People’s Democratic Republic of Algeria

Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research

Abou Bekr Belkaid University- Tlemcen-
Faculty of Faculty of Letters and Languages
Department of English

Courses in Psycholinguistics for Master one

students in language sciences

Proposed by
Dr El Ouchdi Ilhem Zoubida

KONOUZ EDITIONS
© Bibliothèque nationale d’Algérie. 2022
ISBN : 000 - 0000 - 000 - 00 - 0
Dépôt légal : 1er Semestre, 2022.
 Contents
Description of the Course
1- Lecture 1 : Introduction to Psycholinguistics
2- Lecture 2: Where does language live????
3- Lecture 3: Aspects of Child Development: Motor, Intellectual,
Emotional and Social
4- Lecture 4: Language and Conception
5- Lecture 5: Language Development
6- Lecture 6: Learning and Socialization
7- Lecture 7: Cognitive Development
8- Lecture 8: Metacognitive Development
9- Lecture 9: Affect in Learning
10- Lecture 10: Bloom’s Taxonomy
11- Lecture 11: Learning through the ZPD
12- Lecture 12: Foreign Language Learning
.
 Description of the Course
Psycholinguistics or the psychology of language is the bridge
between linguistics and psychology. It studies the mental mecha-
nisms that make language acquired, processed, understood and pro-
duced. This course has been adapted to the needs of the master ‘lan-
guage Sciences’ which focuses on the various aspects of the process
of language acquisition and language learning. In fact, psycholin-
guistics completes the master’s objectives and focuses on the human
mental process as an important element in the acquisition vs learning
process. This may be achieved by making learners aware about their
cognitive and metacognitive abilities; the way they are developed
and used. It highlights the steps through which knowledge is ac-
quired and processed in order to be stored.
Language acquisition is described by cognitivists as the greatest
intellectual achievement in the whole life of the human being. It
seems an easy task since when an infant is born; his psychomotor ca-
pacities and linguistic performance develop progressively and spon-
taneously. In this course, students are introduced to major concepts
related to cognitive sciences in order to understand the process of
language acquisition and learning. Because of the specificities of the
course, being scientific and very technical needs the introduction of
psychological, cognitive, medical and mainly neurological concepts,
adding to, neurolinguistics.
As matter of fact, the content of the course has been simplified
and adapted to the master one students who come mainly from lite-
rary streams. Syntheses of all these concepts are introduced progres-
sively to raise the interest of learners in psycholinguistics and open
their perspectives for their future investigations. Indeed, the notions
taught about cognitive sciences, psychology and psycholinguistics
5
make learner able to understand the way their brain vs mind function
when being in a given situation.
To achieve the learning aims, a teaching methodology has been
tailored according to the aforementioned objectives. Students are
guided so as to actively participate in understanding and acquiring
the new content of the course presented trough pictures and power
points’ slides. It focuses mainly on oral explanations and answering
questions.
Psycholinguistics is taught in the first and the second semesters.
once a week for a 3 hours session. It is made of 12 lectures. Evalua-
tion is based on the result obtained in the final exam at the end of
each semester.
The course in question raises the following issues:
- How is language acquired?
- Where does is live?
- How is language acquisition achieved?
- What are the mental processes involved?
- Is intelligence the unique mental capacity we have?
- What is the difference between cognition, intelligence and me-
tacognition?
- In what way do they develop each other?
- How do cognitive and metacognitive processes shape acquisi-
tion?
- How do cognitive and metacognitive processes shape learning?
- What is the role of the social background in the mental develop-
ment of the child?

6
 Lecture one: Introduction to Psycholinguistics
Objectives of the lecture: By the end of the lecture, the students
should be able to:
- To know what is psycholinguistics
- The field of studies of psycholinguistics
1. Definitions
Psycholinguistics is the bridge between Linguistics and psychology
as shown in the following definitions:
• Psycholinguistics is the study of the mental faculties involved in
the perception, production, and acquisition of language.
• “Psycholinguistics is the study of the mental mechanisms that
make it possible for people to use language. It is a scientific
discipline whose goal is a coherent theory of the way in which
language is produced and understood.” (Alan Garnham, Psycho-
linguistics: Central Topics. Psychology Press, 1985)
• Psycholinguists study how words meaning, sentence meaning,
and discourse meaning are computed and represented in the
mind. They study how complex words and sentences are com-
posed in speech and how they are broken down into their consti-
tuents in the acts of listening and reading. In short, psycholin-
guists seek to understand how language is done.
• Psycholinguistics or psychology of language is the study of the
psychological and neurobiological factors that enable humans to
acquire, use, and understand language.

7
 listening and reading. In short, psycholinguists seek to understand how language is done.
• Psycholinguistics or psychology of language is the study of the psychological and
neurobiological factors that enable humans to acquire, use, and understand language.

2. Areas of Interest in Psycholinguistics

2. Areas of Interest in Psycholinguistics
Areas of interest in psycholinguistics

conceptualisation and grammaticalization memory constraints

knowledge representation

3. Branches and Goals of Psycholinguistics 5

• Language Processing
What happens in the human mind when we speak/read/write/
listen?
What are the processes and mechanisms underlying this complex
activity?
• Language Acquisition
How do children learn to speak?
How do they acquire their mother tongue?
• Neurolinguistics
How is language represented in the human brain?
3.1 Language Processing
Two main activities are involved:
• Speech production (what is going on from thought to output, to
the actual production of a sound wave)
• Comprehension (a complementary activity to speech produc-
tion) It is not just perception, it is also how do we interpret what
is being said to us, how do we analyse the linguistic units (words)

8
 It is really exciting to find out about the phases of these activities
that in reality might last for less than a second but are extremely
complex. Perhaps the most complex activity of human cognition!
3.2 Language Acquisition
We’re dealing with children!
Despite their limited mental abilities, they acquire a language
within just a few years of their lives. They’re also confronted with
input that is “not complete” in a sense...? There are three central
issues:
• Acquisition studies: how to study young children, they cannot
answer our questions at this stage!
• Strategies applied by children: i.e. over generalizing morpholo-
gical aspects in what they produce.
• Phases.
3.3. Neurolinguistics
The human brain is made of two lobes: the right and the left. Each
one of them is responsible of particular functions. Medical imagery
has shown that language zones are found in the left hemisphere of
the brain as indicated in the picture bellow:
The following pictures show the various areas of the brain in
charge of language:

9
The picture above shows the two areas responsible of language.
Each one of them has its own characteristics:

10
 The next picture shows the acoustic and neurological relation
between the speaker and the listener. Words go from the mouth of
the speaker through air- waves to the ears of the listener where they
are perceived thanks to the drums and transformed to an electric si-
gnal by the auditory cortex to reach the Wernick area. At this area of
the brain called the ‘home of meanings’, the listener understands the
message and ideas where they are given shapes through meanings
and concepts. Everything goes to the Broca area where the sentence
structure is determined and the articulators are activated to speak.

11
12
Lecture 2 Where does language live????
Objectives of the lecture: By the end of the lecture, the students
should be able to:
- To know the various theories about language acquisition
- To understand the way language function in relation to the
social background, genes, intelligence
1. Noam Chomsky
Cognitive and neurosciences have witnessed a very wide range of
interest. In order to understand the way communication takes place
and language functions, scholars started using the medical imagery.
This last is supposed to shed more light on language from all pers-
pectives.

…believes the structure of language is determined by an innate,

autonomous formal system of rules. This formal system of rules,
called universal grammar (UG), is inherent within the human brain
at birth and is largely devoid of any association with meaning. This

13
UG is also independent of other human cognitive faculties, i.e.,
it operates on its own within the brain, independent of any other
non-linguistic cognitive processes. (JohnQPublik, 2007: cognitive_
linguistics.txt)
• The cognitivists believe that the grammatical structures of lan-
guage are directly associated with the way people conceptua-
lize (i.e., think about and understand) any given situation in the
world. Syntax, morphology, even phonology are conceptual in
nature, i.e., they are merely input and output of those cogni-
tive processes within the human mind that govern speaking and
understanding. This idea is generally encapsulated in a phrase
coined by Ronald Langacker and often repeated by cognitive
linguists: grammar is conceptualization. (JohnQPublik, 2007:
cognitive_linguistics.txt)
saying that children in general are “too good” at learning lan-
guage so quickly, i.e., they don’t get exposed to a sufficiently large
corpus of language stimuli/data to work with to figure out so quickly
how their native language works, therefore they must have an innate
faculty (the UG) to subconsciously tell them about things like syntac-
tic relations (e.g., case morphology), tenses, aspect, clause structure,
grammatical transformations such as active-into-passive voice, etc.
(JohnQPublik, 2007: cognitive_linguistics.txt)
• Language acquisition is a tightly constrained process that is bio-
logically predisposed to follow certain paths; it is, in fact, even
more constrained than was previously thought.
• Basic knowledge of language is acquired very early, in the first
two years of life, much of it probably before the emergence of
production.

14
• Much acquisition is perceptual, and not dependent on direct ne-
gative evidence.
2. Abdou Elimam
• Language acquisition is a subconscious process. It goes, accor-
ding to Elimam (2006), through two main steps that of coding
and decoding data. That is to say, the input is decoded in what he
named “the black box” in order to be understood and an output
is shaped as a response of the stimulus. This process is clearly
demonstrated in this figure elaborated by (Elimam, 2006: 29):
INPUT Black Box OUTPUT
Decoding
• Elimam believed that the Black Box is an invisible behaviour
that takes place in our brain and allows both of the speaker and
the listener to understand and produce language for the linguistic
heritage is stored there. Adding to this, he declared that around
18 months the child is largely able to convey a message, i.e. to
communicate even though he does master the syntax used by
adults in their sentences. In fact, his utterances are supported by
gestures and face expressions used to clarify more the message
that makes Elimam concluding that the child uses both a visible
and an invisible grammar at the same time. These two forms are
also referred to as internal and external grammar.
• Elimam considered that the production of a meaning is at first
shaped in a process of internal language and then given an ac-
cepted morpho-syntactic form understood by the community
he lives in. Internal grammar is part of the black box and is
responsible for materializing language before its production.
Meanwhile the external grammar shapes the speech in its form

15
 community he lives in. Internal grammar is part of the black box and is responsible for
materializing language before its production. Meanwhile the external grammar shapes the
speech in its form by using different supports like gestures, sounds, symbols, pitch, and
by using different supports like gestures, sounds, symbols, pitch,
intonation as (Elimam, 2006: 32) shown below
and intonation as (Elimam, 2006: 32) shown below

imput Internal
Grammar

External output
Grammar
3. Steven Pinker
• 3. Before
Steven Pinker
language production, many processes take place qui-
ckly and unconsciously.
• Before language production,When describing
many processes this phenomenon,
take place Pinker
quickly and unconsciously.
When describing this phenomenon, Pinker (1996) named
(1996) named the ‘mentalese’, he declared that the mental imagethe ‘mentalese’, he declared
in
that the mental image in ones’ mind is shaped in words when
ones’ mind is shaped in words when speaking as it is stated bellow: speaking as it is stated
bellow:
ManyManycontemporary novelists,
contemporary novelists, like like Joan report
Joan Didon, Didon, that report
their actsthat their
of creation
begin not with
acts of creation beginany not
notionwith
of a character or a plot
any notion ofbuta with vivid mental
character or apictures
plot
that dictate their choice of words…… People do not think in English or Chinese
but with orvivid
Apache;mental pictures
they think thatof dictate
in language their
thought. This choice
language of words…
of thought probably
looks a bit like all these languages; presumably it has symbols for concepts, and
People doarrangements
not thinkof in English or Chinese or Apache;
symbols that correspond to who did what to whom,…
they think in
language of thought. This language of(Pinker, thought
1996: probably
70-81) looks a bit
like all these
• Pinker languages;
over-generalised presumably
the mental it has
language. (Pinker, 1996:symbols
82) definedfor concepts,
the mentalese as
and“knowing
arrangements of symbols that correspond to who did
a language is knowing how to translate mentalese into strings of words and what to
whom,… (Pinker, 1996: 70-81)
14

• Pinker over-generalised the mental language. (Pinker, 1996: 82)

defined the mentalese as “knowing a language is knowing how
to translate mentalese into strings of words and vice versa”. As
an illustration, if babies have no mentalese to translate to and
from English, it would neither possible to learn English nor to
produce it. In order to give more details about this capacity that
determines our language understanding and production, (Pinker,
16
 1996: 82) proposed the following explanations:
1. Since mental life goes on independently of particular lan-
guages, concepts of freedom and equality will be thinkable
even if they are nameless.
2. Since there are far more concepts than there are words, and
listeners must always charitably fill what the speaker leaves
unsaid, existing words will quickly gain new senses, perhaps
even regain their original senses.
3. Since children are not content to reproduce any old input from
adults but create a complex grammar that can go beyond it.
….we can estimate that in average six year old commands about
13,000 words….. The brain seems to be reserving an especially ca-
pacious storage space and especially rigid transcribing mechanism
for the mental dictionary. Indeed, naturalistic studies by the psy-
chologist Susan Carely have shown that if you casually slip a new
colour word like ‘olive’ into a conversation with three year old, the
child will probably remember something about it five weeks later.
(Pinker, 1996: 151)
• In the light of all arguments given above, it is clear that men-
talese is not a language made of words and grammar; it is a pure
thinking that is given a shape through words stored in the brain.
In addition to this, the combination of these words is achieved
thanks to the grammar previously acquired from the social back-
ground and used to fit an appropriate social behaviour.
4. Genetic Endowment
In order to understand the way genes influence language acquisi-
tion, experiments were undertaken on chimpanzees since they share
98% of their genes with man. They studied the behaviour of two animals

17
and analysed the extent of their linguistic performance through years.
4.1 Washoe
The first attempt to teach non verbal coding of a natural language
was undertaken by Gardner and Gardner (1969). The two scientists
brought up a one year old female chimpanzee Washoe in an Ameri-
can Sign Language speakers community. This signing system relies
mainly on word sign rather than a sign alphabet. Washoe was treated
like a child and was surrounded by human being who used signs to
communicate with each other and with the animal as it is summa-
rized (Jay, 2002: 431) when quoting the Gardeners:
Washoe has been exposed to a wide variety of activities and ob-
jects together with their appropriate signs, in the hope that she would
come to associate the signs with their referents and later make the
signs herself. (Gardner et al, 1969:667)
By the age of three, Washoe was in complete control of 35 signs.
She was not only able to understand them but also to use them spon-
taneously in appropriate circumstances. Washoe used the word
‘flower’ to refer to various kinds of flowers in real life situation as
well as in a picture. It was noticed too that by the age of two years
and half, the animal’s language was enough developed since it be-
came more than able to use separate words when communicating
through sign sequences. For instance “please give food” or “hurry
open”. This does not mean that it has acquired the capacity of ma-
king sentences that are syntactically and semantically correct
4.2 Sara
Presmark (1983) used another method in teaching language to
a female chimpanzee named Sara, as described in Jay (2002), and
opposed the way followed by the Gardner’s. Presmark’s used the

18
behaviourist (11) approach based on the stimulus, response, reinfor-
cement when teaching Sara language.
After a period of time, it was noticed that the animal became able
to use language but, it was impossible to state that Sara had the ca-
pacity to use syntax the way human beings do. It was able to distin-
guish in use between: “Randy gives Sara an apple” and “Sara gives
Randy an apple” and was even able to substitute apple to banana.
Yet, her linguistic use remained very limited.
Lenneberg et al, (1964) examined 84 mongoloids and feeble
minded children and tried to compare their language development to
that of normal children. It was noticed that the results of the sentence
test repetition of (24-30) months of normal children was similar to
that of the mongoloids of the same age. That is to say, the sort of
correlation between motor and linguistic development is almost the
same for both normal children and mongoloids and the difference
between their linguistic performances were noticed at a more ad-
vanced age.
4.3 Mongoloids
Adding to this others studies concerned people genetically diffe-
rent like Mongoloids who have 47 chromosomes as compared to
16 for man. Lenneberg et al, (1964) examined 84 mongoloids and
feeble minded children and tried to compare their language deve-
lopment to that of normal children. It was noticed that the results
of the sentence test repetition of (24-30) months of normal children
was similar to that of the mongoloids of the same age. That is to say,
the sort of correlation between motor and linguistic development is
almost the same for both normal children and mongoloids and the
difference between their linguistic performances were noticed at a
more advanced age.
19
Lecture 3 Aspects of Child Development:
Motor, Intellectual, Emotional and Social
Objectives of the lecture: By the end of the lecture, the students
should be able to:
- Know the stages of the intellectual development
- Know the role of emotional development
1. Perception
Bruner divided the development of thought into two main pe-
riods; the former is from 0 to 2 named the period of perception whe-
reas the latter starts at 2 and named the period of conception. Bruner
considered that during the first period, the child identifies and disco-
vers the world he lives in through his five senses and added that it is
the sensory motor development phase. (Britton, 1970: 192)believes
that “Bruner makes a further distinction within this sensori-motor
period since he sees it as the establishment of two systems of repre-
sentation: the first, the action-cum-perception, which he calls “er-
ractive system” and then the action –free-perception, which he calls
“the iconic system”.
Bruner makes a further distinction within this sensori-motor pe-
riod since he sees it as the establishment of two systems of represen-
tation: the first, the action-cum-perception, which he calls “erractive
system” and then the action –free-perception, which he calls “the
iconic system”. A child learns to speak at about two years of age, but
it is many years before his use of language enables him to exploit to
the full the peculiar virtues of the linguistic mode of representation.
His first uses of speech serve to regulate, organize, and extend his
representation made in the erractive and iconic modes.
(Britton, 1970: 192-3)

20
2. Intellectual Development
Research on the intellectual development of the child highlights
the fact that at each stage of development the child has a characteris-
tic way of viewing the world and explaining it to himself. Age is one
of representing the structure of that subject in terms of the child’s
way of viewing things. The task can be thought of as one of transla-
tion. The general hypothesis that has just been stated is premised on
the considered judgment that any idea can be represented honestly
and usefully in the thought forms of children of school age, and that
these first representations can later be made more powerful and pre-
cise the more easily by virtue of this early learning.
To illustrate and support this view, we present here a somewhat
detailed picture of the course of intellectual development, along with
some suggestions about teaching at different stages of it. Piaget and
others suggests that, roughly speaking, one may distinguish three
stages in the intellectual development of the child
2.1 The First Stage
It characterizes principally of the pre-school child. In this stage,
which ends (at least for Swiss school children) around the fifth or
sixth year, the child’s mental work consists principally in establi-
shing relationships between experience and action; his concern is
with manipulating the world through action.
This stage corresponds roughly to the period from the first deve-
lopment of language to the point at which the child learns to mani-
pulate symbols. In this so-called preoperational stage, the principal
symbolic achievement is that the child learns how to represent the
external world through symbols established by simple generaliza-
tion; things are represented as equivalent in terms of sharing some
common property . But the child’s symbolic world does not make
21
a clear separation between internal motives and feelings on the one
hand and external reality on the other.
The stars, like himself, have to go to bed. The child is little able to
separate his own goals from the means for achieving them, and when
he has to make corrections in his activity after unsuccessful attempts
at manipulating reality, he does so by what are called intuitive re-
gulations rather than by symbolic operations, the former being of a
crude trial-and-error nature rather than the result of taking thought.
2.2 The Second Stage
At this level of development-and now the child is in school-is
called the stage of concrete operations .This stage is operational in
contrast to the preceding stage, which is merely active….Roughly,
an operation is a means of getting data about the real world into the
mind and there transforming them so that they can be organized and
used selectively in the solution of problems.
Indeed, Bruner assumes that a child is presented with a pinball
machine which bounces a ball off a wall at an angle. Let us find out
what he appreciates about the relation between the angle of inci-
dence and the angle of reflection. The young child sees no problem:
for him, the ball travels in an arc, touching the wall on the way. The
somewhat older child, say age ten, sees the two angles as roughly
related -as one changes so does the other. The still older child begins
to grasp that there is a fixed relation between the two, and usually
says it is a right angle . Finally, the thirteen- or fourteen-year-old,
often by pointing the ejector directly at the wall and seeing the ball
come back at the ejector, gets the idea that the two angles are equal.
Each way of looking at the phenomenon represents the result of an
operation in this sense, and the child’s thinking is constrained by his
way of pulling his observations together.
22
 An operation differs from simple action or goal directed behavior
in that it is internalized and reversible. “Internalized” means that the
child does not have to go about his problem-solving any longer by
overt trial and error, but can actually carry out trial and error in his
head. Reversibility is present because operations are seen as charac-
terized where appropriate by what is called “complete compensa-
tion»; that is to say, an operation can be compensated for by an in-
verse operation. If marbles, for example, are divided into subgroups,
the child can grasp intuitively that the original collection of marbles
can be restored by being added back together again. The child tips a
balance scale too far with a weight and then searches systematically
for a lighter weight or for something with which to get the scale re-
balanced. He may carry reversibility too far by assuming that a piece
of paper, once burned, can also be restored.
2.3 The Third Stage
Somewhere between ten and fourteen years of age the child
passes into a third stage, which is called the stage of “formal ope-
rations” by the Geneva school. Now the child’s intellectual activity
seems to be based upon an ability to operate on hypothetical propo-
sitions rather than being constrained to what he has experienced or
what is before him. The child can now think of possible variables
and even deduce potential relationships that can later be verified by
experiment or observation. Intellectual operations now appear to be
predicated upon the same kinds of logical operations that are the
stock in trade of the logician, the scientist, or the abstract thinker. It
is at this point that the child is able to give formal or axiomatic ex-
pression to the concrete ideas that before guided his problem-solving
but could not be described or formally understood.
What is most important for teaching basic concepts is that the

23
child be helped to pass progressively from concrete thinking to the
utilization of more conceptually adequate modes of thought. But it
is futile to attempt this by presenting formal explanations based on
a logic that is distant from the child’s manner of thinking and ste-
rile in its implications for him. Much teaching in mathematics is of
this sort. The child learns not to understand mathematical order but
rather to apply certain devices or recipes without understanding their
significance and connectedness. They are not translated into his way
of thinking. Given this inappropriate start, he is easily led to believe
that the important thing is for him to be “accurate”-though accuracy
has less to do with mathematics than with computation.
A child often focuses on only one aspect of a phenomenon at a
time, and this interferes with his understanding. We can set up little
teaching experiments in such a way that he is forced to pay attention
to other aspects. Thus, children up to about age seven estimate the
speed of two automobiles by assuming that the one that gets there
first is the faster, or that if one passes the other it is faster. 43 (in
order to avoid such errors it is important to use toy cars and explain
through examples).
One wonders in the light of all this whether it –might not be in-
teresting to devote the first two years of school to a series of exer-
cises in manipulating, classifying, and ordering objects in ways that
highlight basic operations of logical addition, multiplication, inclu-
sion, serial ordering, and the like . For surely these logical operations
are the basis of more specific operations and concepts of all mathe-
matics and science….building up in the child the kind of intuitive
and more inductive understanding that could be given embodiment
later in formal courses in mathematics and science.

24
Lecture 4 Language and Conception
Objectives of the lecture: By the end of the lecture, the students
should be able to know:
- What is a concept?
- The role of language in developing concepts
- Conceptualization as a process
1. Definition
• The “word” is a means of communication that plays a great role
in the elaboration of any concept. However, the “word” is a
group of sounds that are combined together and carry a meaning
understood in certain contexts that lead to the development of
a concept. Grammar is conceptualization …., the core area of
study to date within the field of cognitive linguistics is semantics
and morpho-semantics and the way these two components of
language determine syntax (the way words are put together to
create grammatically acceptable phrases and sentences).
• (Jackendoff, 1992:54) believes that “the only responsible way
anyone has been able to conceive of a word meaning within a
cognitive theory is in terms of states of a combinational sys-
tem, instantiated either in a system of symbols, or in a system
of neurones, or in a system of neuronesque elements such as
a connective network. Furthermore, the combination of word
meanings into phrase and sentence meanings has to be governed
by a combinational system that some way more or less parallels
the combinational properties of syntax in which the phrases and
sentences are expressed.”

25
• (Jackendoff, 1992:55) declares “conceptual structures of course
have to be linked by principled set of correspondence rules to
the mental representations in which the meanings of linguis-
tic expressions must be touched internally. Finally, conceptual
structures have to be linked by a different set of correspondence
rules to the representation for perception, and action, so that
perceptual experience can be encoded in a form suitable for lin-
guistic expression. I should also point that a combinational form
like conceptual structure is necessary even for non linguistic co-
gnition.”
• (JohnQPublik, 2007: cognitive_linguistics.txt) adds “cogniti-
vists believe that the grammatical structures of language are
directly associated with the way people conceptualize (i.e., think
about and understand) any given situation in the world. Syntax,
morphology, even phonology are conceptual in nature, i.e., they
are merely input and output of those cognitive processes within
the human mind that govern speaking and understanding. This
idea is generally encapsulated in a phrase coined by Ronald
Langacker and often repeated by cognitive linguists: grammar
is conceptualization.”
2. The Linguistic Form
• Thanks to the work of (Hall, 2002:57) and his followers, “it has
been shown that children acquire both the forms and meanings
of their linguistic resources from repeated experiences in re-
gularly occurring communicative activities with their primary
caregivers. In their joint in interactions, the children are provi-
ded with a substantial amount of input in which the care givers
make silent the more important cues to the children. Children’s
attention is drawn to these cues through socio pragmatic actions

26
 including non verbal cue such as gazing gestures, and verbal
cues such as cue repetition and tone and pitch changes. They are
also provided with verbal instructions that direct them to per-
ceive or notice these cues and make connections between them
and their contexts.”
• Moreover, according to (Brown, 2003:248) “Correct speech
means the correct pronunciation. It means the properly selective
use of many full units. One cannot speak language until one has
formed the governing non linguistic concepts. First language
learning, then, is more than an acquisition of a motor skill. It
is a process of cognitive socialization…Cognitive socialization
means the taking on of culture. Because speech is so important
in the process we are prepared to find some intimate relation
between the structure of language and the structure of non lin-
guistic culture.”
• Bruner (1985) also focussed on this phenomenon that cannot be
isolated since all these processes converge to establish intellec-
tual and social capacities. He considered that it was not enough
to have capacities it is also necessary to know how the child is
aided in expressing himself in the medium of culture. (Bruner,
1985:23-4) stated that “the two questions of course are insepa-
rable signs human intellectual capacities necessarily involved
to fit man for using the very prothetic device that a culture deve-
lops and accumulate for the enablement of its members”.
• Bruner (2004) argued that after one year and half of life the
child is very involved in the social life and focuses mainly on
communication and agreed with (Ellis, 1975: 318) when using
the quotation of (Bernstein, 1961:322-3) who considers “Diffe-
rent social structures will emphasize or stress different aspect
of language potential and this in turn will create for the indivi-

27
 dual particular dimension of relevance. As the child learns his
speech, so he will learn his social structure, and the latter will
become the sub-stream of his innermost experience through the
effect of language processing.”
3. The Impact of the Social Background
• According to Mallet et al, (2003), the family is the main ele-
ment that shapes the psychological development of the child and
any troubles at the school age is always linked to home and the
socio- affective development as declared by (Jay, 2002:398) in
what follows: “A main concern … is the emotional and beha-
vioural underpinning of language….speech is more than saying
words, it expresses and represents emotional states, and it ma-
nipulates listeners. Emotional aspects of speech are represented
as psychological correlates meaning. Activating word’s mea-
ning activates its behavioural and emotional components.”
• Meanwhile, according to the works of Lautrey (1980), as descri-
bed in Mallet et al, (2007) children who belong to families that
uses flexible rule adapted to the context, have a more and more
accelerated cognitive development as compared to the rigid or
neglectful systems. That is to say the emotional aspect plays a
great role for the future life of the child. In order to understand
the way the emotional aspect develops through language, (Jay,
2002: 399) put that this process moves through three main steps.
a) Embodiment: developmentally pre-linguistic children cannot
represent the world abstractly; they rely on gestual behaviour
representations. Lexical development allows the child to store
experiences in the world in the form of verbal symbols. From
childhood through adulthood, embodiment is ongoing as new
learning creates memories of experience on daily basis.

28
b) Emergence: view of language development (Mac wHinney,
1999). According to the emergence view of language, the social
and physical interactions generate the comprehension and the
creation of speech related to the objects and actions as well as
social roles. That is to say, the child produces his own language
since its structures emerge and are embodied through words in
different kinds of communication.
c) Perspective taking: the listeners understand the sentence taking
the speaker’s perspective of the scene to make sense of what
is happening in the utterance. Language comprehension and
production are embodied processes which purpose is to convey
embodied meaning. Whereas the extant to which a sentence is
understood is a function of our ability to assume a perspective
from which the action is achieved.
In short, as argued in, emotional aspects of sentence production,
such as stress, intensity, intonation and rhythm are not considered
part of the paradigm. These feature express emotions without being
verbally coded. Linguists considered suprasegmental aspects of
speaking as the ‘music’ that comes without words. Following on this
figure, the music, the stress, the rhythm, the pitch and the loudness
of language are all embodied representations that create emotional
meaning. These aspects of the message, when we comprehend what
people say, we comprehend how they say it.
(Jay, 2002: 408)

29
Lecture 5 Language Development
Objectives of the lecture: By the end of the lecture, the students
should be able to know:
- What is thinking?
- How thinking processes information.
- How is language processed?
1. Definition of Thinking
The definition of thinking: The mind is the idea while thinking
processes of the brain involved in processing information such as
when we form concepts, engage in problem solving, to reason and
make decisions. Some limit the definition of thinking is as follows:
• Thinking is the activity of human reason as a process of stren-
gthening the relationship between stimulus and response.
• Thinking is a reasonable working attitude of various views with
the knowledge that has been stored in the mind long before the
emergence of new knowledge.
• Thinking can be interpreted to remember something, and ques-
tioned whether there is a relationship between what is intended.
• Thinking in exploring substantive Paing psychic awareness of
human nature.
• Thinking is processing information mentally or cognitively by
rearranging the information from the environment and the sym-
bols are stored in the memory of his past.
• Thinking is a symbolic representation of some event train of
ideas in a precise and careful that began with the problem.
• Thinking is a mental process mental representations newly for-
med through the transformation of information by interaction
attributes such as the assessment of mental abstraction, logic,
imagination and problem-solving.

30
• The mind we have is a wonderful thing. You may have heard it
is like a computer. You may have also heard that we use only a
portion of its capability. We can improve our thinking skills by
understanding specific types of thinking, how they work, and
practicing to improve our thinking abilities. If we become more
conscious about those skills, we become better as a person, fa-
mily member, and worker[1)
2. Development of Thinking
2. Development of Thinking
Thinking develops in a very coherent process as shown in the
diagram bellow:
Thinking develops in a very coherent process as shown in the diagram bellow:

Development of thinking

Perception (0-2) conception starts at 2

Sensory Motor Autistic (2-6) Scientific (6-12) Abstract (12...)

Development

Erractive system Iconic system

According to Piaget there is no conception without language

2.1 The first Stage

In 2.1this
Thestage,
first Stage
which ends (at least for Swiss school children)
aroundIn the fifth or sixth year, the child’s mental work consists prin-
this stage, which ends (at least for Swiss school children) around the fifth or sixth
cipally in establishing relationships between experience and action;
year, the child's mental work consists principally in establishing relationships between
his concern is with manipulating the world through action. This
experience and action; his concern is with manipulating the world through action. This stage
stage corresponds roughly to the period from the first development
corresponds roughly to the period from the first development of language to the point at
which the child learns to manipulate symbols. In this so-called preoperational stage, the
[1) http://www.cls.utk.edu/pdf/ls/Week3_Lesson18.pdf
principal symbolic achievement is that the child learns how to represent the external world
31
through symbols established by simple generalization; things are represented as equivalent in
terms of sharing some common property. But the child's symbolic world does not make a
of language to the point at which the child learns to manipulate sym-
bols. In this so-called preoperational stage, the principal symbolic
achievement is that the child learns how to represent the external
world through symbols established by simple generalization; things
are represented as equivalent in terms of sharing some common pro-
perty. But the child’s symbolic world does not make a clear sepa-
ration between internal motives and feelings on the one hand and
external reality on the other.
The stars, like himself, have to go to bed. The child is little able to
separate his own goals from the means for achieving them, and when
he has to make corrections in his activity after unsuccessful attempts
at manipulating reality, he does so by what are called intuitive re-
gulations rather than by symbolic operations, the former being of a
crude trial-and-error nature rather than the result of taking thought.
2.2 The Second Stage
At this level of development, the child is in school-is called the
stage of concrete operations .This stage is operational in contrast to
the preceding stage, which is merely active….Roughly, an operation
is a means of getting data about the real world into the mind and
there transforming them so that they can be organized and used se-
lectively in the solution of problems
Any operation differs from simple action or goal directed beha-
viour in that it is internalized and reversible. “Internalized” means
that the child does not have to go about his problem-solving any
longer by overt trial and error, but can actually carry out trial and
error in his head. Reversibility is present because operations are
seen as characterized where appropriate by what is called “complete
compensation»; that is to say, an operation can be compensated for
by an inverse operation. If marbles, for example, are divided into
32
subgroups, the child can grasp intuitively that the original collection
of marbles can be restored by being added back together again. The
child tips a balance scale too far with a weight and then searches sys-
tematically for a lighter weight or for something with which to get
the scale rebalanced. He may carry reversibility too far by assuming
that a piece of paper, once burned, can also be restored.
2.3 The Third Stage
Somewhere between ten and fourteen years of age the child
passes into a third stage, which is called the stage of “formal ope-
rations” by the Geneva school. Now the child’s intellectual activity
seems to be based upon an ability to operate on hypothetical propo-
sitions rather than being constrained to what he has experienced or
what is before him. The child can now think of possible variables
and even deduce potential relationships that can later be verified by
experiment or observation. Intellectual operations now appear to be
predicated upon the same kinds of logical operations that are the
stock in trade of the logician, the scientist, or the abstract thinker. It
is at this point that the child is able to give formal or axiomatic ex-
pression to the concrete ideas that before guided his problem-solving
but could not be described or formally understood.
What is most important for teaching basic concepts is that the
child be helped to pass progressively from concrete thinking to the
utilization of more conceptually adequate modes of thought. But it
is futile to attempt this by presenting formal explanations based on
a logic that is distant from the child’s manner of thinking and ste-
rile in its implications for him. Much teaching in mathematics is of
this sort. The child learns not to understand mathematical order but
rather to apply certain devices or recipes without understanding their
significance and connectedness. They are not translated into his way

33
of thinking. Given this inappropriate start, he is easily led to believe
that the important thing is for him to be “accurate”-though accuracy
has less to do with mathematics than with computation.
One wonders in the light of all this whether it –might not be in-
teresting to devote the first two years of school to a series of exer-
cises in manipulating, classifying, and ordering objects in ways that
highlight basic operations of logical addition, multiplication, inclu-
sion, serial ordering, and the like . For surely these logical operations
are the basis of more specific operations and concepts of all mathe-
matics and science….building up in the child the kind of intuitive
and more inductive understanding that could be given embodiment
later in formal courses in mathematics and science.
The mother tongue shapes the cognitive organization and per-
ception by making children filtering incoming information, leading
children to, pay more or less attention to different aspects of reality,
which therefore become more or less silent and available in every
day functioning. (Hickmann, 2001: 113)
Before the frontal lobe fully develops, children use more primi-
tive brain functioning. Before adolescence, the limbic system, or the
emotional brain, uses instinctual fight or flight mechanisms to make
decisions instead of higher-order cognition. The frontal lobe, which
controls higher-order functions such as planning, thinking ahead,
problem solving, impulse control, mood regulation, and reasoning,
is not fully developed until the early twenties.
(Scott and Steinberg, 2008)

34
 3. Piaget vs Vygotsky
Piaget

Egocentric Speech

Monologue

Socialized Speech

Piaget regards the gradual disappearance of the running commentary as a gradual

consequence of a child’s involved ability to internalize his listener, to escape from
the limitation of his own point of view; egocentric speech , is according to Piaget,
gradually replaced by a more natural form, socialized speech.
(Britton, 1970:59)

Vygotsky

Socialized Speech

Monologue Inner Speech

(thinking in pure meaning)

Socialized Speech

According to Vygotsky, the child is born in a micro society. Thus,

According
the infantto is
Vygotsky, the childcontact
in everyday is born with
in a micro society. Thus,
a socialized the infant
speech that isheinac-
everydayquires.
contact Although,
with a socialized
he develops the monologue, he still producesthethis
speech that he acquires. Although, he develops
monologue, he still produces this socialized speech that is adapted through time and age. The
socialized speech that is adapted through time and age. The more the
more the child grows up the more he internalizes the monologue that becomes ‘inner speech’
child grows up the more he internalizes the monologue that becomes
which is thinking in pure meaning to which a form is given in relation to the context of its
‘inner speech’ which is thinking in pure meaning to which a form is
use.
given in relation to the context of its use.
35
 Piaget Vygotsky

Socialized Speech involves the egocentric

speech

4. Imitation
4. Imitation When speaking to a child adults modify their language and adapt
it to him that is called ‘motherese’. (Pinker, 2005: 8) defined mothe-
When speaking to a child adults modify their language and adapt it to him that is
rese as the speech to the child that is “slower, shorter, in the same
d ‘motherese’. (Pinker, 2005: 8) defined motherese as the speech to the child that is
ways (but not all) simpler, higher-pitched in content to the present si-
wer, shorter, in the same ways (but not all) simpler, higher-pitched in content to the
tuation, compared to speech among adults”. The motherse may seem
ent situation,
easycompared to speech
to understand andamong
easy atadults”. Theglance,
the first motherse may itseem
in fact, easydata
is this to
rstand and that
easymakes
at the the
firstlinguistic
glance, inbackground
fact, it is this datachild.
of the that Meanwhile,
makes the linguistic
Piaget
considered
ground of the that when
child. Meanwhile, speaking
Piaget to that
considered children adults imitate
when speaking them,
to children as
adults
te them, asdescribed by Britton
described by Britton(1970),
(1970),he he
namesnames this process
this process ‘expansion’
‘expansion’ as
as defined
ws:
defined follows:
The mother’s utterance is an imitation of the child’s in the ob-
The mother’s utterance
vious issense.
an imitation
What sheof says
the child’s
is basedin closely
the obvious
on what sense.
the What
child
she says is based closely on what
said…..she the child uses
consistently said…..she consistently
short and uses short
simple sentences, and
unlike
simple sentences, unlike conversational
conversational style ofstyle of adults.
adults. LanguageLanguage
is in factis rather
in factlike
rather
the
like the speech of child, but a child a little more grown up in speech.
speech of child, but a child a little more grown up in speech.
(Britton, 1970: 45)
(Britton, 1970: 45)
The child does not imitate his parents’ speech but the way his parents use language
The child does not imitate his parents’ speech but the way his
petence vs performance). On the other hand, the child imitates his parents’ speech too.
parents use language (competence vs performance). On the other
phenomenon is named
hand, ‘reduction’
the child imitatesby his
Piaget and defined
parents’ speech as atoo.
linguistic improvisation
This phenomenon
makes the child imitate‘reduction’
is named not what is said around him
by Piaget andbut the way
defined asitaislinguistic
said. Adding to this,
improvi-
the ability to shorten
sation thatsentences
makes by theusing
childonly key words
imitate in order
not what to convey
is said arounda message.
him but
theare
nstance, these way it is said.of Adding
recordings to and
a18months this,27days
it is the
girlability
made by to Brown
shortenandsentences
Bellugui
by using only key words
4) as referred to in (Britton, 1970:43): in order to convey a message. For instance,

Mother’s utterance 36 utterance

Child’s
these are recordings of a18months and 27days girl made by Brown
and Bellugui (1964) as referred to in (Britton, 1970:43):
Mother’s utterance Child’s utterance
“Baby is in the high chair” “Baby high chair”
“Eve is having lunch” “Eve lunch”
“He sat on the wall” “Sat wall”

37
Lecture 6 Learning and Socialization
Objectives of the lecture: By the end of the lecture, the students
should be able to know:
- The social role of language
- The socialization process
- The relation between socialization and learning
1. Definition
Socialization is defined as:
...the process whereby a child acquires a specific cultural iden-
tity... socialization refers to the process whereby the biological is
transformed into a specific cultural being... the process of sociali-
zation is a complex process of control, whereby a particular moral,
cognitive and affective awareness is evoked in the child and given a
specific form and content.(Bernstein, 1970:162)
The sociologist Durkheim (2006) believed that Man is made of
two main elements totally different but deeply tied. The former, na-
med the individual being, shaped by all the mental states linked with
the events of one’s personal life. Whereas, the latter holds a system
of ideas, feelings and habits that generates our religious and mo-
ral beliefs as well as traditions, culture and professional behaviour
that made our social being. As a consequence, ones’ personality is
determined by these two parameters and the aim of education is to
develop them in order to make a normal human being. Durkheim
added that the social being is not determined by a biological or gene-
tic heritage but is elaborated by the background he lives in, starting
from the close family and step by step reaches the whole society.
Yet, he considered school as the most important period of this whole
process.

38
2. Language Learning
In their classrooms, teachers and students together create commu-
nities based on shared goals, shared resources and shared patterns and
norms for participating as legitimate members of the communities.
In their interactions with each other, teachers and students assume
particular identities and roles, and together they develop understan-
dings of what constitutes not only the substance of what is to be
learned, but also the very process of learning itself. (Hall, 2002: 85)
Moreover, (Hall, 2002: 71) considered that the leaning process
is viewed as a purely cognitive process achieved through internal
mechanisms and innate capacities, yet “learner’s experiences in their
socio cultural worlds were not considered significant to the process”
” and any problem in the learning process is always linked to a defi-
ciency of the cognitive system.
Children whose home activities reflect the dominant practices of
school are likely to have more opportunities for success since they
only need to build on and extend what they have learned at home. On
the other hand, children whose home practices differ from those of
their school are likely to have more difficulty since they will need to
add additional repertoires of learning practices to those they already
know. (Hall, 2002:74
Hall (2002:73-4) described Heath (1983)’s comparative study
between Trackton’s rural black community and Roadville’s white
one and an urban middle-class black and white families. The results
show that the socialization of each sample differs from the other one.
In fact, Trackton’s children tend to exaggerate when telling stories
whereas Roadville’s ones were asked to stick to fact and not lie. It
was also noticed that children from both rural communities had dif-
ficulty in succeeding academically than the urban ones whose home
39
practice is closer to that of school that is to say that the social back-
ground paves the way to the learning process.
3. Motivation
If learning is being driven by feelings of desire to learn or enjoy-
ment of the process of learning, then there must be some sense of
reflection on oneself; and knowledge about oneself as a learner. This
is the metacognitive knowledge aspect of developing metacognition.
In addition, if enjoyment and excitement is being felt from the pro-
cess of learning then there is more likelihood that the learner will be
aware of or be actively seeking out different ways of learning. So
children, who have a sense of excitement about learning, as most do
in the early years, are already primed for developing metacognition.
(larkin, 2010: 28)
His attitude is a decisive element in his success or failure, the
more he is involved the more he is active and eager to know as des-
cribed by Larkin (2010) who considered that adding to the intrinsic
motivation, like love to a parent he wanted to imitate, develops a
strong willingness that urges the child to study and reach his goals.
Meanwhile, the external motivation is shaped by a present or a trip at
the end of the year, the interest of the child in learning is raised when
a target is clearly determined. Accordingly, Larkin added that there
are three other kinds that shaped the behaviour of the child.
3.1 Learned Helplessness Motivation
This style of motivation is said to be independent of ability, so
that children may be perfectly able in a subject but their own per-
ception of their ability and their view of ability as fixed, negatively
impacts on their performance. This can lead to a cycle of failure
followed by avoidance of future challenges and more failure, so that

40
a self concept of “I’m no good at X” is created and perpetuated.
(Larkin, 2010: 27)
Unfortunately, this kind of motivation has a negative impact on
the child who starts to give up easily each time he is confronted to
an obstacle or to fulfill only the part of the task he is able to achieve
without any attempt to solve the rest of the problem. Moreover, it
also has a negative impact on the school results and diminishes the
self-esteem that entails a week personality and a feeling of inability
that develops through time. On the other hand, as described in Lar-
kin, Covington (1984) described another kind of motivation totally
different from the first.
3.2 Self-worth Motivation
This is a motivational style where the child does all his best to
succeed in solving problems without giving importance to the de-
gree of difficulty as shown in the following definition:
Children demonstrating this motivational style are often
concerned with their success on a task in terms of their own self es-
teem rather than with successful completion of the task itself. These
children are likely to ascribe to a fixed view of ability and believe
that if they do badly on a task this is because they are of low ability.
For children exhibiting this style of motivation, tasks perceived as
difficult are likely to cause a high degree of anxiety and stress, be-
cause as the chance of failure is heightened so is a threat to their self
concept and self esteem. It is likely that they will try to avoid these
threats by suggesting that the task is not worth doing or does not
interest them. (Larkin, 2010: 27)
As a consequence, stress and anxiety have negative impact on
the child behaviour and make him avoid doing things in order not

41
to fail in solving the problem that makes his experience reduced and
diminished his self-esteem. Thus, this kind of motivation is a real
handicap in the learning process since the lack of participation and
involvement in the classroom may entail a school failure as well as
a social one for the child may have problems in the insertion within
a group.
On the other hand, the third motivational style is described as
that of ‘mastery oriented’ may seem the most adequate model for in
this model, the child focuses on the task oriented strategies not on
people’s attitude toward his achievement. This leads to less stress
and anxiety that facilitates the success in solving problems as de-
clared for children:
… understand that ability is not fixed, that learning involves fai-
lure and mistakes and consequently they are more likely to think
about how they have solved a task. Thus they build a base of Me-
tacognitive knowledge about themselves in relation to tasks, which
has the benefit of enabling them to transfer their learning from one
situation to another. (Larkin, 2010: 27)
3.3 Mastery Oriented Motivation
Mastery oriented motivation enables the child to concentrate on
the situation by using the data he possesses as well as the result of
his previous experience. In short, motivation is a determinant ele-
ment that widens the horizons of knowledge of the child, stimulates
his curiosity and develops his eagerness to succeed. Adding to this,
it elaborates a bridge between what the child is able to succeed in
and what he is about to do that develops his metacognitive abilities
necessary in the classroom and in his social life.
Infact, (McInerney et al 2008: 11) considered that motivation

42
was characterized by four qualities: Choice, Energy, Standards and
Continuing motivation and defined them as follows:
• Choice, we choose to do some things rather than others. Why
do we choose to do the things we do academically, socially, and
physically? In a very real sense motivation is therefore a perso-
nal investment through choice.
• Energy, activities in which we are motivated are usually charac-
terized by high energy, involvement, enthusiasm, and interest.
• Standards, we usually seek high personal standards in activities
in which we are motivated, we don’t settle for second best or
substandard performance. We try to better our own performance,
and, at times, try to beat the performance of others.
• Continuing motivation, when we are motivated we return to the
activity voluntarily, time and again, because we enjoy it and feel
rewarded through it. So in our classrooms we want our students
to: choose to do the subject and invest their energy, enthusiasm
and interest in it.
Goal setting involves establishing quantitative and qualitative
standards or objectives to serve as the aim of one’s actions. Setting
appropriately challenging levels of goals, divided according to diffe-
rent phases of attainment, is crucial in motivating students to engage
in learning and make them self-regulated learners. These goals help
give structure to student learning, and a set of benchmarks by which
students and teachers can evaluate progression. Knowledge that
progress is being made towards desired goals is very motivational,
enhances students’ self-efficacy, and leads students to select new,
challenging goals. (McInerney et al, 2008: 11)
When the teacher asked his pupils about the job they want to do
when being old, every one of them gave an answer. In fact, each child

43
has a dream about his future life, there are who want to be teachers,
others doctors or policeman. In their investigation, Mcinerney et al,
referred to the work of Schunk (1995) where he declared that there
are three aspects of goals: short-term, medium-term and long –term
goals. The former is the most accessible to learners since, according
to McInerney et al (2008: 16), short- term goals ‘can raise self-ef-
ficacy simply by making a task appear more manageable, and they
can also enhance perceptions of competence by giving continual fee-
dback that conveys a sense of mastery’ adding to the fact that ‘goal
setting is more effective when goals are proximal (short-term)’.
Besides, medium-term and long-term goals may reduce the moti-
vation of learner for this reason, it is important to involve learner in
determining each goal as shown in the work of Schunk (1995):
Facilitating students to set their own goals will produce high goal
Commitment. This is particularly crucial because not only are stu-
dents expected to show a high self-set goal commitment, they will
also need this skill to be life-long learners and when their achieve-
ment pursuit is not monitored on a day-to-day basis.
(McInerney et al, 2008: 16)
It is worth mentioning that goals are determined by various pa-
rameters among them social, emotional and cognitive ones that make
the focus of attention intrinsic value of learning.

44
Lecture 7 Cognitive Development
Objectives of the lecture: By the end of the lecture, the students
should be able to know:
- What is an innate ability?
- What is intelligence?
- Types of intelligence
1. Innate Abilities
A person’s innate abilities are at the foundation of the learning
process. These represent the genetically determined abilities -- and
limitations -- we possess at birth that we inherited from our parents.
Mozart certainly possessed a greater innate musical capacity than
can be said for most of us, but most of us can improve our musical
ability with practice. Our upward limits are defined by innate abi-
lities, but how near we come to performing at those upper limits is
determined by other elements necessary to learning.
2. Sensory/Motor Skills
Sensory and motor skills build on the foundation of our innate
abilities. Sensory skills are those such as vision, hearing, and touch.
They are responsible for receiving information. Motor skills relate
to muscles and movement and include crawling, walking, running,
handwriting, and speaking. Motor skills give expression to the infor-
mation our senses receive and process.
Both sensory and motor skills are partially determined by genetic
code and partly learned through repetitive interaction with the en-
vironment. These skills, in almost everyone, can be improved with
proper practice. This is the basis for athletic and music instrument
practice, physical therapy, and other similar performance enhance-
ment efforts.

45
3. Definition
The term “cognition” refers to all processes by which the senso-
ry input is transformed, reduced, elaborated, stored, recovered, and
used. It is concerned with these processes even when they operate
in the absence of relevant stimulation, as in images and hallucina-
tions... Given such a sweeping definition, it is apparent that cogni-
tion is involved in everything a human being might possibly do; that
every psychological phenomenon is a cognitive phenomenon. But
although cognitive psychology is concerned with all human activity
rather than some fraction of it, the concern is from a particular point
of view. Other viewpoints are equally legitimate and necessary. Dy-
namic psychology, which begins with motives rather than with sen-
sory input, is a case in point. Instead of asking how a man’s actions
and experiences result from what he saw, remembered, or believed,
the dynamic psychologist asks how they follow from the subject’s
goals, needs, or instincts.
4. Cognitive Skills
Cognitive abilities allow us to process the sensory information
we collect. These include our ability to analyze, evaluate, retain in-
formation, recall experiences, make comparisons, and determine ac-
tion. Although cognitive skills have an innate component, the bulk
of cognitive skills are learned. When this development does not oc-
cur naturally, cognitive weaknesses are the result. These weaknesses
diminish an individual’s capacity to learn and are difficult to cor-
rect without specific and appropriate intervention. Like sensory and
motor skills, cognitive skills can be practiced and improved with
the right training. Changes in cognitive ability can be seen dramati-
cally in cases where an injury affects a certain physical area of the
brain. The correct therapy can actually “rewire” a patient’s brain,
and cognitive function can be restored or enhanced. This is also true
46
in students. Weak cognitive skills can be strengthened, and normal
cognitive skills can be enhanced to increase ease and performance
in learning.
5. Forms of Intelligence
Intelligence encompasses a number of mental abilities such as
reasoning, planning and problem-solving. The topic of intelligence
is one of the biggest and most debated in psychology. Learn more
about some of the many theories of intelligence, the history of intel-
ligence testing and much more.
It involves the ability to reason, plan, solve problems, think abs-
tractly, comprehend complex ideas, learn quickly and learn from
experience. It is not merely book learning, a narrow academic skill,
or test-taking smarts. Rather, it reflects a broader and deeper capa-
bility for comprehending our surroundings – ‘catching on,’ ‘making
sense’ of things, or ‘figuring out’ what to do
5.1 Theories of Intelligence
While there are numerous theories of intelligence, psychologists
do not agree on a standard definition for the concept of ‘intelli-
gence.’ Learn more about some of the major theories of intelligence
that have emerged.
In addition to disagreements about the basic nature of intelli-
gence, psychologists have spent a great amount of time and energy
debating the various influences on individual intelligence. The de-
bate focuses on one of the major questions in psychology: Which is
more important-nature or nurture?
Theories that intelligence is fixed at birth and correlated with ra-
cial or ethnic group membership have been debunked, says Nisbett.
Intelligence is highly malleable and parents, schools, and cultural
47
beliefs have a major role in its development.
There are a number of theories of intelligence – Howard Gard-
ner’s eight intelligences, Robert Sternberg’s theory of practical in-
telligence and creativity, and others. But Nisbett contends that IQ is
the measure that correlates most strongly with academic and work-
place success. IQ tests measure two different things:
• Crystallized intelligence – vocabulary, information, skills like
arithmetic, and comprehension of the way the world works, in-
cluding answers to questions like, “Why are houses on a street
numbered consecutively?”
• Fluid intelligence – the ability to solve novel problems and the
ability to learn; this kind of intelligence depends on working me-
mory, paying attention, and suppressing tempting but irrelevant
actions.
5.2 Intelligence Test
Today’s intelligence tests are based largely on the original test
devised in the early 1900’s by French psychologist Alfred Binet. In
order to identify students in need of extra assistance in school, the
French government asked Binet to devise a test that could be used to
discover which students most needed academic help.
Based on his research, Binet developed the concept of mental
age. Certain questions he posed were easily answered by children of
certain age groups. Some children were able to answer questions that
were typically answered by children of an older age - these children
had a higher mental age than their actual chronological age. Binet’s
measure of intelligence was based on the average abilities of child-
ren of a particular age group.
Now that you understand these key terms, we can talk a bit more

48
about how we interpret IQ scores. The average score on an IQ test is
100. Sixty-eight percent of IQ scores fall within one standard devia-
tion of the mean. So that means that the majority of people have an
IQ score between 85 and 115.
• 1 to 24 - Profound mental disability
• 25 to 39 - Severe mental disability
• 40 to 54 - Moderate mental disability
• 55 to 69 - Mild mental disability
• 70 to 84 - Borderline mental disability
• 85 to 114 - Average intelligence
• 115 to 129 - Above average; bright
• 130 to 144 - Moderately gifted
• 145 to 159 - Highly gifted
• 160 to 179 - Exceptionally gifted
• 180 and up - Profoundly gifted
5.3 Forms of intelligence
Each person demonstrates distinctive personal traits, using each
of these forms of intelligence but in their own personal combination.
This explains why many students are unable to draw on the forms of
intelligence needed for the types of teaching that we offer. Students
cannot meet requirements that are not adapted to their intellectual
capacities, because too often we use forms of teaching that rely on
theory and deduction, where abstraction is critical to success. As a
result, these students develop negative images of themselves and are
never able to attain their full potential.
• Linguistic verbal intelligence: it is used in verbal and written com-
munication and in reading. We use linguistic verbal intelligence
to articulate thinking and develop opinions. This form of intelli-
gence is useful to communicators, journalists and salespersons.

49
• Logical mathematical intelligence: it governs our ability to
measure, calculate, solve problems and use computers. This is
the intelligence used by science and mathematics scholars as
well as accountants. In nursing, we call upon our logical mathe-
matical intelligence to solve complex problems, develop plans
of care, assess quality of care, create various types of schedules,
take pharmacological measurements and understand the science
behind contributing disciplines such as biology, physics and
chemistry.
• Intrapersonal intelligence: it gives us the capacity to think
about who we are, to know ourselves, to have a personal iden-
tity. It helps us reflect on things and leads to introspection, me-
ditation, questioning and spirituality. Intrapersonal intelligence
allows us to exercise a precious skill in education and nursing:
metacognition, which makes it possible to reconsider our actions,
evaluate their relevance and make any needed corrections. It is
often seen in people who are individualistic and independent. It
makes possible to think like another person, to understand what
they are going through, to perceive their needs and make ours
understood, to share our ideas, to cooperate with others and to
help and take care of others.
• Spatial intelligence: it is based on visual perception and fea-
tures a strong sense of imagination. It gives us an aptitude for
creating mental images and perceiving images outside oursel-
ves, for thinking about and recreating the visible world. Spatial
intelligence is essential to the visual arts, wayfinding and crea-
tivity of all kinds. It is the dominant type of intelligence seen in
artists and in many people who use their hands to create useful
or beautiful things and representations in space. Spatial intelli-

50
 gence is strong in architects, engineers, advertising executives,
film directors, etc.
• Kinetic intelligence: it is the intelligence of the body. It helps
us control our movement, which is the basis of general and fine
motivity: our ability to manipulate objects. Kinetic intelligence
makes it possible to feel and think about sensations in our bo-
dies and to align thought with movement in dance, sport and
techniques. It is the type of intelligence found in athletes, crafts-
people and engineers. In nursing, we use kinetic intelligence to
think about our actions when providing care and to measure our
strength when we try to work with greater dexterity.
• Musical intelligence: it is used to perceive and appreciate
sounds, to feel rhythms and melodies, to pay attention to overall
harmony and to stay in time with sounds and movements. In
nursing, musical intelligence is used when we soften and modu-
late our voices according to the type of care we are giving and
according to the psychological circumstances of a care situation.
• Naturalist intelligence: it is the last intelligence that Gardner
defined. As you might expect, it gives us access to the values
and sensations found in nature and to knowledge about flora,
fauna and the earth sciences in general. Naturalist intelligence
also helps us develop our ability to organize, select, categorize,
create lists, collect, garden, decorate and conduct scientific re-
search.
• Existential intelligence: it is a form of intelligence that Gardner
is currently working on and may add to his theory. This, the ninth
form of intelligence, is more comprehensive and deals with the
meaning of life. Existential intelligence draws on several other

51
 forms of intelligence, so that the individual can combine multi-
ple abilities and make them work.
• Interpersonal Intelligence: Interpersonal intelligence is the
ability to understand and interact effectively with others.  It in-
volves effective verbal and nonverbal communication, the abi-
lity to note distinctions among others, sensitivity to the moods
and temperaments of others, and the ability to entertain multiple
perspectives.  Teachers, social workers, actors, and politicians
all exhibit interpersonal intelligence.  Young adults with this
kind of intelligence are leaders among their peers, are good at
communicating, and seem to understand others’ feelings and
motives.
• Intelligence at School: Dr. Howard Gardner, author of Frames
of Mind and co-director of Project Zero at Harvard University,
has created a Theory of Multiple Intelligences. He points out
that school systems often focus on a narrow range of intelligence
that involves primarily verbal/linguistic and logical/mathemati-
cal skills. While knowledge and skills in these areas are essential
for surviving and thriving in the world, he suggests that there are
at least six other kinds of intelligence that are important to fuller
human development and that almost everyone has available to
develop. They include, visual/spatial, bodily/kinesthetic, musi-
cal, interpersonal, naturalist and intrapersonal intelligence.
The strongest skills of many children lie in these six areas, which
are frequently undervalued in some traditional schools. The fact is
that when children have an opportunity to learn through their stren-
gths, they may become more successful at learning all subjects--in-
cluding the “basic skills.”

52
 Gardner believes that the eight intelligences he has identified are
independent, in that they develop at different times and to different
degrees in different individuals. They are, however, closely related,
and many teachers and parents are finding that when an individual
becomes more proficient in one area, the whole constellation of in-
telligence may be enhanced.

53
Lecture 8 Metacognitive Development
Objectives of the lecture: By the end of the lecture, the students
should be able to know:
- What is metacognition?
- What is motivation?
- Types of motivation?
- The role of each type of Motivation
1. Definition
When the child starts to read , he makes great efforts and concen-
trates his attention on linking sounds to make words and find the cor-
rect rule to make a meaningful sentence that corresponds to the cor-
rect situation. Through time, this process becomes easier and needs
less attention and concentration. It becomes systematic.
In order to model metacognition, we need a language which in-
volves what are called mental state words, e.g. “know”, “ think”,
“guess”, “remember”. Metacognitive knowledge is described as the
stored knowledge about one’s own cognitive states, about others’
cognitive states or about the nature of cognition in general. Metaco-
gnitive knowledge also refers to an understanding of how different
factors may interact to influence our thinking.
Metacognitive experiences are full of emotion and feelings and
thus can be influenced by a person’s mood. Recent work on the link
between mood and metacognitive experiences has shown that a ne-
gative mood before starting a task is linked to feelings of difficulty
during the task (Efklides & Petkaki, 2005).
However, this may not be a bad thing as feelings of difficulty
may result in investment of more effort and more high level thinking
about the task. Also a positive mood may not have immediate effects
54
on how a task is approached or progressed, although it tends to be-
come clearer as problem solving continues. Thus a positive mood is
linked to resilience and to maintaining interest.
Drawing on Vygotsky, the notion of metacognition developing
from social interactions has linked metacognition to the broader is-
sue of self regulated learning. So, in education, we are aiming not
simply to teach curriculum subjects, but also to ensure that our stu-
dents understand how to learn and to take responsibility for their
own learning. The results showed that metacognitive skills were at
least partly independent of intelligence and that metacognitive skills
have a positive impact on learning.
2. Motivation
If learning is being driven by feelings of desire to learn or enjoy-
ment of the process of learning, then there must be some sense of
reflection on oneself; and knowledge about oneself as a learner. This
is the metacognitive knowledge aspect of developing metacognition.
In addition, if enjoyment and excitement is being felt from the pro-
cess of learning then there is more likelihood that the learner will be
aware of or be actively seeking out different ways of learning. So
children, who have a sense of excitement about learning, as most do
in the early years, are already primed for developing metacognition.
2.1 Learned Helplessness Motivation
This style of motivation is said to be independent of ability, so
that children may be perfectly able in a subject but their own per-
ception of their ability and their view of ability as fixed, negatively
impacts on their performance. This can lead to a cycle of failure
followed by avoidance of future challenges and more failure, so that
a self concept of “I’m no good at X” is created and perpetuated.

55
 Children exhibiting this motivational style are also likely to give
up easily, especially when they hit an obstacle or “get stuck” on
a part of the task. In addition to this having a negative impact on
academic performance, the feelings of inadequacy associated with
this motivational style are likely to impact on self concept and self
esteem, and thereby transfer to other areas of life.
2.2 Self-worth Motivation
Children demonstrating this motivational style are often
concerned with their success on a task in terms of their own self es-
teem rather than with successful completion of the task itself. These
children are likely to ascribe to a fixed view of ability and believe
that if they do badly on a task this is because they are of low ability.
For children exhibiting this style of motivation, tasks perceived
as difficult are likely to cause a high degree of anxiety and stress,
because as the chance of failure is heightened so is a threat to their
self concept and self esteem. It is likely that they will try to avoid
these threats by suggesting that the task is not worth doing or does
not interest them.
2.3 Mastery Oriented Motivation
Children exhibiting this style are likely to focus on task oriented
strategies and effort. They understand that ability is not fixed, that
learning involves failure and mistakes and consequently they are
more likely to think about how they have solved a task. Thus they
build a base of Metacognitive knowledge about themselves in rela-
tion to tasks, which has the benefit of enabling them to transfer their
learning from one situation to another.
For children exhibiting this style of motivation, tasks perceived
as difficult are likely to cause a high degree of anxiety and stress,

56
because as the chance of failure is heightened so is a threat to their
self concept and self esteem. It is likely that they will try to avoid
these threats by suggesting that the task is not worth doing or does
not interest them.
2. 3 Mastery Oriented Motivation
Children exhibiting this style are likely to focus on task oriented
strategies and effort. They understand that ability is not fixed, that
learning involves failure and mistakes and consequently they are
more likely to think about how they have solved a task. Thus they
build a base of Metacognitive knowledge about themselves in rela-
tion to tasks, which has the benefit of enabling them to transfer their
learning from one situation to another.
3. Metacognition
Metacognition is linked to big questions around intelligence,
consciousness and emotions. From its initial conceptualization, me-
tacognition was seen as incorporating both declarative knowledge,
referred to as Metacognitive knowledge, and procedural knowledge
aimed at monitoring and controlling thinking. Procedural metaco-
gnition has also been referred to as Metacognitive skills.
Bruer (1997) early childhood is a window of opportunity for edu-
cators to intervene and provide learning opportunities for very young
children in a wide range of subjects from music to languages and
mathematics. If we miss these opportunities for teaching children
very early on, then we are doing them a disservice and programmes
designed to intervene in children’s cognitive development which
start too late are unlikely to prove successful.

57
 Lecture 9 Affect in Learning
Lecture 9 Affect in Learning
Objectives of the lecture: By the end of the lecture, the students
should be ableof to
Objectives theknow:
lecture: By the end of the lecture, the students should be able to
know:- What is affect?
- - What
Theisrole of affect in acquisition vs learning
affect?
- - TheAffect
role ofand
affectmental images
in acquisition vs learning

1. -Definition
Affect and mental images

The word ‘affect’ has been used in a number of overlapping but

1. Definition
slightly different ways in the literature. Here, I shall follow Dulay,
Burt andThe word ‘affect’ has been used in a number of overlapping but slightly different
Krashen (1982) in saying that one’s affect towards a parti-
ways in the literature. Here, I shall follow Dulay, Burt and Krashen (1982) in
cular thing
sayingorthat
action
one’s or situation
affect towards or experience
a particular thing isorhow
actionthat thing oror
or situation
experience is how that thing or that action or that situation or that experience fits
that action or that
in one’s needssituation
or purposes,or and
thatitsexperience fitsoninone’s
resulting effect one’s needs The
emotions. or
inclusion
purposes, and itsof emotion
resultingalongeffect
with needs and purposes
on one’s is not surprising
emotions. when we
The inclusion
consider that emotions are commonly responses to how various needs and
of emotion along
purposes are notwith
beingneeds
met. and purposes is not surprising when
we consider that emotions are commonly responses Stevickto(1999:
how44)various
needs andbeing
When purposes
involved are not being
in a learning met.theStevick
process, (1999:
learner is at 44)and at the same
the bottom
time the key of the whole success.
When being involved in a learning process, the learner is at the
bottom and at the same time the key of the whole success.
Pedagogical approach

Syllabus designer

Textbook writer

Teacher

Learner

58
2. Learning as a Process
2. Learning as a Process
Stevick, in his investigation made reference to learning that she
considered as the modifications brought to the data already stored in
the brain whereas teaching is the help needed to achieve this change.
That is to say, through teaching the child is introduced to a simpli-
fied knowledge that the teacher explains in order to be understood
and internalized and stored in memory. Adding to this, the inves-
tigations of Stevick highlighted the link between learning and me-
mory when describing the way changes are brought to the already
possessed data:
…these internal resources, then, are lasting but changeable-
they’re changeable but lasting. When we are thinking about the
changeable aspect of these inner resources, we talk about ‘learning’.
When we’re focusing on their lasting aspect, on the other hand, we
use a different terminology, and we talk about ‘memory’. Each new
experience strengthens or weakens connections among many pairs of
items in these networks. So when we ‘remember’ something, we‘re
not so much ‘retrieving’ whole images from an archive as we’re ‘re-
constructing’ new images from those networks. Stevick (1999: 46)
On the other hand, Vygotsky considered that any newly interna-
lized data paves the way to the next one since knowledge is construc-
ted and interlinked. According in (Damasio, 1994:100) as quoted by
(Stevick, 1995: 46), “ The brain does not file Polaroid pictures…
or audiotapes…There seem to be no permanently held pictures of
anything, even miniaturized, no microfilms, no hard copies…”. This
makes linguists consider that all the elements stored in the brain are
not unchangeable and stable and each time a new data is introduced
the stored one changes as Damasio added “… whenever we call a
given a given object [or whatever], we [are getting] a newly recons-

59
tructed version of the original”.
Stevick referred to the work of (Hamilton, 1983:77) where he de-
clares that affect is part of the cognitive schemata of memory that is
way the impact is direct and clearly noticed. In this respect, (Stevick,
1999: 47) in his investigation quoted Damasio who remarked that:
Because the brain is the captive audience of the body, feelings,
are winners among equals. And since what comes first constitutes
a frame of reference for what comes after, feelings have a say on
the brain and cognition go about their business. Their influence is
immense.
(Damasio 1994: 159-160)
As a consequence, the role of affect reaches data processing that
modifies our understanding and the development of our concept. It
is a long process that Stevick described through various steps. When
data is introduced for the first time it activates the corresponding
items established in the memory. In his works, Anderson (1984),
as mentioned in (Stevick, 1995:47), considered that “this activa-
tion spreads through the networks, and as it spreads, it produces
various pictures or words or mental images”. These mental images
or concepts are modified and stored in the working memory for no
more than 20 seconds and then transferred in the long term memory.
This subconscious process is the same for data is either brought
through the five senses or from other sources since it opens the view
to imagination as shown by (Stevick, 1995: 49) when dealing with
the work of (Damasio, 1994:97) who considered “Images of what
has not yet happened and may not in fact ever come to pass are no
different in nature from the ones you hold of something that has
already happened”. All these newly introduced images are used in

60
thinking, understanding and learning and thus have an impact on our
decision making and our whole life. In fact one may wonder about
the link between role of affect in the learning process and the future
of a child. (Stevick, 1999: 49) agreed with Hamilton and quoted him
for he believed that:
What dominates the mind landscape once you are faced with de-
cision is the rich, board display of knowledge about the situation that
is being generated by its consideration. Images corresponding to my-
riad options for action and myriad possible outcomes are activated
and keep being brought into focus.
(Hamilton, 1983:52)
3. The Mental Image
Moreover, the development of mental images create connections
between the short and the long term memory not limited to concepts
in one language but spreads even among different languages that
develop feelings and the behaviour of the learner. Adding to this,
these connections make the child able to use the data collected in one
language to understand the ideas developed in the other one for this
reason the knowledge gets wider everyday and influences the per-
sonality of the learner. (Stevick, 1999: 50) considered that “These
feelings may in turn bring back with them all sorts of pictures and
personalities and assorted tricks”.
Stevick illustrated with learning Spanish and Portuguese and
the way learning interferes. These interferences take place in the
brain and precisely in the networks of the long term memory and
are shaped by affect through the feedback the learner receives. This
feedback is divided into cognitive and affective ones as described by
(Stevick, 1995: 51):

61
• Cognitive feedback answers questions like ‘How satisfactory
did I get my message across?’
• Affective feedback, on the other hand, answers questions like
‘what kind of feeling did I come away with?’
• The source of the feedback may be either external (from people)
or internal (from how one sound to oneself).
• Feedbacks may either be positive or negative.
Infact, Stevick believed that the external feedback results from
the learner’s desire to exchange ideas and views communication if
it is accurate the feedback will be positive; if not it will be negative.
He declared:
External affective feedback derives its effectiveness from a quite
different source: from the learner’s desire to identify with a parti-
cular group of people, or possibly to dissociated from some group.
If the other person – that is, the person the learner is talking with-
seems to be attentive, interested and enjoying the exchange then ex-
ternal affective feedback will be positive. To the extent that the other
person seems different, bored, critical or annoyed external affective
feedback will be negative. External affective feedback influences
the learner’s willingness to keep on trying to communicate in spite
of occasional negative feedback of the external cognitive variety.
(Stevick, 1999: 51)
Internal cognitive feedback is achieved only by the relation
between the working and the long term memory thanks to the com-
parison and analysis that take place at that level. In short, all the mo-
difications are achieved at the brain, the organ that controls all our
body and mind. Besides, feelings are not always positive and moti-
vate the child in his learning process. Anxiety is an emotional state
that (Prince, 2002: 1) defines as “a feeling unlike any other signals
62
of distress… a feeling something like…dread or horror or loathing,
but it can’t be managed like other pain”.
Language anxiety is fear or apprehension occurring when a lear-
ner is expected to perform in the second or foreign language (Gard-
ner and Maclntyre 1993). Language anxiety ranks high among fac-
tors influencing language learning, regardless of whether the setting
is informal (learning language on the street’) or formal (in the lan-
guage classroom).(Oxford1999: 59)
…by self-esteem we refer to the evaluation which the individual
makes and customarily maintains with regard to himself; it expresses
an attitude of approval or disapproval, and indicates the extent to
which an individual believes himself to be capable, significant, suc-
cessful and worthy. In short, self-esteem is a personal judgment of
worthiness that is expressed in the attitudes that the individual holds
towards himself.
(Andrés, 1999: 87)
4. Affect in Leaning
Self confidence may be threatened when the child does not iden-
tify himself among the group he belongs to. He may get lost with a
language that does not correspond to his cultural background that
may lead to an identity and cultural shock as defined by Oxford in
the next statement:
…identification with a language group or target culture implies
that the learner is an insider, Young (1992) suggest that anxiety is
lower… and, anxiety is higher if the student does not identify with
language group…Anxiety about losing one’s own identity can be
part of culture shock. Culture shock is defined as a ‘form of anxiety
that results from the loss of commonly perceived and understood

63
signs and symbols of social intercourse’ (Adler 1987: 25). Culture
shock can involve some of these symptoms: emotional regression,
physical illness, panic, anger, hopelessness, self-pity, lack of confi-
dence, indecision, sadness, alienation, a sense of deception of ‘re-
duced personality’ and glorification of one’s own native culture.
(Oxford: 1999, 64-5)
A cultural shock leads to an anxiety with very bad consequences
on the learning process. Moreover, it also leads to a psychological
state that influences the personality of the learner: anger, deception,
sadness, lack of confidence as declared bellow:
When learning fails, teachers must scrutinize their own practice
rather than blaming the s tudents. The teacher is always in control
of the environment, whether he or she admits it or not, since en-
vironment includes methodological procedure; Lozanov teachers
acknowledge and accept this responsibility.
(Harsen, 1999: 218)
According to Harsen (1999), anxiety leads automatically to de-
fensive reactions that make the pupil sleepy and daydreaming in the
classroom as well as a negative attitude towards his friends and the
teacher. On the opposite, feeling at ease develops positive attitude
to learning. The learner is not aggressive, concentrated and open
minded in the classroom. (Harsen, 1999: 214) described emotions
at the mirror of the situation the learner is facing in the classroom
where “it may appear in intellectual form , as for example ‘ I don’t
understand’…A psychological point of view does not take verbal
messages literary, but evaluates them as manifestations of emotional
process”.
For this reason the role of the teacher is very important in solving

64
such a situation. If the learner is treated as an empty state that needs
to be full with various kinds of input without taking into considera-
tion the previously acquired knowledge, anxiety develops. In fact,
the cultural background of the child can not be neglected for the
cognitive and the metacognitive developments have already started
at home. Thus, (Harsen, 1999: 215) believed that the most important
element that should be avoided in a classroom is “producing fear,
which may trigger the primitive panic reactions”.

65
Lecture 10 Bloom’s Taxonomy
Objectives of the lecture: By the end of the lecture, the students
should be able to know:
- The levels of Bloom’s Taxonomy
- The cognitive domain
- the lowest level of training
- higher level of thinking
1. Definition
Bloom believed that education should focus on ‘mastery’ of
subjects and the promotion of higher forms of thinking, rather
than a utilitarian approach to simply transferring facts. Bloom de-
monstrated decades ago that most teaching tended to be focused on
fact-transfer and information recall - the lowest level of training -
rather than true meaningful personal development, and this remains
a central challenge for educators and trainers in modern times.
Much corporate training is also limited to non-participative, unfee-
ling knowledge-transfer, (all those stultifyingly boring powerpoint
presentations...), which is reason alone to consider the breadth and
depth approach exemplified in Bloom’s model.
Taxonomy means ‘a set of classification principles’, or ‘struc-
ture’, and Domain simply means ‘category’. Bloom’s Taxonomy
underpins the classical ‘Knowledge, Attitude, Skills’ structure
of learning method and evaluation, and aside from the even sim-
pler Kirkpatrick learning evaluation model, Bloom’s Taxonomy of
Learning Domains remains the most widely used system of its kind in
education particularly, and also industry and corporate training. It’s
easy to see why, because it is such a simple, clear and effective mo-
del, both for explanation and application of learning objectives, tea-
ching and training methods, and measurement of learning outcomes.
66
 Bloom’s Taxonomy model is in three parts, or ‘overlapping do-
mains’. Again, Bloom used rather academic language, but the mea-
nings are simple to understand:
• Cognitive domain (intellectual capability, ie., knowledge,
or ‘think’)
• Affective domain (feelings, emotions and behaviour, ie., atti-
tude, or ‘feel’)
• Psychomotor domain (manual and physical skills, ie., skills,
or ‘do’)
2. The Cognitive Domain

67
 SAMPLE SAMPLE
LEVEL DEFINITION VERBS BEHAVIORS
The student will
Student recalls or Write define
recognizes information, List the 6 levels of
ideas, and principles Label
KNOWLEDGE Bloom’s
in the approximate Name taxonomy of the
form in which they State cognitive do-
were learned. Define main.
The student will
Student translates, Explain explain
comprehends, or Summarize the purpose of
COMPREHEN- interprets information Paraphrase Bloom’s
SION based on prior Describe taxonomy of the
learning. Illustrate cognitive do-
main.
The student will
Student selects, trans- Use write an instruc-
fers, and uses data Compute tional
and principles to Solve
APPLICATION Demonstrate objective for
complete a problem each
or task with a mini- Apply level of Bloom’s
mum of direction. Construct taxonomy.
The student will
Student distinguishes, Analyze compare and
classifies, and relates Categorize contrast
the assumptions,
ANALYSIS Compare the cognitive
hypotheses, evidence, Contrast and
or structure of a Separate affective do-
statement or question. mains.

68
 The student will
design a classifi-
cation
scheme for writ-
Student originates, ing
Create
integrates, and educational ob-
Design
combines ideas into a
SYNTHESIS Hypothesize jectives
product, plan or that combines
Invent
proposal that is new the
Develop
to him or her. cognitive, affec-
tive,
and psychomo-
tor
domains.
The student will
judge the effec-
Student appraises, Judge
assesses, or critiques Recommend tive-
EVALUATION ness of writing
on a basis of specific Critique objectives using
standards and criteria. Justify Bloom’s taxon-
omy.
The most significant change to the Cognitive Domain was the re-
moval of ‘Synthesis’ and the addition of ‘Creation’ as the highest-le-
vel of Bloom’s Taxonomy. And being at the highest level, the impli-
cation is that it’s the most complex or demanding cognitive skill–or
at least represents a kind of pinnacle for cognitive tasks.

69
Lecture 11 Learning through the ZPD
Objectives of the lecture: By the end of the lecture, the students
should be able to know:
- The zone of proximal development
- Culture as a basic support
- Bruner vs Vygotsky’s approaches
1. Introduction
According to Vygotsky, in order to solve any situation, the child
uses language his eyes and hands to communicate that generates a
real coordination between perception, language and action. This is
the basic analysis of the specificity of the human behaviour. Accor-
dingly both Vygotsky and Dewey agree language organizes our ideas
and thinking whereas thought organizes our perception and actions.
Thus, language and thought are the two main tools that determine
the good achievement of an action. He believes that ideas are trans-
mitted through generations and within the same society influenced
by all the parameters that influence the behaviour of people. The
entire cultural heritage is shared and transmitted through language
either written or spoken as well as through science, technology and
literature.
Bruner agrees totally with Vygotsky and believes that the most
important zone in any learning process is ZPD. On the other hand,
he believes that the innate capacities the child possesses at birth with
are not enough and the social background is very important. The
L.A.S.S is the system that helps the child in making investigations in
his ZPD until he masters completely the linguistic system.
2. Bruner and Education
The aim is not to involve learners in culture through education.

70
On the contrary, education should make the learners participate in
culture as well as to negotiate and react to its meaning that is a to-
tal contradiction of the traditional education which role is limited at
transmitting knowledge and values and considers the one who knows
more teaches those who know less through various techniques and
mainly through language.
Language plays a very great role in the learning process. Bruner
describes the works of Michael Halliday that he considers as the
most complete. Halliday argues that the function of language goes
through two major classes: pragmatics and mathematics. The former
involves all the instrumental, interactional and personal functions.
In short this class gathers all that enables the learner to distinguish
himself from others and also to use language in order to obtain his
needs by influencing others opinions and attitudes. (Michael A. K.
Halliday, Learning how to mean (London: Edward Arnold, 1975)).
On the other hand, the latter gathers imaginative and informative
functions as well as “heuristique”. Accordingly, thanks to heuris-
tique the learner obtains from others corrections and information,
whereas the imaginative function enables us to go beyond the actual
parameters in order to create new things and new worlds; the last
function shows that not all people share the same opinions and do
not possess the same data yet they are able to transmit it through
communication or narration.
On the other hand, Bruner believes that a fourth function elabo-
rated by Jackobson should be added that of metalinguistic. Metalin-
guistic consists of thinking about one language the way it is used and
developed in order to be functional at different levels of communica-
tion and sciences as well as literature and history.

71
 Nevertheless, the functions proposed by Halliday serve the great
role language plays in general and particularly in the educational
system. He considers that using language involves all the lexical and
the grammatical parameters that function at the same time in order
to enable the learner to grasp the learning process and strategies he
is in contact with Roman Jackobson, Linguistics and Poetics », in
Selected Writings, III (La Haye: Mouton, 1981).
On the other hand, through questions and dialogues, the teacher
raises the interest of the learner and makes him part of his learning
process. This motivation makes the child eager to learn and to give
his opinion. As a result, the child shares the data he possesses with
other members of his community that develops a social feeling of
belonging to a group and intellectual abilities like negotiation, dis-
covery, creativity and communication.
According to Bruner, language used in education must be an in-
vitation to thinking and creation of culture and should not be abstract
and objective dealing only with facts. Moreover, it should involve
the learner in his learning by initiating him to argumentation and
developing his metacognition.
Bruner views language with two facettes, the former is the means
of communication and the latter a means to represent the world we
live in and to describe it. That is to say, the way we speak tells a
lot about what we think and the way we represent the topic we are
dealing with and our attitude as well as negotiations are typical cha-
racteristics of our behaviour in the world we live in.
In short, Bruner considers that the role of language is not to trans-
mit information; it rather creates knowledge and reality on the one
hand and is part of this reality on the other hand. As a consequence,

72
the attitude one develops towards knowledge defines the personality
and the self for if the learner is able to develop what Bruner names
the reflexive intervention of knowledge, he will be able to use it in
order to give an opinion or an argument. On the other hand, if the
learner does not develop the reflexive intervention of the knowledge
he is confronted to, he will not be able to act from an external point
of view and thus he will be controlled by all the data he collects
through time.
3. Vygotsky’s Approach
The social experience is determined by the model of behaviour
that corresponds to the situation and includes the body movements,
intonation, dressing.. However the cultural artifacts, involve other
parameters such as linguistic terms, instruments (chairs, tables com-
puter, books..) and signs like giving a present at birthday. The first
illustration given by Raner(1991) is the parents try to control how,
where and when their child responds to an insult either by encou-
raging him or discouraging him and this determines the “kinds of
intensity of emotion the child develops”.
Meanwhile the second illustration concerns babies since when
restricting their movements, parents inculcate passivity whereas
giving them free expression develops active personalities. Adding
to this, he says that “holding babies so that they face toward other
people or toward individual caretaker similarly inculcates collective
or individualistic self-concepts, respectively”. Accordingly, our at-
titude in different situations is shaped by our emotional reaction for
we become angry when a deliberate harm is felt for example. Hence
all our actions and behaviours are activated by a stimulus and condi-
tioned by our socio-cultural background as it is clearly exposed in
the following diagram Ratner(1991 :173-4).

73
 For more details figure one shows that culture, in all its parame-
ters including tools, promotes the cognitive schemata either in a di-
rect (written or oral instructions) or indirect way (religious values
already acquired).the cognitive schemata in question, is directly
conditioned by sensations, emotions, motives, needs and perception
that shape the action in relation with the socio-cultural context. In
this respect Vygotsky (1997) states:
Ultimately, for Man the environment is a social environment be-
cause even where it appears to be natural environment, nevertheless,
in relation to man there are always definite social elements present…
in this interaction with the environment man always makes use of his
social experience. Vygotsky (1997b: 53-4)
The example used by vygotsky shows that the cognitive deve-
lopment is the result the child’s problem solving experience that
he achieves with another human being like his mother or caretaker.
Hence the role of the adult is to transmit culture to the child through
his mother tongue. That is to say culture is an important element that
shapes the child’s socialization as it is clearly classified by Doolittle
74
(1997: 83-103) when pointing out the works of vygotsky:
1. “Culture makes two sorts of contributions to a child’s intel-
lectual development. First, through culture children acquire
much of the content of their thinking, that is, their knowledge.
Second, the surrounding culture provides a child with the
processes or means of their thinking, what Vygotskians call
the tools of intellectual adaptation. In short, according to the
social cognition learning model, culture teaches children both
what to think and how to think.
2. Cognitive development results from a dialectical process
whereby a child learns through problem-solving experiences
shared with someone else, usually a parent or teacher but so-
metimes a sibling or peer.
3. Initially, the person interacting with child assumes most of
the responsibility for guiding the problem solving, but gra-
dually this responsibility transfers to the child.
4. Language is a primary form of interaction through which
adults transmit to the child the rich body of knowledge that
exists in the culture.
5. As learning progresses, the child’s own language comes to
serve as her primary tool of intellectual adaptation. Even-
tually, children can use internal language to direct their own
behaviour.
6. Internalization refers to the process of learning--and thereby
internalizing--a rich body of knowledge and tools of thought
that first exist outside the child. This happens primarily
through language.
7. Interactions with surrounding culture and social agents, such
as parents and more competent peers, contribute significantly
to a child’s intellectual development.”

75
 Doolittle, in these seven points, summarises vygotsky’s ap-
proach of the socio-cognition of the child. He argues that
when acquiring culture, that develops and shapes the process
of thinking, the child needs to be more involved in his social
behaviour. This social insertion is achieved through interac-
tion with others that starts at a very early age and confronts
the child to different situation that he is supposed to adapt
himself in and various experiences he is asked to solve.
Hence, all these processes are taking place at the same time
and are vehicled by the mother tongue.
In this same view Joan Kelly Hall (2002) refers in his book
to the woks of Vygotsky, 1978, 1986 and those of Wertsch,
1991, and 1994. Both of them agree that knowledge, acquired
from culture, assists the fulfilment of the different skills that
make the child more capable element in his society. The
knowledge acquired is clearly defined by Bruner (1983, 109)
who does not consider it as thinking or as the outcome of
the intellectual activities and experiments but as the “inter-
nalizing of tools that are used within the child’s culture”. He
also considers that language is the key of knowledge for it
is through words and symbols that what is felt and known
is conveyed. Adding to this Burner (1983) states that lan-
guage “is the primary way that concepts can be taught and
questioned. It is also the increasing ability to deal with a va-
riety of activities simultaneously and sequentially”. Burner
(1983:110)
8. In his definition, Bruner shows the importance of language
in the development of knowledge that is a whole process that
starts at birth and goes step by step till it reaches a high levels
and degrees with the help of members of the family and peers

76
 as it is stated Doolittle (1997: 83-103) when describing the
works of vygotsky. A difference exists between what child
can do on her own and what the child can do with help. Vy-
gotskians call this difference the zone of proximal develop-
ment.
9. Since much of what a child learns comes form the culture
around her and much of the child’s problem solving is me-
diated through an adult’s help, it is wrong to focus
On a child in isolation. Such focus does not reveal the processes
by which children acquire new skills.
Vygotsky makes a difference between what the child knows and
is able to do on his own and the achievement that needs help. All the
interferences, what the child knows and what he is about to know,
takes places in as named by Vygotsky Zone of Proximal Develop-
ment as defined in the following statement:
The ZPD is the distance between the actual development level
as determined by independent problem solving and the level of po-
tential development as determined through problem solving under
adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers. Vy-
gotsky(1978.quoted in Hall 2002 :49)
When quoting vygotsky ,Hall (2002) raises an important ele-
ments in the socio-cognitive development since he refers to the zone
of the mind where all the connections are made. This zone is the
place where the already acquired experiment paves the way to the
new ones for what the child is unable to realise today; he will be able
to do it tomorrow. Tharp, R.G. & Gallimore, R. (1988) put a diagram
where all these processes are mentioned:

77
 In the diagram above, Tharp & Gallimore (1988) explain the
child’s development by including the cultural influence and tools
as well as the peers. The basic parameter in zpd is collaboration.
Each time the child is confronted to a new Learning situation col-
laboration is needed as it is described by vygotsky p. 86, 1978 who
considers “the distance between the actual developmental level as
determined by independent problem solving and the level of poten-
tial development as determined through problem solving under adult
guidance, or in collaboration with more capable peers.”
Adding to this, the diagram refers to the second important point
raised by Vygotsky that is internalization. Acquiring knowledge en-
tails the combination of socio-cultural heritage as well as the contri-
bution of peers or technology. All these processes are combined and
automatically used to the identification and understanding of the
new data that is internalized in order to be at hand when needed in
another process. In fact, every new data paves the way to the next
one.

78
 With reference to the diagram, Vygotsky declares that acqui-
ring knowledge goes through four stages. The first and the second
ones take place in the zone of proximal development for when the
child is in contact with new data his social environment including
his parents; peers … assist him by giving him explanations for exa-
mple. This takes place in the first stage whereas and the second one
the child understands and starts to participate in the analysis by gi-
ving his own contribution to the situation. Nevertheless the process
changes in the two last stages, it is no more a matter of assimilation
but rather that of internalization. At the third stage the child inter-
nalizes what he has understood so that its meaning and use will be
automatic and deeply rooted in his brain, meanwhile the last step is
when the knowledge acquired becomes so clear and obvious for him
that he uses it freely in a natural way. Thus what is the end of a whole
process is transformed to the starting point of a new one.

79
Lecture 12 Foreign Language Learning
Objectives of the lecture: By the end of the lecture, the students
should be able to know:
- The difference between the notion of acquisition and learning
- The five hypothesis of Krashen
1. Definition
“Language acquisition does not require extensive use of conscious
grammatical rules, and does not require tedious drill.”
“Acquisition requires meaningful interaction in the target lan-
guage – natural communication - in which speakers are concerned
not with the form of their utterances but with the messages they are
conveying and understanding.”
“The best methods are therefore those that supply ‘comprehen-
sible input’ in low anxiety situations, containing messages that stu-
dents really want to hear. These methods do not force early produc-
tion in the second language, but allow students to produce when they
are ‘ready’, recognizing that improvement comes from supplying
communicative and comprehensible input, and not from forcing and
correcting production.”
“In the real world, conversations with sympathetic native spea-
kers who are willing to help the acquirer understand are very help-
ful”
2. The Natural Approach (NA)
The most striking proposal of the NA theory is that adults can
still acquire second languages and that the ability to ‘pick up’ lan-
guages does not disappear at puberty. Thus, Krashen’s contribution
to Chomsky’s LAD proposition is that adults follow the same prin-

80
ciples of Universal Grammar. The theory behind the NA implies that
adults can acquire all but the phonological aspect of any foreign lan-
guage, by using their ever-active LAD. What makes adults different
from children is their abstract problem solving skills that make them
consciously process the grammar of a foreign language. Therefore,
adults have two paths to follow: Acquisition and learning.
3. The Theoretical Basis of the Natural Approach
The Natural Approach is regarded as a comprehension-based ap-
proach because of its emphasis on initial delay (silent period) in the
production of language. What is novel is that the NA focuses on
exposure to input instead of grammar practice, and on emotional
preparedness for acquisition to take place.
3.1 Theory of Language
Krashen regards ‘communication’ as the main function of lan-
guage. The focus is on teaching communicative abilities. The su-
periority of ‘meaning’ is emphasized. Krashen and Terrell believe
that a language is essentially its lexicon. They stress the importance
of vocabulary and view language as a vehicle for ‘communicating
meanings’ and ‘messages’.
According to Krashen, ‘acquisition’ can take place only when
people comprehend messages in the TL. Briefly, the view of lan-
guage that the Natural Approach presents consists of ‘lexical items’,
‘structures’ and ‘messages’. The lexicon for both perception and
production is considered critical in the organization and interpre-
tation of messages. In Krashen’s view, acquisition is the natural as-
similation of language rules by using language for communication.
This means that linguistic competence is achieved via ‘input’ contai-
ning structures at the ‘interlanguage + 1’ level (i +1); that is, via
‘comprehensible input’.
81
3. 2 Theory of Language Learning
“There are two independent ways of developing ability in se-
cond languages. ‘Acquisition’ is a subconscious process identical
in all important ways to the process children utilize in acquiring
their first language, ... [and] ‘learning’ ..., [which is] a conscious
process that results in ‘knowing about’ [the rules of] language”
(Krashen 1985:1).
The Acquisition-Learning distinction is the most fundamental of
all the hypotheses in Krashen’s theory and the most widely known
among linguists and language practitioners).
3.2.1 The Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis
According to Krashen there are two independent systems of se-
cond language performance: ‘the acquired system’ and ‘the learned
system’. The ‘acquired system’ or ‘acquisition’ is the product of a
subconscious process very similar to the process children undergo
when they acquire their first language. It requires meaningful inte-
raction in the target language - natural communication - in which
speakers are concentrated not in the form of their utterances, but in
the communicative act.
The ‘learned system’ or ‘learning’ is the product of formal ins-
truction and it comprises a conscious process which results in
conscious knowledge ‘about’ the language, for example knowledge
of grammar rules. According to Krashen ‘learning’ is less important
than ‘acquisition’.
Krashen believes that the result of learning, learned competence
(LC) functions as a monitor or editor. That is, while AC is res-
ponsible for our fluent production of sentences, LC makes correction
on these sentences either before or after their production. This kind

82
of conscious grammar correction, ‘monitoring’, occurs most typical-
ly in a grammar exam where the learner has enough time to focus on
form and to make use of his conscious knowledge of grammar rules
(LC) as an aid to ‘acquired competence’. The way to develop learned
competence is fairly easy: analysing the grammar rules consciously
and practising them through exercises. But what Acquisition / Lear-
ning Distinction Hypothesis predicts is that learning the grammar
rules of a foreign/second language does not result in subconscious
acquisition. In other words, what you consciously learn does not ne-
cessarily become subconsciously acquired through conscious prac-
tice, grammar exercises and the like. Krashen formulates this idea in
his well-known statement that “learning does not became acquisi-
tion”. It is at this point where Krashen receives major criticism.
3.0.0.1 The Natural Order Hypothesis
According to the hypothesis, the acquisition of grammatical
structures proceeds in a predicted progression. Certain grammatical
structures or morphemes are acquired before others in first language
acquisition and there is a similar natural order in SLA. The average
order of acquisition of grammatical morphemes for English as an
‘acquired’ language is given below:
-Ing--------Aux---------Irregular------Regular Past
Plural----->Article---->Past---------->3rd Sing.
The implication of natural order is not that second or foreign
language teaching materials should be arranged in accordance with
this sequence but that acquisition is subconscious and free from
conscious intervention (Ellidokuzoglu, 1992).

83
3.0.0.2 The Input Hypothesis
This hypothesis relates to acquisition, not to learning. Krashen
claims that people acquire language best by understanding input that
is a little beyond their present level of competence. Consequently,
Krashen believes that ‘comprehensible input’ (that is, i + 1) should
be provided. The ‘input’ should be relevant and ‘not grammatically
sequenced’. The ‘input’ should also be in sufficient quantity as Ri-
chards pointed out:
“.. child acquirers of a first language are provided with samples
of ‘caretaker’ speech, rough - tuned to their present level of unders-
tanding, ..[and] adult acquirers of a second language [should be]
provided with simple codes that facilitate second language compre-
hension.”
(Richards, 1986:133)
3.0.0.3 The Monitor Hypothesis
As is mentioned, adult second language learners have two means
for internalising the target language. The first is ‘acquisition’ which
is a subconscious and intuitive process of constructing the system
of a language. The second means is a conscious learning process
in which learners attend to form, figure out rules and are generally
aware of their own process. The ‘monitor’ is an aspect of this se-
cond process. It edits and make alterations or corrections as they
are consciously perceived. Krashen believes that ‘fluency’ in second
language performance is due to ‘what we have acquired’, not ‘what
we have learned’: Adults should do as much acquiring as possible
for the purpose of achieving communicative fluency. Therefore,
the monitor should have only a minor role in the process of gai-
ning communicative competence. Similarly, Krashen suggests three
conditions for its use:

84
• there must be enough time;
• the focus must be on form and not on meaning;
• the learner must know the rule.
3.0.0.4 The Affective Filter Hypothesis
The learner’s emotional state, according to Krashen, is just like
an adjustable filter which freely passes or hinders input necessary
to acquisition. In other words, input must be achieved in low-an-
xiety contexts since acquirers with a low affective filter receive more
input and interact with confidence. The filter is ‘affective’ because
there are some factors which regulate its strength. These factors are
self-confidence, motivation and anxiety state.
The expression “language learning” includes two clearly distinct,
though rarely understood, concepts. One involves receiving infor-
mation about the language, transforming it into knowledge through
intellectual effort and storing it through memorization. The other in-
volves developing the skill of interacting with foreigners to unders-
tand and speak their language. The first concept is called “language
learning,” while the other is referred to as “language acquisition.”
These are separate ideas and we will show that neither is the conse-
quence of the other.
The distinction between acquisition and learning is one of the hy-
potheses (the most important) established by the American Stephen
Krashen in his highly regarded theory of foreign language learning.
The concept of language learning is linked to the traditional ap-
proach to the study of languages and today is still generally practiced
in high schools worldwide. Attention is focused on the language in
its written form and the objective is for the student to understand the
structure and rules of the language through the application of intel-
lect and logical deductive reasoning.
85
a. Evidence for the Input Hypothesis (chiefly Krashen 1985a)
• people speak to children acquiring their first language in special
ways
• people speak to L2 learners in special ways
• L2 learners often go through an initial Silent Period
• the comparative success of younger and older learners reflects
provision of comprehensible input

86
• the more comprehensible input the greater the L2 proficiency
• lack of comprehensible input delays language acquisition
• teaching methods work according to the extent that they use
comprehensible input
• immersion teaching is successful because it provides compre-
hensible input
• bilingual programs succeed to the extent they provide compre-
hensible input
b. Affective-Humanistic Activities
• dialogues – short and useful - ‘open’ dialogues
• interviews – pairwork on personal information
• personal charts and tables
• preference ranking – opinion polls on favourite activities etc
• revealing information about yourself – e.g. what I had for break-
fast
• activating the imagination – e.g. give Napoleon advice about his
Russian campaign
c. Problem-solving Activities
• task and series – e.g. components of an activity such as washing
the car
• charts, graphs, maps – e.g. busfares, finding the way
• developing speech for particular occasions – e.g. What do you
say if …
• advertisements
• Games, e.g. What is strange about … a bird swimming?’
• Content activities, e.g. academic subject matter such as maths

87
88
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• http://www.dltk-teach.com/rhymes/snowwhite/story.htm
• http://www.eurojournals.com/ejsr.htm.
• http://www.glottolog.org/resource/reference/id/126478.xhtml
• http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/sci/A0860568.html
• http://www.islamswomen.com/articles/asma_bint_abu_bakr.
php
• http://www.muslim.org/islam/anwarqur/ch106.htm
• http://www.muslimaid.org/ramadan-2012/case category/zaka-
t?gclid=COmekIinobUCFYe9zAodsQMAmw
• http://www.thefreedictionary.com/rule+of+three
• http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/I/iPad.html
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilayah

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