}. Show that R is an equivalence
relation. Further, show that all the elements of the subset {1, 3, 5, 7} are related to each
other and all the elements of the subset {2, 4, 6} are related to each other, but no
element of the subset {1, 3, 5, 7} is related to any element of the subset {2, 4, 6}.
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Solution Given any element a in A, both a and a must be either odd or even, so
that (a, a) ∈ R. Further, (a, b) ∈ R ⇒ both a and b must be either odd or even
⇒ (b, a) ∈ R. Similarly, (a, b) ∈ R and (b, c) ∈ R ⇒ all elements a, b, c, must be
either even or odd simultaneously ⇒ (a, c) ∈ R. Hence, R is an equivalence relation.
Further, all the elements of {1, 3, 5, 7} are related to each other, as all the elements
of this subset are odd. Similarly, all the elements of the subset {2, 4, 6} are related to
each other, as all of them are even. Also, no element of the subset {1, 3, 5, 7} can be
related to any element of {2, 4, 6}, as elements of {1, 3, 5, 7} are odd, while elements
of {2, 4, 6} are even.
EXERCISE 1.1
1. Determine whether each of the following relations are reflexive, symmetric and
transitive:
(i) Relation R in the set A = {1, 2, 3, ..., 13, 14} defined as
R = {(x, y) : 3x – y = 0}
(ii) Relation R in the set N of natural numbers defined as
R = {(x, y) : y = x + 5 and x < 4}
(iii) Relation R in the set A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} as
R = {(x, y) : y is divisible by x}
(iv) Relation R in the set Z of all integers defined as
R = {(x, y) : x – y is an integer}
(v) Relation R in the set A of human beings in a town at a particular time given by
(a) R = {(x, y) : x and y work at the same place}
(b) R = {(x, y) : x and y live in the same locality}
(c) R = {(x, y) : x is exactly 7 cm taller than y}
(d) R = {(x, y) : x is wife of y}
(e) R = {(x, y) : x is father of y}
2. Show that the relation R in the set R of real numbers, defined as
R = {(a, b) : a ≤ b2} is neither reflexive nor symmetric nor transitive.
3. Check whether the relation R defined in the set {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} as
R = {(a, b) : b = a + 1} is reflexive, symmetric or transitive.
4. Show that the relation R in R defined as R = {(a, b) : a ≤ b}, is reflexive and
transitive but not symmetric.
5. Check whether the relation R in R defined by R = {(a, b) : a ≤ b3} is reflexive,
symmetric or transitive.
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6 MATHEMATICS
6. Show that the relation R in the set {1, 2, 3} given by R = {(1, 2), (2, 1)} is
symmetric but neither reflexive nor transitive.
7. Show that the relation R in the set A of all the books in a library of a college,
given by R = {(x, y) : x and y have same number of pages} is an equivalence
relation.
8. Show that the relation R in the set A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} given by
R = {(a, b) : |a – b| is even}, is an equivalence relation. Show that all the
elements of {1, 3, 5} are related to each other and all the elements of {2, 4} are
related to each other. But no element of {1, 3, 5} is related to any element of {2, 4}.
9. Show that each of the relation R in the set A = {x ∈ Z : 0 ≤ x ≤ 12}, given by
(i) R = {(a, b) : |a – b| is a multiple of 4}
(ii) R = {(a, b) : a = b}
is an equivalence relation. Find the set of all elements related to 1 in each case.
10. Give an example of a relation. Which is
(i) Symmetric but neither reflexive nor transitive.
(ii) Transitive but neither reflexive nor symmetric.
(iii) Reflexive and symmetric but not transitive.
(iv) Reflexive and transitive but not symmetric.
(v) Symmetric and transitive but not reflexive.
11. Show that the relation R in the set A of points in a plane given by
R = {(P, Q) : distance of the point P from the origin is same as the distance of the
point Q from the origin}, is an equivalence relation. Further, show that the set of
all points related to a point P ≠ (0, 0) is the circle passing through P with origin as
centre.
12. Show that the relation R defined in the set A of all triangles as R = {(T1, T2) : T1
is similar to T2}, is equivalence relation. Consider three right angle triangles T1
with sides 3, 4, 5, T2 with sides 5, 12, 13 and T3 with sides 6, 8, 10. Which
triangles among T1, T2 and T3 are related?
13. Show that the relation R defined in the set A of all polygons as R = {(P1, P2) :
P1 and P2 have same number of sides}, is an equivalence relation. What is the
set of all elements in A related to the right angle triangle T with sides 3, 4 and 5?
14. Let L be the set of all lines in XY plane and R be the relation in L defined as
R = {(L1, L2) : L1 is parallel to L2}. Show that R is an equivalence relation. Find
the set of all lines related to the line y = 2x + 4.
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15. Let R be the relation in the set {1, 2, 3, 4} given by R = {(1, 2), (2, 2), (1, 1), (4,4),
(1, 3), (3, 3), (3, 2)}. Choose the correct answer.
(A) R is reflexive and symmetric but not transitive.
(B) R is reflexive and transitive but not symmetric.
(C) R is symmetric and transitive but not reflexive.
(D) R is an equivalence relation.
16. Let R be the relation in the set N given by R = {(a, b) : a = b – 2, b > 6}. Choose
the correct answer.
(A) (2, 4) ∈ R (B) (3, 8) ∈ R (C) (6, 8) ∈ R (D) (8, 7) ∈ R
1.3 Types of Functions

The notion of a function along with some special functions like identity function, constant
function, polynomial function, rational function, modulus function, signum function etc.
along with their graphs have been given in Class XI.
Addition, subtraction, multiplication and division of two functions have also been
studied. As the concept of function is of paramount importance in mathematics and
among other disciplines as well, we would like to extend our study about function from
where we finished earlier. In this section, we would like to study different types of
functions.
Consider the functions f1, f2, f3 and f4 given by the following diagrams.
In Fig 1.2, we observe that the images of distinct elements of X1 under the function
f1 are distinct, but the image of two distinct elements 1 and 2 of X1 under f2 is same,
namely b. Further, there are some elements like e and f in X2 which are not images of
any element of X1 under f1, while all elements of X3 are images of some elements of X1
under f3. The above observations lead to the following definitions:
Definition 5 A function f : X → Y is defined to be one-one (or injective), if the images
of distinct elements of X under f are distinct, i.e., for every x1, x2 ∈ X, f (x1) = f (x2)
implies x1 = x2. Otherwise, f is called many-one.
The function f1 and f4 in Fig 1.2 (i) and (iv) are one-one and the function f2 and f3
in Fig 1.2 (ii) and (iii) are many-one.
Definition 6 A function f : X → Y is said to be onto (or surjective), if every element
of Y is the image of some element of X under f, i.e., for every y ∈ Y, there exists an
element x in X such that f (x) = y.
The function f3 and f4 in Fig 1.2 (iii), (iv) are onto and the function f1 in Fig 1.2 (i) is
not onto as elements e, f in X2 are not the image of any element in X1 under f1.
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8 MATHEMATICS
Fig 1.2 (i) to (iv)
Remark f : X → Y is onto if and only if Range of f = Y.

Definition 7 A function f : X → Y is said to be one-one and onto (or bijective), if f is
both one-one and onto.
The function f4 in Fig 1.2 (iv) is one-one and onto.
Example 7 Let A be the set of all 50 students of Class X in a school. Let f : A → N be
function defined by f (x) = roll number of the student x. Show that f is one-one
but not onto.
Solution No two different students of the class can have same roll number. Therefore,
f must be one-one. We can assume without any loss of generality that roll numbers of
students are from 1 to 50. This implies that 51 in N is not roll number of any student of
the class, so that 51 can not be image of any element of X under f. Hence, f is not onto.
Example 8 Show that the function f : N → N, given by f (x) = 2x, is one-one but not
onto.
Solution The function f is one-one, for f (x1) = f (x2) ⇒ 2x1 = 2x2 ⇒ x1 = x2. Further,
f is not onto, as for 1 ∈ N, there does not exist any x in N such that f (x) = 2x = 1.
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Example 9 Prove that the function f : R → R, given by f (x) = 2x, is one-one and onto.
Solution f is one-one, as f (x1) = f (x2) ⇒ 2x1 = 2x2 ⇒ x1 = x2. Also, given any real
y y y
number y in R, there exists in R such that f ( ) = 2 . ( ) = y. Hence, f is onto.
2 2 2
Fig 1.3
Example 10 Show that the function f : N → N, given by f (1) = f (2) = 1 and f (x) = x – 1,
for every x > 2, is onto but not one-one.
Solution f is not one-one, as f (1) = f (2) = 1. But f is onto, as given any y ∈ N, y ≠ 1,
we can choose x as y + 1 such that f (y + 1) = y + 1 – 1 = y. Also for 1 ∈ N, we
have f (1) = 1.
Example 11 Show that the function f : R → R,
defined as f (x) = x2, is neither one-one nor onto.
Solution Since f (– 1) = 1 = f (1), f is not one-
one. Also, the element – 2 in the co-domain R is
not image of any element x in the domain R
(Why?). Therefore f is not onto.
Example 12 Show that f : N → N, given by
x + 1,if x is odd,
f ( x) =
x − 1,if x is even
is both one-one and onto. Fig 1.4
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10 MATHEMATICS
Solution Suppose f (x1) = f (x2). Note that if x1 is odd and x2 is even, then we will have
x1 + 1 = x2 – 1, i.e., x2 – x1 = 2 which is impossible. Similarly, the possibility of x1 being
even and x2 being odd can also be ruled out, using the similar argument. Therefore,
both x1 and x2 must be either odd or even. Suppose both x1 and x2 are odd. Then
f (x1) = f (x2) ⇒ x1 + 1 = x2 + 1 ⇒ x1 = x2. Similarly, if both x1 and x2 are even, then also
f (x1) = f (x2) ⇒ x1 – 1 = x2 – 1 ⇒ x1 = x2. Thus, f is one-one. Also, any odd number
2r + 1 in the co-domain N is the image of 2r + 2 in the domain N and any even number
2r in the co-domain N is the image of 2r – 1 in the domain N. Thus, f is onto.
Example 13 Show that an onto function f : {1, 2, 3} → {1, 2, 3} is always one-one.
Solution Suppose f is not one-one. Then there exists two elements, say 1 and 2 in the
domain whose image in the co-domain is same. Also, the image of 3 under f can be
only one element. Therefore, the range set can have at the most two elements of the
co-domain {1, 2, 3}, showing that f is not onto, a contradiction. Hence, f must be one-one.
Example 14 Show that a one-one function f : {1, 2, 3} → {1, 2, 3} must be onto.
Solution Since f is one-one, three elements of {1, 2, 3} must be taken to 3 different
elements of the co-domain {1, 2, 3} under f. Hence, f has to be onto.
Remark The results mentioned in Examples 13 and 14 are also true for an arbitrary
finite set X, i.e., a one-one function f : X → X is necessarily onto and an onto map
f : X → X is necessarily one-one, for every finite set X. In contrast to this, Examples 8
and 10 show that for an infinite set, this may not be true. In fact, this is a characteristic
difference between a finite and an infinite set.
EXERCISE 1.2
1
1. Show that the function f : R∗ → R∗ defined by f (x) = is one-one and onto,
x
where R∗ is the set of all non-zero real numbers. Is the result true, if the domain
R∗ is replaced by N with co-domain being same as R∗?
2. Check the injectivity and surjectivity of the following functions:
(i) f : N → N given by f (x) = x2
(ii) f : Z → Z given by f (x) = x2
(iii) f : R → R given by f (x) = x2
(iv) f : N → N given by f (x) = x3
(v) f : Z → Z given by f (x) = x3
3. Prove that the Greatest Integer Function f : R → R, given by f (x) = [x], is neither
one-one nor onto, where [x] denotes the greatest integer less than or equal to x.
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4. Show that the Modulus Function f : R → R, given by f (x) = | x |, is neither one-

one nor onto, where | x | is x, if x is positive or 0 and | x | is – x, if x is negative.
5. Show that the Signum Function f : R → R, given by
1, if x > 0

f ( x) = 0, if x = 0
 1, if x < 0

is neither one-one nor onto.
6. Let A = {1, 2, 3}, B = {4, 5, 6, 7} and let f = {(1, 4), (2, 5), (3, 6)} be a function
from A to B. Show that f is one-one.
7. In each of the following cases, state whether the function is one-one, onto or
bijective. Justify your answer.
(i) f : R → R defined by f (x) = 3 – 4x
(ii) f : R → R defined by f (x) = 1 + x2
8. Let A and B be sets. Show that f : A × B → B × A such that f (a, b) = (b, a) is
bijective function.
n +1
 2 , if n is odd
9. Let f : N → N be defined by f (n) =  for all n ∈ N.
 n , if n is even
 2
State whether the function f is bijective. Justify your answer.

10. Let A = R – {3} and B = R – {1}. Consider the function f : A → B defined by
 x−2
f (x) =   . Is f one-one and onto? Justify your answer.
 x−3
11. Let f : R → R be defined as f(x) = x4. Choose the correct answer.
(A) f is one-one onto (B) f is many-one onto
(C) f is one-one but not onto (D) f is neither one-one nor onto.
12. Let f : R → R be defined as f (x) = 3x. Choose the correct answer.
(A) f is one-one onto (B) f is many-one onto
(C) f is one-one but not onto (D) f is neither one-one nor onto.
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12 MATHEMATICS
1.4 Composition of Functions and Invertible Function

Definition 8 Let f : A → B and g : B → C be two functions. Then the composition of
f and g, denoted by gof, is defined as the function gof : A → C given by
gof (x) = g(f (x)), ∀ x ∈ A.
Fig 1.5
Example 15 Let f : {2, 3, 4, 5} → {3, 4, 5, 9} and g : {3, 4, 5, 9} → {7, 11, 15} be

functions defined as f (2) = 3, f (3) = 4, f (4) = f (5) = 5 and g (3) = g (4) = 7 and
g (5) = g (9) = 11. Find gof.
Solution We have gof (2) = g (f (2)) = g (3) = 7, gof (3) = g (f (3)) = g (4) = 7,
gof (4) = g (f (4)) = g (5) = 11 and gof (5) = g (5) = 11.
Example 16 Find gof and fog, if f : R → R and g : R → R are given by f (x) = cos x
and g (x) = 3x2. Show that gof ≠ fog.
Solution We have gof (x) = g (f (x)) = g (cos x) = 3 (cos x)2 = 3 cos2 x. Similarly,
fog (x) = f (g (x)) = f (3x2) = cos (3x2). Note that 3cos2 x ≠ cos 3x2, for x = 0. Hence,
gof ≠ fog.
Definition 9 A function f : X → Y is defined to be invertible, if there exists a function
g : Y → X such that gof = IX and fog = IY. The function g is called the inverse of f and
is denoted by f –1.
Thus, if f is invertible, then f must be one-one and onto and conversely, if f is
one-one and onto, then f must be invertible. This fact significantly helps for proving a
function f to be invertible by showing that f is one-one and onto, specially when the
actual inverse of f is not to be determined.
Example 17 Let f : N → Y be a function defined as f (x) = 4x + 3, where,
Y = {y ∈ N : y = 4x + 3 for some x ∈ N }. Show that f is invertible. Find the inverse.
Solution Consider an arbitrary element y of Y. By the definition of Y, y = 4x + 3,
( y − 3)
for some x in the domain N . This shows that x = . Define g : Y → N by
4
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( y − 3) (4 x + 3 − 3)
g ( y) = . Now, gof (x) = g (f (x)) = g (4x + 3) = = x and
4 4
 ( y − 3)  4 ( y − 3)
fog (y) = f (g (y)) = f  = + 3 = y – 3 + 3 = y. This shows that gof = IN
 4  4
and fog = IY, which implies that f is invertible and g is the inverse of f.
Example 18 If R1 and R2 are equivalence relations in a set A, show that R1 ∩ R2 is
also an equivalence relation.
Solution Since R1 and R2 are equivalence relations, (a, a) ∈ R1, and (a, a) ∈ R2 ∀ a ∈ A.
This implies that (a, a) ∈ R1 ∩ R2, ∀ a, showing R1 ∩ R2 is reflexive. Further,
(a, b) ∈ R1 ∩ R2 ⇒ (a, b) ∈ R1 and (a, b) ∈ R2 ⇒ (b, a) ∈ R1 and (b, a) ∈ R2 ⇒
(b, a) ∈ R1 ∩ R2, hence, R1 ∩ R2 is symmetric. Similarly, (a, b) ∈ R1 ∩ R2 and
(b, c) ∈ R1 ∩ R2 ⇒ (a, c) ∈ R1 and (a, c) ∈ R2 ⇒ (a, c) ∈ R1 ∩ R2. This shows that
R1 ∩ R2 is transitive. Thus, R1 ∩ R2 is an equivalence relation.
Example 19 Let R be a relation on the set A of ordered pairs of positive integers
defined by (x, y) R (u, v) if and only if xv = yu. Show that R is an equivalence relation.
Solution Clearly, (x, y) R (x, y), ∀ (x, y) ∈ A, since xy = yx. This shows that R is
reflexive. Further, (x, y) R (u, v) ⇒ xv = yu ⇒ uy = vx and hence (u, v) R (x, y). This
shows that R is symmetric. Similarly, (x, y) R (u, v) and (u, v) R (a, b) ⇒ xv = yu and
a a b a
ub = va ⇒ xv = yu ⇒ xv = yu ⇒ xb = ya and hence (x, y) R (a, b). Thus, R
u u v u
is transitive. Thus, R is an equivalence relation.
Example 20 Let X = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}. Let R1 be a relation in X given
by R1 = {(x, y) : x – y is divisible by 3} and R2 be another relation on X given by
R2 = {(x, y): {x, y} ⊂ {1, 4, 7}} or {x, y} ⊂ {2, 5, 8} or {x, y} ⊂ {3, 6, 9}}. Show that
R1 = R2.
Solution Note that the characteristic of sets {1, 4, 7}, {2, 5, 8} and {3, 6, 9} is
that difference between any two elements of these sets is a multiple of 3. Therefore,
(x, y) ∈ R1 ⇒ x – y is a multiple of 3 ⇒ {x, y} ⊂ {1, 4, 7} or {x, y} ⊂ {2, 5, 8}
or {x, y} ⊂ {3, 6, 9} ⇒ (x, y) ∈ R2. Hence, R1 ⊂ R2. Similarly, {x, y} ∈ R2 ⇒ {x, y}
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14 MATHEMATICS
⊂ {1, 4, 7} or {x, y} ⊂ {2, 5, 8} or {x, y} ⊂ {3, 6, 9} ⇒ x – y is divisible by

3 ⇒ {x, y} ∈ R1. This shows that R2 ⊂ R1. Hence, R1 = R2.
Example 21 Let f : X → Y be a function. Define a relation R in X given by
R = {(a, b): f(a) = f(b)}. Examine whether R is an equivalence relation or not.
Solution For every a ∈ X, (a, a) ∈ R, since f (a) = f (a), showing that R is reflexive.
Similarly, (a, b) ∈ R ⇒ f (a) = f (b) ⇒ f (b) = f (a) ⇒ (b, a) ∈ R. Therefore, R is
symmetric. Further, (a, b) ∈ R and (b, c) ∈ R ⇒ f (a) = f (b) and f (b) = f (c) ⇒ f (a)
= f (c) ⇒ (a, c) ∈ R, which implies that R is transitive. Hence, R is an equivalence
relation.
Example 22 Find the number of all one-one functions from set A = {1, 2, 3} to itself.
Solution One-one function from {1, 2, 3} to itself is simply a permutation on three
symbols 1, 2, 3. Therefore, total number of one-one maps from {1, 2, 3} to itself is
same as total number of permutations on three symbols 1, 2, 3 which is 3! = 6.
Example 23 Let A = {1, 2, 3}. Then show that the number of relations containing (1, 2)
and (2, 3) which are reflexive and transitive but not symmetric is three.
Solution The smallest relation R1 containing (1, 2) and (2, 3) which is reflexive and
transitive but not symmetric is {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (1, 2), (2, 3), (1, 3)}. Now, if we add
the pair (2, 1) to R1 to get R2, then the relation R2 will be reflexive, transitive but not
symmetric. Similarly, we can obtain R3 by adding (3, 2) to R1 to get the desired relation.
However, we can not add two pairs (2, 1), (3, 2) or single pair (3, 1) to R1 at a time, as
by doing so, we will be forced to add the remaining pair in order to maintain transitivity
and in the process, the relation will become symmetric also which is not required. Thus,
the total number of desired relations is three.
Example 24 Show that the number of equivalence relation in the set {1, 2, 3} containing
(1, 2) and (2, 1) is two.
Solution The smallest equivalence relation R1 containing (1, 2) and (2, 1) is {(1, 1),
(2, 2), (3, 3), (1, 2), (2, 1)}. Now we are left with only 4 pairs namely (2, 3), (3, 2),
(1, 3) and (3, 1). If we add any one, say (2, 3) to R1, then for symmetry we must add
(3, 2) also and now for transitivity we are forced to add (1, 3) and (3, 1). Thus, the only
equivalence relation bigger than R1 is the universal relation. This shows that the total
number of equivalence relations containing (1, 2) and (2, 1) is two.
Example 25 Consider the identity function IN : N → N defined as IN (x) = x ∀ x ∈ N.
Show that although IN is onto but IN + IN : N → N defined as
(IN + IN) (x) = IN (x) + IN (x) = x + x = 2x is not onto.
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Solution Clearly IN is onto. But IN + IN is not onto, as we can find an element 3

in the co-domain N such that there does not exist any x in the domain N with
(IN + IN) (x) = 2x = 3.
 π
Example 26 Consider a function f :  0,  → R given by f (x) = sin x and
 2
π
g :  0,  → R given by g(x) = cos x. Show that f and g are one-one, but f + g is not
 2 
one-one.
 π
Solution Since for any two distinct elements x1 and x2 in  0,  , sin x1 ≠ sin x2 and
 2
cos x1 ≠ cos x2, both f and g must be one-one. But (f + g) (0) = sin 0 + cos 0 = 1 and
 π π π
(f + g)   = sin + cos = 1 . Therefore, f + g is not one-one.
2 2 2
x
1. Show that the function f : R → {x ∈ R : – 1 < x < 1} defined by f ( x ) = ,
1+ | x |
x ∈ R is one one and onto function.
2. Show that the function f : R → R given by f (x) = x3 is injective.
3. Given a non empty set X, consider P(X) which is the set of all subsets of X.
Define the relation R in P(X) as follows:
For subsets A, B in P(X), ARB if and only if A ⊂ B. Is R an equivalence relation
on P(X)? Justify your answer.
4. Find the number of all onto functions from the set {1, 2, 3,......, n} to itself.
5. Let A = {– 1, 0, 1, 2}, B = {– 4, – 2, 0, 2} and f, g : A → B be functions defined
1
by f (x) = x2 – x, x ∈ A and g ( x) = 2 x − − 1, x ∈ A. Are f and g equal?
2
Justify your answer. (Hint: One may note that two functions f : A → B and
g : A → B such that f (a) = g (a) ∀ a ∈ A, are called equal functions).
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16 MATHEMATICS
6. Let A = {1, 2, 3}. Then number of relations containing (1, 2) and (1, 3) which are
reflexive and symmetric but not transitive is
(A) 1 (B) 2 (C) 3 (D) 4
7. Let A = {1, 2, 3}. Then number of equivalence relations containing (1, 2) is
(A) 1 (B) 2 (C) 3 (D) 4
Summary
In this chapter, we studied different types of relations and equivalence relation,
composition of functions, invertible functions and binary operations. The main features
of this chapter are as follows:
® Empty relation is the relation R in X given by R = φ ⊂ X × X.
® Universal relation is the relation R in X given by R = X × X.
® Reflexive relation R in X is a relation with (a, a) ∈ R ∀ a ∈ X.
® Symmetric relation R in X is a relation satisfying (a, b) ∈ R implies (b, a) ∈ R.
® Transitive relation R in X is a relation satisfying (a, b) ∈ R and (b, c) ∈ R
implies that (a, c) ∈ R.
® Equivalence relation R in X is a relation which is reflexive, symmetric and
transitive.
® Equivalence class [a] containing a ∈ X for an equivalence relation R in X is
the subset of X containing all elements b related to a.
® A function f : X → Y is one-one (or injective) if
f (x1) = f (x2) ⇒ x1 = x2 ∀ x1, x2 ∈ X.
® A function f : X → Y is onto (or surjective) if given any y ∈ Y, ∃ x ∈ X such
that f (x) = y.
® A function f : X → Y is one-one and onto (or bijective), if f is both one-one
and onto.
® Given a finite set X, a function f : X → X is one-one (respectively onto) if and
only if f is onto (respectively one-one). This is the characteristic property of a
finite set. This is not true for infinite set
Reprint 2024-25
Historical Note
The concept of function has evolved over a long period of time starting from
R. Descartes (1596-1650), who used the word ‘function’ in his manuscript
“Geometrie” in 1637 to mean some positive integral power xn of a variable x
while studying geometrical curves like hyperbola, parabola and ellipse. James
Gregory (1636-1675) in his work “ Vera Circuli et Hyperbolae Quadratura”
(1667) considered function as a quantity obtained from other quantities by
successive use of algebraic operations or by any other operations. Later G. W.
Leibnitz (1646-1716) in his manuscript “Methodus tangentium inversa, seu de
functionibus” written in 1673 used the word ‘function’ to mean a quantity varying
from point to point on a curve such as the coordinates of a point on the curve, the
slope of the curve, the tangent and the normal to the curve at a point. However,
in his manuscript “Historia” (1714), Leibnitz used the word ‘function’ to mean
quantities that depend on a variable. He was the first to use the phrase ‘function
of x’. John Bernoulli (1667-1748) used the notation φx for the first time in 1718 to
indicate a function of x. But the general adoption of symbols like f, F, φ, ψ ... to
represent functions was made by Leonhard Euler (1707-1783) in 1734 in the first
part of his manuscript “Analysis Infinitorium”. Later on, Joeph Louis Lagrange
(1736-1813) published his manuscripts “Theorie des functions analytiques” in
1793, where he discussed about analytic function and used the notion f (x), F(x),
φ (x) etc. for different function of x. Subsequently, Lejeunne Dirichlet
(1805-1859) gave the definition of function which was being used till the set
theoretic definition of function presently used, was given after set theory was
developed by Georg Cantor (1845-1918). The set theoretic definition of function
known to us presently is simply an abstraction of the definition given by Dirichlet
in a rigorous manner.
—v —
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208 MATHEMATICS
ANSWERS
EXERCISE 1.1
1. (i) Neither reflexive nor symmetric nor transitive.
(ii) Neither reflexive nor symmetric but transitive.
(iii) Reflexive and transitive but not symmetric.
(iv) Reflexive, symmetric and transitive.
(v) (a) Reflexive, symmetric and transitive.
(b) Reflexive, symmetric and transitive.
(c) Neither reflexive nor symmetric nor transitive.
(d) Neither reflexive nor symmetric but transitive.
(e) Neither reflexive nor symmetric nor transitive.
3. Neither reflexive nor symmetric nor transitive.
5. Neither reflexive nor symmetric nor transitive.
9. (i) {1, 5, 9}, (ii) {1} 12. T1 is related to T3.
13. The set of all triangles 14. The set of all lines y = 2x + c, c ∈ R
15. B 16. C
EXERCISE 1.2
1. No
2. (i) Injective but not surjective (ii) Neither injective nor surjective
(iii) Neither injective nor surjective (iv) Injective but not surjective
(v) Injective but not surjective
7. (i) One-one and onto (ii) Neither one-one nor onto.
9. No 10. Yes 11. D 12. A

3. No 4. n! 5. Yes 6. A 7. B
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ANSWERS 209
EXERCISE 2.1
−π π π −π
1. 2. 3. 4.
6 6 6 3
2π π π π
5. 6. − 7. 8.
3 4 6 6
3π −π 3π 2π
9. 10. 11. 12.
4 4 4 3
13. B 14. B
EXERCISE 2.2
1 −1 x π
3. tan x 4. 5. −x
2 2 4
−1 x −1 x π
6. sin 7. 3tan 8.
a a 4
x+ y π
9. 1 − xy 10.
3
−π 17
11. 12. 13. B 14. D
4 6
15. B

π π π 1
1. 2. 11. x = nπ + , n ∈ Ζ 12. x =
6 6 4 3
13. D 14. C
EXERCISE 3.1
5
1. (i) 3 × 4 (ii) 12 (iii) 19, 35, – 5, 12,
2
2. 1 × 24, 2 × 12, 3 × 8, 4 × 6, 6 × 4, 8 × 3, 12 × 2, 24 × 1; 1 × 13, 13 × 1
3. 1 × 18, 2 × 9, 3 × 6, 6 × 3, 9 × 2, 18 × 1; 1 × 5, 5 × 1
 9
 1
2 9 25 
2 1 2 
4. (i)   (ii)   (iii)  2 2
9  
8 2 1  8 18 
 2 
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210 MATHEMATICS
 1 1
1 2 0 2 
  1 0 −1 −2
 1 (ii) 3 2 1 0 
5 3 
5. (i) 2
2 2   
  5 4 3 2 
4 7 3 5 
 2 2 
6. (i) x = 1, y = 4, z = 3
(ii) x = 4, y = 2, z = 0 or x = 2, y = 4, z = 0
(iii) x = 2, y = 4, z=3
7. a = 1, b = 2, c = 3, d = 4
8. C 9. B 10. D
EXERCISE 3.2
3 7 1 1 
1. (i) A + B =  (ii) A − B =  
1 7  5 −3
8 7  −6 26  11 10
(iii) 3A − C =   (iv) A B =   (v) BA =  
6 2  −1 19  11 2 
 2a 2b   ( a + b) 2 (b + c) 2 
2. (i)  0 2a  (ii)  
   (a − c) (a − b)2 
2
11 11 0 
16 5 21 1 1
(iii)   (iv) 1 1
5 10 9   
a 2 + b2  2 3 4 
0 4 6 8   − 3 − 4 1
3.(i)   8 13 9 
(ii)   (iii)
 0 a + b 
2 2

6 9 12 
14 0 42  1 2 3
18 −1 56   1 4 5 14 −6
(iv)   (v)   (vi) 4 5
 22 −2 70  −2 2 0  
 4 1 −1  −1 −2 0
   
4. A + B =  9 2 7  , B − C =  4 −1 3
 3 −1 4   1 2 0
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ANSWERS 211
0 0 0
0 0 0 1 0 
5.   6. 0 1 
 
 0 0 0 
 2 −12  2 13 
 5 5 , 5 5
5 0   2 0 X=  Y=  
7. (i) X =   , Y =  (ii)  −11
1 4  1 1 3  14 −2
 5   5 
 −1 −1
8. X =   9. x = 3, y = 3 10. x = 3, y = 6, z = 9, t = 6
 −2 −1
11. x = 3, y = – 4 12. x = 2, y = 4, w = 3, z = 1
 1 −1 −3 
 −1 −1 −10
15.   17. k = 1
 −5 4 4 
19. (a) ` 15000, ` 15000 (b) ` 5000, ` 25000
20. ` 20160 21. A 22. B
EXERCISE 3.3
 −1 3 2
 1   1 2  
1. (i) 5 2 −1 (ii)  −1 3 (iii) 5 5 3
   6 6 −1

0 0 0  0 a b
− 4 5 0 0 0 ,  − a 0 c 
4.  1 6 9.    
  0 0 0  −b −c 0
3 3   0 2 
10. (i) A =  +  
3 −1  −2 0 
 6 −2 2  0 0 0 
(ii) A =  − 2 3 − 1  +  0
 0 0 

 2 −1 3   0 0 0 
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212 MATHEMATICS
 1 −5   5 3
 3 2 2 0 2 2
   
A=
1
−2 −2  +  −5 0 3
 2  2  1 2   0 3
(iii)     (iv) A =  + 
 −5  −3  2 2   −3 0 
−2 2 −3 0
 2   2 
11. A 12. B
EXERCISE 3.4
1. D
1 1 1
3. x=± ,y=± ,z=±
2 6 3
4. x = – 1 6. x = ± 4 3
7. (a) Total revenue in the market - I = ` 46000
Total revenue in the market - II = ` 53000
(b) ` 15000, ` 17000
1 −2
8. X =   9. C 10. B 11. C
2 0 
EXERCISE 4.1
1. (i) 18 2. (i) 1, (ii) x3 – x2 + 2
5. (i) – 12, (ii) 46, (iii) 0, (iv) 5 6. 0
7. (i) x = ± 3 , (ii) x = 2 8. (B)
EXERCISE 4.2
15 47
1. (i) , (ii) , (iii) 15
2 2
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ANSWERS 213
3. (i) 0, 8, (ii) 0, 8 4. (i) y = 2x, (ii) x – 3y = 0 5. (D)
EXERCISE 4.3
1. (i) M11 = 3, M12 = 0, M21 = – 4, M22 = 2, A11 = 3, A12 = 0, A21 = 4, A22 = 2
(ii) M11 = d, M12 = b, M21 = c, M22 = a
A11 = d, A12= – b, A21 = – c, A22 = a
2. (i) M11= 1, M12= 0, M13 = 0, M21 = 0, M22 = 1, M23 = 0, M31 = 0, M32 = 0, M33 = 1,
A11= 1, A12= 0, A13= 0, A21= 0, A22= 1, A23= 0, A31= 0, A32= 0, A33= 1
(ii) M11= 11, M12= 6, M13= 3, M21= –4, M22= 2, M23= 1, M31= –20, M32= –13, M33= 5
A11=11, A12= – 6, A13= 3, A21= 4, A22= 2, A23= –1, A31= –20, A32= 13, A33= 5
3. 7 4. (x – y) (y – z) (z – x) 5. (D)
EXERCISE 4.4
3 1 −11
4 −2 1  3 2
−12 5 −1
14  − 4 2 
1. 2. 5.
−3 1
6 2 5
10 −10 2  −3 0 0
1 2 −5 1  −1
6. 7. 0 5 − 4  8. 3 −1 0
13 3 −1 10  3
 0 0 2  −9 −2 3
 −1 5 3 −2 0 1 1 0 0
−1 
9.  − 4 23 12  10. 9 2 −3 11. 0 cos α sin α
3
 1 −11 − 6  6 1 −2 0 sin α – cos α
 −3 4 5
1  2 −1
=  9 −1 − 4 
−1 1 
13. 1 3  14. a = – 4, b = 1 15. A
7   11
 5 −3 −1 
 3 1 −1
1
16.  1 3 1 17. B 18. B
4
 −1 1 3 
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214 MATHEMATICS
EXERCISE 4.5
1. Consistent 2. Consistent 3. Inconsistent
4. Consistent 5. Inconsistent 6. Consistent
−5 12 −6 −19
7. x = 2, y = – 3 8. x= , y= 9. x= , y=
11 11 11 11
1 −3
10. x = –1, y = 4 11. x = 1, y = , z =
2 2
12. x = 2, y = –1, z = 1 13. x = 1, y = 2, z = –1
14. x = 2, y = 1, z = 3
0 1 −2
15. −2 9 −23 , x = 1, y = 2, z = 3
−1 5 −13
16. cost of onions per kg = ` 5

cost of wheat per kg = ` 8
cost of rice per kg = ` 8
9 −3 5 
−2 1 0 
2. 1 3. 
 1 0 2 
5. – 2(x3 + y3) 6. xy 7. x = 2, y = 3, z = 5
8. A 9. D
EXERCISE 5.1
2. f is continuous at x = 3
3. (a), (b), (c) and (d) are all continuous functions
5. f is continuous at x = 0 and x = 2; Not continuous at x = 1
6. Discontinuous at x = 2 7. Discontinuous at x = 3
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ANSWERS 215
8. Discontinuous at x = 0 9. No point of discontinuity

10. No point of discontinuity 11. No point of discontinuity
12. f is discontinuous at x = 1 13. f is not continuous at x = 1
14. f is not continuous at x = 1 and x = 3
15. x = 1 is the only point of discontinuity
2
16. Continuous 17. a = b +
3
18. For no value of λ, f is continuous at x = 0 but f is continuous at x = 1 for any
value of λ.
20. f is continuous at x = π 21. (a), (b) and (c) are all continuous
22. Cosine function is continuous for all x ∈ R; cosecant is continuous except for
π
x = nπ, n ∈ Z; secant is continuous except for x = (2n + 1) , n ∈ Z and
2
cotangent function is continuous except for x = nπ, n ∈ Z
23. There is no point of discontinuity.
24. Yes, f is continuous for all x ∈ R 25. f is continuous for all x ∈ R
3 −2
26. k = 6 27. k = 28. k =
4 π
9
29. k = 30. a = 2, b = 1
5
34. There is no point of discontinuity.
EXERCISE 5.2
2
1. 2x cos (x + 5) 2. – cos x sin (sin x) 3. a cos (ax + b)
sec (tan x).tan (tan x ).sec 2 x
4.
2 x
5. a cos (ax + b) sec (cx + d) + c sin (ax + b) tan (cx + d) sec (cx + d)
6. 10x4 sinx5 cosx5 cosx3 – 3x2 sinx3 sin2 x5
−2 2 x sin x
7. 2 2 8. −
sin x sin 2 x 2 x
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216 MATHEMATICS
EXERCISE 5.3
cosx − 2 2 a
1. 2. 3. −
3 cos y − 3 2by + sin y
sec2 x − y (2 x + y ) (3x 2 + 2 xy + y 2 )
4. 5. − 6. −
x + 2 y −1 ( x + 2 y) ( x 2 + 2 xy + 3 y 2 )
y sin xy sin 2 x 2 3
7. sin 2 y − x sin xy 8. 9. 10.
sin 2 y 1 + x2 1 + x2
2 −2 −2 2
11. 12. 13. 14.
1 + x2 1 + x2 1 + x2 1 − x2
2
15. −
1 − x2
EXERCISE 5.4
e x (sin x − cosx) esin −1 x

1. , x ≠ nπ, n ∈ Z 2. , x ∈( − 1,1)
sin 2 x 1 − x2
e − x cos (tan −1 e – x )
−
3
3. 3x 2 e x 4.
1+ e −2 x
π x2
, n ∈N 6. e x + 2 x e + 3 x 2 e x + 4 x 3e x + 5 x 4 e x
3 4 5
5. – ex tan ex, e x ≠ (2n + 1)
2
x
e 1
7. ,x>0 8. ,x>1
x x log x
4 xe
( x sin x ⋅ log x + cos x) , 1

9. − 2
x > 0 10. − + e x sin (log x + e x ), x > 0
x (log x) x
EXERCISE 5.5
1. – cos x cos 2x cos 3x [tan x + 2 tan 2x + 3 tan 3x]
1 ( x − 1) ( x − 2)  1 1 1 1 1 
+ − − −
2. 2 ( x − 3)( x − 4)( x − 5)  x − 1 x − 2 x − 3 x − 4 x − 5 

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ANSWERS 217
cos x  cos x 
3. (log x)  x log x − sin x log (log x) 
 
4. xx (1 + log x) – 2sin x cos x log 2
5. (x + 3) (x + 4)2 (x + 5)3 (9x2 + 70x + 133)
x
1   x 2 −1 1 
1
 1+  x + 1 − log x 
6.  x +   2 + log ( x + )  + x x  
 x   x +1 x   x2 
7. (log x)x-1 [1 + log x . log (log x)] + 2x logx–1 . logx
1 1
8. (sin x)x (x cot x + log sin x) +
2 x − x2
 sin x 
9. x sinx  + cos x log x  + (sin x)cos x [cos x cot x – sin x log sin x]
 x 
4x
10. x x cosx [cos x . (1 + log x) – x sin x log x] – 2
( x − 1)2
 x cot x + 1 − log ( x sin x) 

1
x
11. (x cos x)x [1 – x tan x + log (x cos x)] + (x sin x)  x2 
yx y −1 + y x log y y  y − x log y 
12. − 13.  
x y log x + xy x −1 x  x − y log x 
y tan x + log cos y y ( x −1)
14. 15.
x tan y + log cos x x ( y + 1)
 1 2x 4 x3 8 x7 
16. (1 + x) (1 + x2) (1 +x4) (1 + x8)  + + +  ; f ′(1) = 120
1 + x 1 + x 2 1 + x 4 1 + x 8 
17. 5x4 – 20x3 + 45x2 – 52x + 11
EXERCISE 5.6
b 1
1. t 2 2. 3. – 4 sin t 4. −
a t2
cos θ − 2cos 2θ θ
5. 6. − cot 7. – cot 3t 8. tan t
2sin 2θ − sin θ 2
b
9. cosec θ 10. tan θ
a
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218 MATHEMATICS
EXERCISE 5.7
1. 2 2. 380 x18 3. – x cos x – 2 sin x
1
4. − 5. x(5 + 6 log x) 6. 2ex (5 cos 5x – 12 sin 5x)
x2
2x
7. 9 e6x (3 cos 3x – 4 sin 3x) 8. −
(1 + x 2 ) 2
(1 + log x) sin (log x) + cos (log x)
9. − 10. −
( x log x) 2 x2
12. – cot y cosec2 y

1. 27 (3x2 – 9x + 5)8 (2x – 3) 2. 3sinx cosx (sinx – 2 cos4 x)
3. (5 x) 3cos 2 x  
3cos 2 x
 x − 6sin 2 x log 5 x 
 
 x 
3 x  cos −1 
1 2
4. 5. −  + 
2 1 − x3 3
 4 − x 2 x + 7 (2 x + 7) 2
2

 
7. (log x) log x  +
1 1 log (log x) 
6.
2 x x  , x > 1
8. (a sin x – b cos x) sin (a cos x + b sin x)
9. (sinx – cosx)sin x – cos x (cosx + sinx) (1 + log (sinx – cos x)), sinx > cosx
10. xx (1 + log x) + ax a–1 + ax log a
2
−3  x2 − 3  2  x2 
11. xx  + 2 x log x  + ( x − 3) x  + 2 x log( x − 3) 
 x  x −3 
6 t sec3 t π
12. cot 13. 0 17. ,0 < t <
5 2 at 2
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ANSWERS 219
EXERCISE 6.1
1. (a) 6π cm2/cm (b) 8π cm2/cm
8
2. cm2/s 3. 60π cm2/s 4. 900 cm3/s
3
5. 80π cm2/s 6. 1.4π cm/s
7. (a) –2 cm/min (b) 2 cm2/min
1 8
8. cm/s 9. 400π cm3/cm 10. cm/s
π 3
 −31 
11. (4, 11) and  − 4,  12. 2π cm3/s
 3 
27 1
13. π (2 x + 1)2 14. cm/s 15. ` 20.967
8 48π
16. ` 208 17. B 18. D
EXERCISE 6.2
3   3
4. (a)  , ∞  (b)  − ∞, 
4   4
5. (a) (– ∞, – 2) and (3, ∞) (b) (– 2, 3)

6. (a) decreasing for x < – 1 and increasing for x > – 1
3 3
(b) decreasing for x > −
and increasing for x < −
2 2
(c) increasing for – 2 < x < – 1 and decreasing for x < – 2 and
x>–1
9 9
(d) increasing for x < − and decreasing for x > −
2 2
(e) increasing in (1, 3) and (3, ∞), decreasing in (– ∞, –1) and (– 1, 1).
8. 0 < x < 1 and x > 2 12. A, B
13. D 14. a > – 2 19. D
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220 MATHEMATICS
EXERCISE 6.3
1. (i) Minimum Value = 3 (ii) Minimum Value = – 2
(iii) Maximum Value = 10 (iv) Neither minimum nor maximum value
2. (i) Minimum Value = – 1; No maximum value
(ii) Maximum Value = 3; No minimum value
(iii) Minimum Value = 4; Maximum Value = 6
(iv) Minimum Value = 2; Maximum Value = 4
(v) Neither minimum nor Maximum Value
3. (i) local minimum at x = 0, local minimum value = 0
(ii) local minimum at x = 1, local minimum value = – 2
local maximum at x = – 1, local maximum value = 2
π
(iii) local maximum at x = , local maximum value = 2
4
3π
(iv) local maximum at x = , local maximum value = 2
4
7π
local minimum at x = , local minimum value = – 2
4
(v) local maximum at x = 1, local maximum value = 19
local minimum at x = 3, local minimum value = 15
(vi) local minimum at x = 2, local minimum value = 2
1
(vii) local maximum at x = 0, local maximum value =
2
2 2 3
(viii) local maximum at x = , local maximum value =
3 9
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ANSWERS 221
5. (i) Absolute minimum value = – 8, absolute maximum value = 8

(ii) Absolute minimum value = – 1, absolute maximum value = 2
(iii) Absolute minimum value = – 10, absolute maximum value = 8
(iv) Absolute minimum value = 19, absolute maximum value = 3
6. Maximum profit = 113 unit.
7. Minima at x = 2, minimum value = – 39, Maxima at x = 0, maximum value = 25.
π 5π
8. At x = and 9. Maximum value = 2
4 4
10. Maximum at x = 3, maximum value 89; maximum at x = – 2, maximum value = 139
11. a = 120
12. Maximum at x = 2π, maximum value = 2π; Minimum at x = 0, minimum value = 0
13. 12, 12 14. 45, 15 15. 25, 10 16. 8, 8
17. 3 cm 18. x = 5 cm
1 1
 50  3  50  3
21. radius =   cm and height = 2   cm
 π  π
112 28π
22. cm, cm 27. A 28. D 29. C
π+4 π+4
2. b 3 cm2/s
π 3π π 3π
3. (i) 0 £ x £ and < x < 2π (ii) <x<
2 2 2 2
4. (i) x < –1 and x > 1 (ii) – 1 < x < 1
—v—
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222 MATHEMATICS
3 3
5. ab 6. Rs 1000
4
20 10
8. length = m, breadth = m
π+4 π+4
2
10. (i) local maxima at x = (ii) local minima at x = 2
7
(iii) point of inflection at x = –1
5
11. Absolute maximum = , Absolute minimum = 1
4
4π R 3
14. 16. A
3 3
—v—
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ANSWERS 223
SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIAL
CHAPTER 5
Theorem 5 (To be on page 129 under the heading Theorem 5)

(i) Derivative of Exponential Function f (x) = ex.
If f (x) = ex, then
f ( x + ∆x ) − f ( x )
f'(x) = lim
∆x → 0 ∆x
x+∆x
e − ex
= lim
∆x→ 0 ∆x
e ∆x − 1
= e x ⋅ lim
∆x→ 0 ∆x
eh − 1
= e x ⋅1 [since lih →m0 h = 1 ]
d x
Thus, (e ) = e x .
dx
(ii) Derivative of logarithmic function f(x) = logex.
If f(x) = logex, then
lo g e ( x + ∆ x ) − lo g e x
f'(x) = li m
∆x→ 0 ∆x
 ∆x 
lo g e  1 + 
= lim  x 
∆x→ 0 ∆x
 ∆x 
lo g e 1 + 
lim
1  x 
= ∆x→ 0 x ∆x
x
1 lo g e (1 + h )
= [since li m = 1]
x h → 0 h
d 1
Thus, log e x = .
dx x
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224 MATHEMATICS
NOTES
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MATHEMATICS
Textbook for Class XII
PART I
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12079 – MATHEMATICS
ISBN 81-7450-629-2
Textbook for Class XII
First Edition ALL RIGHTS RESERVED

November 2006 Agrahayana 1928 q No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval
system or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic,
Reprinted mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without the prior
permission of the publisher.
October 2007, December 2008,
q This book is sold subject to the condition that it shall not, by way of
December 2009, January 2012,
trade, be lent, re-sold, hired out or otherwise disposed of without the
November 2012, November 2013, publisher’s consent, in any form of binding or cover other than that in
November 2014, December 2015, which it is published.
December 2016, December 2017, q The correct price of this publication is the price printed on this page,
January 2019, August 2019, Any revised price indicated by a rubber stamp or by a sticker or by any
other means is incorrect and should be unacceptable.
January 2021, July 2021 and
November 2021 OFFICES OF THE PUBLICATION
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Pvt. Ltd., Mander Mode, Bamrauli,
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Foreword
The National Curriculum Framework 2005, recommends that children’s life at school
must be linked to their life outside the school. This principle marks a departure from
the legacy of bookish learning which continues to shape our system and causes a gap
between the school, home and community. The syllabi and textbooks developed on
the basis of NCF signify an attempt to implement this basic idea. They also attempt to
discourage rote learning and the maintenance of sharp boundaries between different
subject areas. We hope these measures will take us significantly further in the direction
of a child-centred system of education outlined in the National Policy on Education
(1986).
The success of this effort depends on the steps that school principals and teachers
will take to encourage children to reflect on their own learning and to pursue imaginative
activities and questions. We must recognise that, given space, time and freedom,
children generate new knowledge by engaging with the information passed on to them
by adults. Treating the prescribed textbook as the sole basis of examination is one of
the key reasons why other resources and sites of learning are ignored. Inculcating
creativity and initiative is possible if we perceive and treat children as participants in
learning, not as receivers of a fixed body of knowledge.
These aims imply considerable change in school routines and mode of functioning.
Flexibility in the daily time-table is as necessary as rigour in implementing the annual
calendar so that the required number of teaching days are actually devoted to teaching.
The methods used for teaching and evaluation will also determine how effective this
textbook proves for making children’s life at school a happy experience, rather than a
source of stress or boredom. Syllabus designers have tried to address the problem of
curricular burden by restructuring and reorienting knowledge at different stages with
greater consideration for child psychology and the time available for teaching. The
textbook attempts to enhance this endeavour by giving higher priority and space to
opportunities for contemplation and wondering, discussion in small groups, and
activities requiring hands-on experience.
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NCERT appreciates the hard work done by the textbook development committee
responsible for this book. We wish to thank the Chairperson of the advisory group in
Science and Mathematics, Professor J.V. Narlikar and the Chief Advisor for this book,
Professor P.K. Jain for guiding the work of this committee. Several teachers contributed
to the development of this textbook; we are grateful to their principals for making this
possible. We are indebted to the institutions and organisations which have generously
permitted us to draw upon their resources, material and personnel. As an organisation
committed to systemic reform and continuous improvement in the quality of its
products, NCERT welcomes comments and suggestions which will enable us to
undertake further revision and refinement.
Director
New Delhi National Council of Educational
20 December 2005 Research and Training
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Rationalisation of Content in the Textbook
In view of the COVID-19 pandemic, it is imperative to reduce content load on

students. The National Education Policy 2020, also emphasises reducing the content
load and providing opportunities for experiential learning with creative mindset.
In this background, the NCERT has undertaken the exercise to rationalise the
textbooks across all classes. Learning Outcomes already developed by the NCERT
across classes have been taken into consideration in this exercise.
Contents of the textbooks have been rationalised in view of the following:
• Overlapping with similar content included in other subject areas in the same
class
• Similar content included in the lower or higher class in the same subject
• Difficulty level
• Content, which is easily accessible to students without much interventions
from teachers and can be learned by children through self-learning or peer-
learning
• Content, which is irrelevant in the present context
This present edition, is a reformatted version after carrying out the changes
given above.
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Preface
The National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT) had constituted
21 Focus Groups on Teaching of various subjects related to School Education, to
review the National Curriculum Framework for School Education - 2000 (NCFSE -
2000) in face of new emerging challenges and transformations occurring in the fields
of content and pedagogy under the contexts of National and International spectrum of
school education. These Focus Groups made general and specific comments in their
respective areas. Consequently, based on these reports of Focus Groups, National
Curriculum Framework (NCF)-2005 was developed.
NCERT designed the new syllabi and constituted Textbook Development Teams
for Classes XI and XII to prepare textbooks in mathematics under the new guidelines
and new syllabi. The textbook for Class XI is already in use, which was brought in
2005.
The first draft of the present book (Class XII) was prepared by the team consisting
of NCERT faculty, experts and practicing teachers. The draft was refined by the
development team in different meetings. This draft of the book was exposed to a
group of practicing teachers teaching mathematics at higher secondary stage in different
parts of the country, in a review workshop organised by the NCERT at Delhi. The
teachers made useful comments and suggestions which were incorporated in the draft
textbook. The draft textbook was finalised by an editorial board constituted out of the
development team. Finally, the Advisory Group in Science and Mathematics and the
Monitoring Committee constituted by the HRD Ministry, Government of India have
approved the draft of the textbook.
In the fitness of things, let us cite some of the essential features dominating the
textbook. These characteristics have reflections in almost all the chapters. The existing
textbook contain 13 main chapters and two appendices. Each Chapter contain the
followings:
§ Introduction: Highlighting the importance of the topic; connection with earlier
studied topics; brief mention about the new concepts to be discussed in the
chapter.
§ Organisation of chapter into sections comprising one or more concepts/sub
concepts.
§ Motivating and introducing the concepts/sub concepts. Illustrations have been
provided wherever possible.
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viii
§ Proofs/problem solving involving deductive or inductive reasoning, multiplicity

of approaches wherever possible have been inducted.
§ Geometric viewing / visualisation of concepts have been emphasised whenever
needed.
§ Applications of mathematical concepts have also been integrated with allied
subjects like science and social sciences.
§ Adequate and variety of examples/exercises have been given in each section.
§ For refocusing and strengthening the understanding and skill of problem solving
and applicabilities, miscellaneous types of examples/exercises have been
provided involving two or more sub concepts at a time at the end of the chapter.
The scope of challenging problems to talented minority have been reflected
conducive to the recommendation as reflected in NCF-2005.
§ For more motivational purpose, brief historical background of topics have been
provided at the end of the chapter and at the beginning of each chapter relevant
quotation and photograph of eminent mathematician who have contributed
significantly in the development of the topic undertaken, are also provided.
§ Lastly, for direct recapitulation of main concepts, formulas and results, brief
summary of the chapter has also been provided.
I am thankful to Professor Krishan Kumar, Director, NCERT who constituted the
team and invited me to join this national endeavor for the improvement of mathematics
education. He has provided us with an enlightened perspective and a very conducive
environment. This made the task of preparing the book much more enjoyable and
rewarding. I express my gratitude to Professor J.V. Narlikar, Chairperson of the
Advisory Group in Science and Mathematics, for his specific suggestions and advice
towards the improvement of the book from time to time. I, also, thank Prof. G. Ravindra,
Joint Director, NCERT for his help from time to time.
I express my sincere thanks to Professor Hukum Singh, Chief Coordinator and
Head DESM, Dr. V. P. Singh, Coordinator and Professor S. K. Singh Gautam who
have been helping for the success of this project academically as well as
administratively. Also, I would like to place on records my appreciation and thanks to
all the members of the team and the teachers who have been associated with this
noble cause in one or the other form.
PAWAN K. JAIN
Chief Advisor
Textbook Development Committee
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Textbook Development Committee
CHAIRPERSON, ADVISORY GROUP IN SCIENCE AND MATHEMATICS

J.V. Narlikar, Emeritus Professor, Inter-University Centre for Astronomy and
Astrophysics (IUCAA), Ganeshkhind, Pune University, Pune
CHIEF ADVISOR
P.K. Jain, Professor, Department of Mathematics, University of Delhi, Delhi
CHIEF COORDINATOR
Hukum Singh, Professor and Head, DESM, NCERT, New Delhi
MEMBERS
Arun Pal Singh, Sr. Lecturer, Department of Mathematics, Dayal Singh College,
University of Delhi, Delhi
A.K. Rajput, Reader, RIE, Bhopal, M.P.
B.S.P. Raju, Professor, RIE Mysore, Karnataka
C.R. Pradeep, Assistant Professor, Department of Mathematics, Indian Institute of
Science, Bangalore, Karnataka
D.R. Sharma, P.G.T., JNV-Mungeshpur, Delhi
Ram Avtar, Professor (Retd.) and Consultant, DESM, NCERT, New Delhi
R.P. Maurya, Reader, DESM, NCERT, New Delhi
S.S. Khare, Pro-Vice-Chancellor, NEHU, Tura Campus, Meghalaya
S.K.S. Gautam, Professor, DESM, NCERT, New Delhi
S.K. Kaushik, Reader, Department of Mathematics, Kirori Mal College, University
of Delhi, Delhi
Sangeeta Arora, P.G.T., Apeejay School Saket, New Delhi-110017
Shailja Tewari, P.G.T., Kendriya Vidyalaya, Barkakana, Hazaribagh, Jharkhand
Vinayak Bujade, Lecturer, Vidarbha Buniyadi Junior College, Sakkardara Chowk,
Nagpur, Maharashtra
Sunil Bajaj, Sr. Specialist, SCERT, Gurgaon, Haryana
MEMBER – COORDINATOR
V.P. Singh, Reader, DESM, NCERT, New Delhi
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Acknowledgements
The Council gratefully acknowledges the valuable contributions of the following
participants of the Textbook Review Workshop: Jagdish Saran, Professor, Deptt. of
Statistics, University of Delhi; Quddus Khan, Lecturer, Shibli National P.G. College
Azamgarh (U.P.); P.K. Tewari, Assistant Commissioner (Retd.), Kendriya Vidyalaya
Sangathan; S.B. Tripathi, Lecturer, R.P.V.V. Surajmal Vihar, Delhi; O.N. Singh, Reader,
RIE, Bhubaneswar, Orissa; Miss Saroj, Lecturer, Govt. Girls Senior Secondary School
No.1, Roop Nagar, Delhi; P. Bhaskar Kumar, PGT, Jawahar Navodaya Vidyalaya,
Lepakshi, Anantapur, (A.P.); Mrs. S. Kalpagam, PGT, K.V. NAL Campus, Bangalore;
Rahul Sofat, Lecturer, Air Force Golden Jubilee Institute, Subroto Park, New Delhi;
Vandita Kalra, Lecturer, Sarvodaya Kanya Vidyalaya, Vikaspuri, District Centre,
New Delhi; Janardan Tripathi, Lecturer, Govt. R.H.S.S. Aizawl, Mizoram and
Ms. Sushma Jaireth, Reader, DWS, NCERT, New Delhi.
The Council acknowledges the efforts of Deepak Kapoor, Incharge, Computer
Station, Sajjad Haider Ansari, Rakesh Kumar and Nargis Islam, D.T.P. Operators,
Monika Saxena,Copy Editor and Abhimanu Mohanty, Proof Reader.
The Contribution of APC-Office, administration of DESM and Publication
Department is also duly acknowledged.
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Contents
PART I
Foreword iii
Rationalisation of Content in the Textbook v
Preface vii
1. Relations and Functions 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Types of Relations 2
1.3 Types of Functions 7
1.4 Composition of Functions and Invertible Function 12
2. Inverse Trigonometric Functions 18
2.1 Introduction 18
2.2 Basic Concepts 18
2.3 Properties of Inverse Trigonometric Functions 27
3. Matrices 34
3.1 Introduction 34
3.2 Matrix 34
3.3 Types of Matrices 39
3.4 Operations on Matrices 43
3.5 Transpose of a Matrix 61
3.6 Symmetric and Skew Symmetric Matrices 63
3.7 Invertible Matrices 68
4. Determinants 76
4.1 Introduction 76
4.2 Determinant 76
4.3 Area of a Triangle 82
4.4 Minors and Cofactors 84
4.5 Adjoint and Inverse of a Matrix 87
4.6 Applications of Determinants and Matrices 93
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5. Continuity and Differentiability 104
5.1 Introduction 104
5.2 Continuity 104
5.3 Differentiability 118
5.4 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions 125
5.5 Logarithmic Differentiation 130
5.6 Derivatives of Functions in Parametric Forms 134
5.7 Second Order Derivative 137
6. Application of Derivatives 147
6.1 Introduction 147
6.2 Rate of Change of Quantities 147
6.3 Increasing and Decreasing Functions 152
6.4 Maxima and Minima 159
Appendix 1: Proofs in Mathematics 187
A.1.1 Introduction 187
A.1.2 What is a Proof? 187
Appendix 2: Mathematical Modelling 196
A.2.1 Introduction 196
A.2.2 Why Mathematical Modelling? 196
A.2.3 Principles of Mathematical Modelling 197
Answers 208
Supplementary Material 222
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Appendix 1
PROOFS IN MATHEMATICS
v Proofs are to Mathematics what calligraphy is to poetry.

Mathematical works do consist of proofs just as
poems do consist of characters.
— VLADIMIR ARNOLD v
A.1.1 Introduction
In Classes IX, X and XI, we have learnt about the concepts of a statement, compound
statement, negation, converse and contrapositive of a statement; axioms, conjectures,
theorems and deductive reasoning.
Here, we will discuss various methods of proving mathematical propositions.
A.1.2 What is a Proof?
Proof of a mathematical statement consists of sequence of statements, each statement
being justified with a definition or an axiom or a proposition that is previously established
by the method of deduction using only the allowed logical rules.
Thus, each proof is a chain of deductive arguments each of which has its premises
and conclusions. Many a times, we prove a proposition directly from what is given in
the proposition. But some times it is easier to prove an equivalent proposition rather
than proving the proposition itself. This leads to, two ways of proving a proposition
directly or indirectly and the proofs obtained are called direct proof and indirect proof
and further each has three different ways of proving which is discussed below.
Direct Proof It is the proof of a proposition in which we directly start the proof with
what is given in the proposition.
(i) Straight forward approach It is a chain of arguments which leads directly from
what is given or assumed, with the help of axioms, definitions or already proved
theorems, to what is to be proved using rules of logic.
Consider the following example:
Example 1 Show that if x2 – 5x + 6 = 0, then x = 3 or x = 2.
Solution x2 – 5x + 6 = 0 (given)
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188 MATHEMATICS
⇒ (x – 3) (x – 2) = 0 (replacing an expression by an equal/equivalent expression)

⇒ x – 3 = 0 or x – 2 = 0 (from the established theorem ab = 0 ⇒ either a = 0 or
b = 0, for a, b in R)
⇒ x – 3 + 3 = 0 + 3 or x – 2 + 2 = 0 + 2 (adding equal quantities on either side of the
equation does not alter the nature of the
equation)
⇒ x + 0 = 3 or x + 0 = 2 (using the identity property of integers under addition)
⇒ x = 3 or x = 2 (using the identity property of integers under addition)
Hence, x2 – 5x + 6 = 0 implies x = 3 or x = 2.
Explanation Let p be the given statement “x2 – 5x + 6 = 0” and q be the conclusion
statement “x = 3 or x = 2”.
From the statement p, we deduced the statement r : “(x – 3) (x – 2) = 0” by
replacing the expression x2 – 5x + 6 in the statement p by another expression (x – 3)
(x – 2) which is equal to x2 – 5x + 6.
There arise two questions:
(i) How does the expression (x – 3) (x – 2) is equal to the expression x2 – 5x + 6?
(ii) How can we replace an expression with another expression which is equal to
the former?
The first one is proved in earlier classes by factorization, i.e.,
x2 – 5x + 6 = x2 – 3x – 2x + 6 = x (x – 3) –2 (x – 3) = (x – 3) (x – 2).
The second one is by valid form of argumentation (rules of logic)
Next this statement r becomes premises or given and deduce the statement s
“ x – 3 = 0 or x – 2 = 0” and the reasons are given in the brackets.
This process continues till we reach the conclusion.
The symbolic equivalent of the argument is to prove by deduction that p ⇒ q
is true.
Starting with p, we deduce p ⇒ r ⇒ s ⇒ … ⇒ q. This implies that “p ⇒ q” is true.
Example 2 Prove that the function f : R → R

defined by f (x) = 2x + 5 is one-one.
Solution Note that a function f is one-one if
f (x1) = f (x2) ⇒ x1 = x2 (definition of one-one function)
Now, given that f (x1) = f (x2), i.e., 2x1+ 5 = 2x2 + 5
⇒ 2x1+ 5 – 5 = 2x2 + 5 – 5 (adding the same quantity on both sides)
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PROOFS IN MATHEMATICS 189
⇒ 2x1+ 0 = 2x2 + 0
⇒ 2x1 = 2x2 (using additive identity of real number)
2 2
⇒ x1 = x2 (dividing by the same non zero quantity)
2 2
⇒ x1 = x 2
Hence, the given function is one-one.
(ii) Mathematical Induction
Mathematical induction, is a strategy, of proving a proposition which is deductive in
nature. The whole basis of proof of this method depends on the following axiom:
For a given subset S of N, if
(i) the natural number 1 ∈ S and
(ii) the natural number k + 1 ∈ S whenever k ∈ S, then S = N.
According to the principle of mathematical induction, if a statement “S(n) is true
for n = 1” (or for some starting point j), and if “S(n) is true for n = k” implies that “S(n)
is true for n = k + 1” (whatever integer k ≥ j may be), then the statement is true for any
positive integer n, for all n ≥ j.
We now consider some examples.
Example 3 Show that if
 cos θ sin θ   cos n θ sin n θ 
A=   , then An =  
 − sin θ cos θ   − sin n θ cos n θ
Solution We have
 cos n θ sin n θ 
P(n) : An =  
 − sin n θ cos n θ
 cos θ sin θ 
We note that P(1) : A1 =  
 − sin θ cos θ 
Therefore, P(1) is true.
Assume that P(k) is true, i.e.,
 cos k θ sin k θ 
P(k) : Ak =  
 − sin k θ cos k θ 
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190 MATHEMATICS
We want to prove that P(k + 1) is true whenever P(k) is true, i.e.,

 cos ( k + 1) θ sin ( k + 1) θ 
P(k + 1) : Ak+1 =  
 − sin( k + 1) θ cos ( k + 1 ) θ 
Now Ak+1 = Ak . A
Since P(k) is true, we have
 cos k θ sin k θ   cos θ sin θ 
Ak+1 =    
 − sin k θ cos k θ  − sin θ cos θ 
 cos k θ cos θ − sin k θ sin θ cos k θ sin θ + sin k θ cos θ 

=  
 − sin k θ cos θ − cos k θ sin θ − sin k θ sin θ + cos k θ cos θ 
(by matrix multiplication)
 cos ( k + 1) θ sin ( k + 1) θ 
=  
 − sin( k + 1) θ cos ( k + 1 ) θ 
Thus, P(k + 1) is true whenever P(k) is true.
Hence, P(n) is true for all n ≥ 1 (by the principle of mathematical induction).
(iii) Proof by cases or by exhaustion
This method of proving a statement p ⇒ q is possible only when p can be split into
several cases, r, s, t (say) so that p = r ∨ s ∨ t (where “ ∨ ” is the symbol for “OR”).
If the conditionals r ⇒ q;
s ⇒ q;
and t⇒q
are proved, then (r ∨ s ∨ t) ⇒ q, is proved and so p ⇒ q is proved.
The method consists of examining every possible case of the hypothesis. It is
practically convenient only when the number of possible cases are few.
Example 4 Show that in any triangle ABC,

a = b cos C + c cos B
Solution Let p be the statement “ABC is any triangle” and q be the statement
“a = b cos C + c cos B”
Let ABC be a triangle. From A draw AD a perpendicular to BC (BC produced if
necessary).
As we know that any triangle has to be either acute or obtuse or right angled, we
can split p into three statements r, s and t, where
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r : ABC is an acute angled triangle with ∠ C is acute.

s : ABC is an obtuse angled triangle with ∠ C is obtuse.
t : ABC is a right angled triangle with ∠ C is right angle.
Hence, we prove the theorem by three cases.
Case (i) When ∠ C is acute (Fig. A1.1).
From the right angled triangle ADB,
BD
= cos B
AB
i.e. BD = AB cos B
= c cos B
From the right angled triangle ADC,

CD Fig A1.1
= cos C
AC
i.e. CD = AC cos C
= b cos C
Now a = BD + CD
= c cos B + b cos C ... (1)
Case (ii) When ∠ C is obtuse (Fig A1.2).
From the right angled triangle ADB,
BD
= cos B
AB
i.e. BD = AB cos B
= c cos B
From the right angled triangle ADC,
CD
= cos ∠ ACD
AC
= cos (180° – C)
= – cos C
i.e. CD = – AC cos C
= – b cos C Fig A1.2
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192 MATHEMATICS
Now a = BC = BD – CD
i.e. a = c cos B – ( – b cos C)
a = c cos B + b cos C ... (2)
Case (iii) When ∠ C is a right angle (Fig A1.3).
From the right angled triangle ACB,
BC
= cos B
AB
i.e. BC = AB cos B
a = c cos B,
and b cos C = b cos 900 = 0. Fig A1.3
Thus, we may write a = 0 + c cos B
= b cos C + c cos B ... (3)
From (1), (2) and (3). We assert that for any triangle ABC,
a = b cos C + c cos B
By case (i), r ⇒ q is proved.
By case (ii), s ⇒ q is proved.
By case (iii), t ⇒ q is proved.
Hence, from the proof by cases, (r ∨ s ∨ t) ⇒ q is proved, i.e., p ⇒ q is proved.
Indirect Proof Instead of proving the given proposition directly, we establish the proof
of the proposition through proving a proposition which is equivalent to the given
proposition.
(i) Proof by contradiction (Reductio Ad Absurdum) : Here, we start with the
assumption that the given statement is false. By rules of logic, we arrive at a
conclusion contradicting the assumption and hence it is inferred that the assumption
is wrong and hence the given statement is true.
Let us illustrate this method by an example.
Example 5 Show that the set of all prime numbers is infinite.
Solution Let P be the set of all prime numbers. We take the negation of the statement
“the set of all prime numbers is infinite”, i.e., we assume the set of all prime numbers
to be finite. Hence, we can list all the prime numbers as P1, P2, P3,..., Pk (say). Note
that we have assumed that there is no prime number other than P1, P2, P3,..., Pk .
Now consider N = (P1 P2 P3…Pk) + 1 ... (1)
N is not in the list as N is larger than any of the numbers in the list.
N is either prime or composite.
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If N is a prime, then by (1), there exists a prime number which is not listed.
On the other hand, if N is composite, it should have a prime divisor. But none of the
numbers in the list can divide N, because they all leave the remainder 1. Hence, the
prime divisor should be other than the one in the list.
Thus, in both the cases whether N is a prime or a composite, we ended up with
contradiction to the fact that we have listed all the prime numbers.
Hence, our assumption that set of all prime numbers is finite is false.
Thus, the set of all prime numbers is infinite.
ANote Observe that the above proof also uses the method of proof by cases.
(ii) Proof by using contrapositive statement of the given statement
Instead of proving the conditional p ⇒ q, we prove its equivalent, i.e.,
~ q ⇒ ~ p. (students can verify).
The contrapositive of a conditional can be formed by interchanging the conclusion
and the hypothesis and negating both.
Example 6 Prove that the function f : R → R defined by f (x) = 2x + 5 is one-one.

Solution A function is one-one if f (x1) = f (x2) ⇒ x1 = x2.
Using this we have to show that “2x1+ 5 = 2x2 + 5” ⇒ “x1 = x2”. This is of the form
p ⇒ q, where, p is 2x1+ 5 = 2x2 + 5 and q : x1 = x2. We have proved this in Example 2
of “direct method”.
We can also prove the same by using contrapositive of the statement. Now
contrapositive of this statement is ~ q ⇒ ~ p, i.e., contrapositive of “ if f (x1) = f (x2),
then x1 = x2” is “if x1 ≠x2, then f (x1) ≠ f (x2)”.
Now x1 ≠ x 2
⇒ 2x1 ≠ 2x 2
⇒ 2x1+ 5 ≠ 2x2 + 5
⇒ f (x1) ≠ f (x 2).
Since “~ q ⇒ ~ p”, is equivalent to “p ⇒ q” the proof is complete.
Example 7 Show that “if a matrix A is invertible, then A is non singular”.
Solution Writing the above statement in symbolic form, we have
p ⇒ q, where, p is “matrix A is invertible” and q is “A is non singular”
Instead of proving the given statement, we prove its contrapositive statement, i.e.,
if A is not a non singular matrix, then the matrix A is not invertible.
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194 MATHEMATICS
If A is not a non singular matrix, then it means the matrix A is singular, i.e.,
|A| = 0
adj A
Then A–1 = does not exist as | A | = 0
|A|
Hence, A is not invertible.
Thus, we have proved that if A is not a non singular matrix, then A is not invertible.
i.e., ~ q ⇒ ~ p.
Hence, if a matrix A is invertible, then A is non singular.
(iii) Proof by a counter example
In the history of Mathematics, there are occasions when all attempts to find a
valid proof of a statement fail and the uncertainty of the truth value of the statement
remains unresolved.
In such a situation, it is beneficial, if we find an example to falsify the statement.
The example to disprove the statement is called a counter example. Since the disproof
of a proposition p ⇒ q is merely a proof of the proposition ~ (p ⇒ q). Hence, this is
also a method of proof.
n
Example 8 For each n, 2 2 + 1 is a prime (n ∈ N).
This was once thought to be true on the basis that
1
2 2 + 1 = 22 + 1 = 5 is a prime.
2
2 2 + 1 = 24 + 1 = 17 is a prime.
3
22 + 1 = 28 + 1 = 257 is a prime.
However, at first sight the generalisation looks to be correct. But, eventually it was
5
shown that 2 2 + 1 = 232 + 1 = 4294967297
which is not a prime since 4294967297 = 641 × 6700417 (a product of two numbers).
n
So the generalisation “For each n, 22 + 1 is a prime (n ∈ N)” is false.
5
Just this one example 22 + 1 is sufficient to disprove the generalisation. This is the
counter example.
n
Thus, we have proved that the generalisation “For each n, 2 2 + 1 is a prime
(n ∈ N)” is not true in general.
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Example 9 Every continuous function is differentiable.

Proof We consider some functions given by
(i) f (x) = x2
(ii) g(x) = ex
(iii) h (x) = sin x
These functions are continuous for all values of x. If we check for their
differentiability, we find that they are all differentiable for all the values of x. This
makes us to believe that the generalisation “Every continuous function is differentiable”
may be true. But if we check the differentiability of the function given by “φ (x) = | x |”
which is continuous, we find that it is not differentiable at x = 0. This means that the
statement “Every continuous function is differentiable” is false, in general. Just this
one function “φ (x) = | x |” is sufficient to disprove the statement. Hence, “φ (x) = | x |”
is called a counter example to disprove “Every continuous function is differentiable”.
—v—
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196 MATHEMATICS
Appendix 2
MATHEMATICAL MODELLING
A.2.1 Introduction
In class XI, we have learnt about mathematical modelling as an attempt to study some
part (or form) of some real-life problems in mathematical terms, i.e., the conversion of
a physical situation into mathematics using some suitable conditions. Roughly speaking
mathematical modelling is an activity in which we make models to describe the behaviour
of various phenomenal activities of our interest in many ways using words, drawings or
sketches, computer programs, mathematical formulae etc.
In earlier classes, we have observed that solutions to many problems, involving
applications of various mathematical concepts, involve mathematical modelling in one
way or the other. Therefore, it is important to study mathematical modelling as a separate
topic.
In this chapter, we shall further study mathematical modelling of some real-life
problems using techniques/results from matrix, calculus and linear programming.
A.2.2 Why Mathematical Modelling?

Students are aware of the solution of word problems in arithmetic, algebra, trigonometry
and linear programming etc. Sometimes we solve the problems without going into the
physical insight of the situational problems. Situational problems need physical insight
that is introduction of physical laws and some symbols to compare the mathematical
results obtained with practical values. To solve many problems faced by us, we need a
technique and this is what is known as mathematical modelling. Let us consider the
following problems:
(i) To find the width of a river (particularly, when it is difficult to cross the river).
(ii) To find the optimal angle in case of shot-put (by considering the variables
such as : the height of the thrower, resistance of the media, acceleration due to
gravity etc.).
(iii) To find the height of a tower (particularly, when it is not possible to reach the top
of the tower).
(iv) To find the temperature at the surface of the Sun.
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MATHEMATICAL MODELLING 197
(v) Why heart patients are not allowed to use lift? (without knowing the physiology
of a human being).
(vi) To find the mass of the Earth.
(vii) Estimate the yield of pulses in India from the standing crops (a person is not
allowed to cut all of it).
(viii) Find the volume of blood inside the body of a person (a person is not allowed to
bleed completely).
(ix) Estimate the population of India in the year 2020 (a person is not allowed to wait
till then).
All of these problems can be solved and infact have been solved with the help of
Mathematics using mathematical modelling. In fact, you might have studied the methods
for solving some of them in the present textbook itself. However, it will be instructive if
you first try to solve them yourself and that too without the help of Mathematics, if
possible, you will then appreciate the power of Mathematics and the need for
mathematical modelling.
A.2.3 Principles of Mathematical Modelling

Mathematical modelling is a principled activity and so it has some principles behind it.
These principles are almost philosophical in nature. Some of the basic principles of
mathematical modelling are listed below in terms of instructions:
(i) Identify the need for the model. (for what we are looking for)
(ii) List the parameters/variables which are required for the model.
(iii) Identify the available relevent data. (what is given?)
(iv) Identify the circumstances that can be applied (assumptions)
(v) Identify the governing physical principles.
(vi) Identify
(a) the equations that will be used.
(b) the calculations that will be made.
(c) the solution which will follow.
(vii) Identify tests that can check the
(a) consistency of the model.
(b) utility of the model.
(viii) Identify the parameter values that can improve the model.
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198 MATHEMATICS
The above principles of mathematical modelling lead to the following: steps for
mathematical modelling.
Step 1: Identify the physical situation.
Step 2: Convert the physical situation into a mathematical model by introducing
parameters / variables and using various known physical laws and symbols.
Step 3: Find the solution of the mathematical problem.
Step 4: Interpret the result in terms of the original problem and compare the result
with observations or experiments.
Step 5: If the result is in good agreement, then accept the model. Otherwise modify
the hypotheses / assumptions according to the physical situation and go to
Step 2.
The above steps can also be viewed through the following diagram:
Fig A.2.1
Example 1 Find the height of a given tower using mathematical modelling.
Solution Step 1 Given physical situation is “to find the height of a given tower”.
Step 2 Let AB be the given tower (Fig A.2.2). Let PQ be an observer measuring the
height of the tower with his eye at P. Let PQ = h and let height of tower be H. Let α
be the angle of elevation from the eye of the observer to the top of the tower.
Fig A.2.2
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Let l = PC = QB
AC H − h
Now tan α = =
PC l
or H = h + l tan α ... (1)
Step 3 Note that the values of the parameters h, l and α (using sextant) are known to
the observer and so (1) gives the solution of the problem.
Step 4 In case, if the foot of the tower is not accessible, i.e., when l is not known to the
observer, let β be the angle of depression from P to the foot B of the tower. So from
∆PQB, we have
PQ h
tan β = = or l = h cot β
QB l
Step 5 is not required in this situation as exact values of the parameters h, l, α and β
are known.
Example 2 Let a business firm produces three types of products P1, P2 and P3 that
uses three types of raw materials R1, R2 and R3. Let the firm has purchase orders from
two clients F1 and F2. Considering the situation that the firm has a limited quantity of
R1, R2 and R3, respectively, prepare a model to determine the quantities of the raw
material R1, R2 and R3 required to meet the purchase orders.
Solution Step 1 The physical situation is well identified in the problem.
Step 2 Let A be a matrix that represents purchase orders from the two clients F1 and
F2. Then, A is of the form
P1 P2 P3
F1 • • • 
A= 
F2 • • • 
Let B be the matrix that represents the amount of raw materials R1, R2 and R3,
required to manufacture each unit of the products P1, P2 and P3. Then, B is of the form
R1 R 2 R 3
P1 • • • 
B = P2 • • • 
P3 • • • 
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200 MATHEMATICS
Step 3 Note that the product (which in this case is well defined) of matrices A and B
is given by the following matrix
R1 R 2 R3
F1 • • •
AB = 
F2 • • •
which in fact gives the desired quantities of the raw materials R1, R2 and R3 to fulfill
the purchase orders of the two clients F1 and F2.
Example 3 Interpret the model in Example 2, in case
3 4 0 
10 15 6   
A=  , B = 7 9 3 
10 20 0  5 12 7 
and the available raw materials are 330 units of R1, 455 units of R2 and 140 units of R3.
Solution Note that
3 4 0 
10 15 6  7 9 3 
AB =    
10 20 0  5 12 7 
R1 R 2 R 3
F1 165 247 87 
= 
F2 170 220 60
This clearly shows that to meet the purchase order of F1 and F2, the raw material
required is 335 units of R1, 467 units of R2 and 147 units of R3 which is much more than
the available raw material. Since the amount of raw material required to manufacture
each unit of the three products is fixed, we can either ask for an increase in the
available raw material or we may ask the clients to reduce their orders.
Remark If we replace A in Example 3 by A1 given by
9 12 6 
A1 =  
10 20 0 
i.e., if the clients agree to reduce their purchase orders, then
3 4 0 
9 12 6    141 216 78 
A1 B =   7 9 3  =  
10 20 0  170 220 60
5 12 7 
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This requires 311 units of R1, 436 units of R2 and 138 units of R3 which are well
below the available raw materials, i.e., 330 units of R1, 455 units of R2 and 140 units of
R3. Thus, if the revised purchase orders of the clients are given by A1, then the firm
can easily supply the purchase orders of the two clients.
A Note One may further modify A so as to make full use of the available
raw material.
Query Can we make a mathematical model with a given B and with fixed quantities of
the available raw material that can help the firm owner to ask the clients to modify their
orders in such a way that the firm makes the full use of its available raw material?
The answer to this query is given in the following example:
Example 4 Suppose P1, P2, P3 and R1, R2, R3 are as in Example 2. Let the firm has
330 units of R1, 455 units of R2 and 140 units of R3 available with it and let the amount
of raw materials R1, R2 and R3 required to manufacture each unit of the three products
is given by
R1 R 2 R3
P1 3 4 0
B = P2  7 9 3 
P3 5 12 7 
How many units of each product is to be made so as to utilise the full available raw
material?
Solution Step 1 The situation is easily identifiable.
Step 2 Suppose the firm produces x units of P1, y units of P2 and z units of P3. Since
product P1 requires 3 units of R1, P2 requires 7 units of R1 and P3 requires 5 units of R1
(observe matrix B) and the total number of units, of R1, available is 330, we have
3x + 7y + 5z = 330 (for raw material R1)
Similarly, we have
4x + 9y + 12z = 455 (for raw material R2)
and 3y + 7z = 140 (for raw material R3)
This system of equations can be expressed in matrix form as
3 7 5   x  330
 4 9 12  y  =  455
     
0 3 7   z  140 
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202 MATHEMATICS
Step 3 Using elementary row operations, we obtain
1 0 0  x   20
0 1 0  y  =  35
     
0 0 1  z   5 
This gives x = 20, y = 35 and z = 5. Thus, the firm can produce 20 units of P1, 35
units of P2 and 5 units of P3 to make full use of its available raw material.
Remark One may observe that if the manufacturer decides to manufacture according
to the available raw material and not according to the purchase orders of the two
clients F1 and F2 (as in Example 3), he/she is unable to meet these purchase orders as
F1 demanded 6 units of P3 where as the manufacturer can make only 5 units of P3.
Example 5 A manufacturer of medicines is preparing a production plan of medicines
M1 and M2. There are sufficient raw materials available to make 20000 bottles of M1
and 40000 bottles of M2, but there are only 45000 bottles into which either of the
medicines can be put. Further, it takes 3 hours to prepare enough material to fill 1000
bottles of M1, it takes 1 hour to prepare enough material to fill 1000 bottles of M2 and
there are 66 hours available for this operation. The profit is Rs 8 per bottle for M1 and
Rs 7 per bottle for M2. How should the manufacturer schedule his/her production in
order to maximise profit?
Solution Step 1 To find the number of bottles of M1 and M2 in order to maximise the
profit under the given hypotheses.
Step 2 Let x be the number of bottles of type M1 medicine and y be the number of
bottles of type M2 medicine. Since profit is Rs 8 per bottle for M1 and Rs 7 per bottle
for M2, therefore the objective function (which is to be maximised) is given by
Z ≡ Z (x, y) = 8x + 7y
The objective function is to be maximised subject to the constraints (Refer Chapter
12 on Linear Programming)
x ≤ 20000 
y ≤ 40000 

x + y ≤ 45000 
3x + y ≤ 66000
... (1)

x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0 
Step 3 The shaded region OPQRST is the feasible region for the constraints (1)
(Fig A.2.3). The co-ordinates of vertices O, P, Q, R, S and T are (0, 0), (20000, 0),
(20000, 6000), (10500, 34500), (5000, 40000) and (0, 40000), respectively.
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Fig A.2.3
Note that
Z at P (0, 0) = 0
Z at P (20000, 0) = 8 × 20000 = 160000
Z at Q (20000, 6000) = 8 × 20000 + 7 × 6000 = 202000
Z at R (10500, 34500) = 8 × 10500 + 7 × 34500 = 325500
Z at S = (5000, 40000) = 8 × 5000 + 7 × 40000 = 320000
Z at T = (0, 40000) = 7 × 40000 = 280000
Now observe that the profit is maximum at x = 10500 and y = 34500 and the
maximum profit is ` 325500. Hence, the manufacturer should produce 10500 bottles of
M1 medicine and 34500 bottles of M2 medicine in order to get maximum profit of
` 325500.
Example 6 Suppose a company plans to produce a new product that incur some costs
(fixed and variable) and let the company plans to sell the product at a fixed price.
Prepare a mathematical model to examine the profitability.
Solution Step 1 Situation is clearly identifiable.
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204 MATHEMATICS
Step 2 Formulation: We are given that the costs are of two types: fixed and variable.
The fixed costs are independent of the number of units produced (e.g., rent and rates),
while the variable costs increase with the number of units produced (e.g., material).
Initially, we assume that the variable costs are directly proportional to the number of
units produced — this should simplify our model. The company earn a certain amount
of money by selling its products and wants to ensure that it is maximum. For convenience,
we assume that all units produced are sold immediately.
The mathematical model
Let x = number of units produced and sold
C = total cost of production (in rupees)
I = income from sales (in rupees)
P = profit (in rupees)
Our assumptions above state that C consists of two parts:
(i) fixed cost = a (in rupees),
(ii) variable cost = b (rupees/unit produced).
Then C = a + bx ... (1)
Also, income I depends on selling price s (rupees/unit)
Thus I = sx ... (2)
The profit P is then the difference between income and costs. So
P=I–C
= sx – (a + bx)
= (s – b) x – a ... (3)
We now have a mathematical model of the relationships (1) to (3) between
the variables x, C, I, P, a, b, s. These variables may be classified as:
independent x
dependent C, I, P
parameters a, b, s
The manufacturer, knowing x, a, b, s can determine P.
Step 3 From (3), we can observe that for the break even point (i.e., make neither profit
a
nor loss), he must have P = 0, i.e., x = units.
s −b
Steps 4 and 5 In view of the break even point, one may conclude that if the company
a
produces few units, i.e., less than x = units , then the company will suffer loss
s −b
Reprint 2024-25
a
and if it produces large number of units, i.e., much more than units , then it can
s −b
make huge profit. Further, if the break even point proves to be unrealistic, then another
model could be tried or the assumptions regarding cash flow may be modified.
Remark From (3), we also have
dP
= s −b
dx
This means that rate of change of P with respect to x depends on the quantity
s – b, which is the difference of selling price and the variable cost of each product.
Thus, in order to gain profit, this should be positive and to get large gains, we need to
produce large quantity of the product and at the same time try to reduce the variable
cost.
Example 7 Let a tank contains 1000 litres of brine which contains 250 g of salt per
litre. Brine containing 200 g of salt per litre flows into the tank at the rate of 25 litres per
minute and the mixture flows out at the same rate. Assume that the mixture is kept
uniform all the time by stirring. What would be the amount of salt in the tank at
any time t?
Solution Step 1 The situation is easily identifiable.
Step 2 Let y = y (t) denote the amount of salt (in kg) in the tank at time t (in minutes)
after the inflow, outflow starts. Further assume that y is a differentiable function.
When t = 0, i.e., before the inflow–outflow of the brine starts,
y = 250 g × 1000 = 250 kg
Note that the change in y occurs due to the inflow, outflow of the mixture.
Now the inflow of brine brings salt into the tank at the rate of 5 kg per minute
(as 25 × 200 g = 5 kg) and the outflow of brine takes salt out of the tank at the rate of
 y  y y
25   = kg per minute (as at time t, the salt in the tank is kg).
 1000  40 1000
Thus, the rate of change of salt with respect to t is given by
dy y
= 5− (Why?)
dt 40
dy 1
or + y =5 ... (1)
dt 40
Reprint 2024-25
206 MATHEMATICS
This gives a mathematical model for the given problem.

Step 3 Equation (1) is a linear equation and can be easily solved. The solution of (1) is
given by
t t t
−
40
ye 40
= 200 e 40
+ C or y (t) = 200 + C e ... (2)
where, c is the constant of integration.
Note that when t = 0, y = 250. Therefore, 250 = 200 + C
or C = 50
Then (2) reduces to
t
−
40
y = 200 + 50 e ... (3)
t
y − 200 −
or = e 40
50
t
50
or e 40 =
y − 200
 50 
Therefore t = 40 log e  ... (4)
 y − 200 
Here, the equation (4) gives the time t at which the salt in tank is y kg.
t
−
Step 4 Since e 40 is always positive, from (3), we conclude that y > 200 at all times
Thus, the minimum amount of salt content in the tank is 200 kg.
Also, from (4), we conclude that t > 0 if and only if 0 < y – 200 < 50 i.e., if and only
if 200 < y < 250 i.e., the amount of salt content in the tank after the start of inflow and
outflow of the brine is between 200 kg and 250 kg.
Limitations of Mathematical Modelling

Till today many mathematical models have been developed and applied successfully
to understand and get an insight into thousands of situations. Some of the subjects like
mathematical physics, mathematical economics, operations research, bio-mathematics
etc. are almost synonymous with mathematical modelling.
But there are still a large number of situations which are yet to be modelled. The
reason behind this is that either the situation are found to be very complex or the
mathematical models formed are mathematically intractable.
Reprint 2024-25
The development of the powerful computers and super computers has enabled us
to mathematically model a large number of situations (even complex situations). Due
to these fast and advanced computers, it has been possible to prepare more realistic
models which can obtain better agreements with observations.
However, we do not have good guidelines for choosing various parameters / variables
and also for estimating the values of these parameters / variables used in a mathematical
model. Infact, we can prepare reasonably accurate models to fit any data by choosing
five or six parameters / variables. We require a minimal number of parameters / variables
to be able to estimate them accurately.
Mathematical modelling of large or complex situations has its own special problems.
These type of situations usually occur in the study of world models of environment,
oceanography, pollution control etc. Mathematical modellers from all disciplines —
mathematics, computer science, physics, engineering, social sciences, etc., are involved
in meeting these challenges with courage.
—v—
Reprint 2024-25

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Chapter 6

Example 4 The length x of a rectangle is decreasing at the rate of 3 cm/minute and

(iv) decreasing on I if x1 < x2 in I ⇒ f (x1) ≥ f (x2) for all x1, x2 ∈ I.

Strictly Increasing function Strictly Decreasing function Neither Increasing nor

Example 7 Show that the function given by f (x) = 7x – 3 is increasing on R.

Proof (a) Let x1, x2 ∈ [a, b] be such that x1 < x2.

Example 8 Show that the function f given by

Example 9 Prove that the function given by f (x) = cos x is

Solution Note that f ′(x) = – sin x

Example 10 Find the intervals in which the function f given by f (x) = x2 – 4x + 6 is

Interval Sign of f ′(x) Nature of function f

(– ∞, – 2) (–) (–) > 0 f is increasing

(– 2, 3) (–) (+) < 0 f is decreasing

(3, ∞) (+) (+) > 0 f is increasing

Example 13 Find the intervals in which the function f given by

Interval Sign of f ′ ( x) Nature of function

10. Prove that the logarithmic function is increasing on (0, ∞).

Example 15 Find the maximum and minimum values

Solution From the graph of the given function

A Note By a monotonic function f

Maximum and minimum values of a function defined on a closed interval will be

Similarly, if c is a point of local minima of f , then the graph of f around c will be as

Remark The converse of above theorem need not

ANote A point c in the domain of a function f at

ANote If c is a point of local maxima of f , then f (c) is a local maximum value of

to the right (say − 0.9 etc.) <0

A Note As f is twice differentiable at c, we mean

Example 19 Find local minimum value of the function f

S(x) = x2 + (15 – x)2 = 2x2 – 30x + 225

Hence, the required shortest distance is given by

Example 24 Let AP and BQ be two vertical poles at

Solution Let R be a point on AB such that AR = x m.

2(5)3 − 300(5) − 1000 −2250 −30

it follows that 5 is the minimum value of f ( x ) . Hence, 5 is the minimum

4. Prove that the following functions do not have maxima or minima:

Choose the correct answer in Questions 27 and 29.

29. The maximum value of [ x( x − 1) + 1]3 , 0 ≤ x ≤ 1 is

Solution Let v be the velocity of the car at t seconds.

Solution In Fig 6.21, Let AB be the lamp-post, the

Note that ∆MSN ~ ∆ASB

Example 33 Find intervals in which the function given by

Now f ′(x) = 0 gives x = 1, x = – 2, or x = 3. The

Miscellaneous Exercise on Chapter 6

3. Find the intervals in which the function f given by

(ii) If f ′(x) changes sign from negative to positive as x increases through c,

Example 1 Check the continuity of the function f given by f (x) = 2x + 3 at x = 1.

Thus lim f ( x ) = 5 = f (1)

Thus lim f ( x ) = 0 = f (0)

Similarly, the right hand limit of f at 0 is

Solution The function is defined at x = 0 and its value at x = 0 is 1. When x ≠ 0, the

Since f (c) = k = lim

and continuity of f at b means

Observe that lim− f ( x) and lim+ f ( x) do not make sense. As a consequence

Example 7 Is the function defined by f (x) = | x |, a continuous function?

Since lim f ( x) = f (c) , f is continuous at all negative real numbers.

Since lim f ( x) = f (c) , f is continuous at all positive real numbers. Hence, f

is continuous at all points.

at every point in the domain of f. Thus f is a continuous function.

We take this opportunity to explain the concept of infinity. This we do by analysing

x 1 0.3 0.2 0.1 = 10–1 0.01 = 10–2 0.001 = 10–3 10–n