Qualitative Research

Methods in Public Health

BY Abdu H. (BSc, MPH)

School of Public health

Department of Public health
September, 2024

1 AHM 9/20/2024
 Learning Objectives
❑ At the end of this session, you should be able:

✓ Explain the basic concepts of qualitative research

✓ Describe the difference between qualitative and quantitative

research

✓ Internalize the purpose of qualitative research

✓ Identify the different types qualitative research design

✓ Grasp the different qualitative research sampling techniques

✓ Identify data collection methods in qualitative research

✓ Describe the quality of qualitative research

2 AHM 9/20/2024
 Outlines
➢ Introduction QR

➢ Qualitative R vs. quantitative R

➢ Purpose of QR

➢ Types QR design

➢ QR sampling techniques

➢ Sample size in QR

➢ Data collection methods in QR

➢ Trustworthiness/ Soundness in QR

➢ Analyzing qualitative data

3 AHM 9/20/2024
 Intro…

Not everything that counts can be counted, and not

everything that can be counted counts” (Albert
Einstein)

4 AHM 9/20/2024
 Intro…
“I want to understand the world from your point of view.
I want to know what you know in the way you know it.
I want to understand the meaning of your experience,

to walk in your shoes, to feel things as you feel them, to

explain things as you explain them. Will you become my
teacher and help me understand?” James P. Spradley
(1979)

5 AHM 9/20/2024
 Intro…
Intro…
 Public health problems are becoming more complex

 To understand the problems and collect information,

two broad approaches:

 Quantitative research

 Qualitative research

6 AHM 9/20/2024
 Intro…
Intro…
What is research?
“Research is what I am doing when I don`t know
what I am doing!” Wernher von Braun

❖Research is a systematic collection, analysis and

interpretation of data to solve health problem

7 AHM 9/20/2024
 Intro…
Intro…
What is Qualitative Research? Organized
➢ It is a planned procedure, not a
\(QR) is a systematic and an spontaneous one.
organized process of collecting and ➢ it is focused and limited to a specific
analyzing information (data) in order scope.
to finding answers to questions or Finding answers: is the end of all
research.
increase our understanding of the
➢ Research is successful when we find
phenomenon about which we are answers.
concerned or interested. ➢ Sometimes the answer is no, but it is
Systematic still an answer.
Questions:- central to research.
a definite set of procedures and steps
➢ If there is no question, then the answer
which researcher will follow. is of no use.
8 AHM ➢ Without a question, research has no
9/20/2024
focus, drive, or purpose.
 Intro…
Intro…
 Qualitative methods fill a gap that quantitative methods

alone can’t do.

 Qualitative methods are especially useful to understand

underlying behaviors, attitudes, perceptions, and culture

 ‘Qualitative Research…involves finding out what people

think, and how they feel - or at any rate, what they say they
think and how they say they feel. This kind of information is
subjective. It involves feelings and impressions, rather than
numbers
9 AHM 9/20/2024
 Intro…
Intro…
➢ Deals with the emotional & contextual aspects of
human response rather than with objective, measurable
behavior & attitude
➢ It is subjective b/c it emphasizes on processes and in-depth
understanding of perceived meanings, feelings and
interpretations, rather than numbers
➢ Explore silent beliefs/attitude/behaviours/ reason
behind behaviours
➢ Reasons behind number/magnitude
➢ Answer “Why and how questions ?”
E.g why young people engage in risky behaviours?
10 AHM 9/20/2024
 Intro…
Intro…
➢ It is concerned with the social aspects of our world
and seeks to answer questions about:

❖ Why people behave the way they do

❖ How opinions and attitudes are formed

❖ How people are affected by the events that

go on around them
❖ How and why cultures and practices have
developed in the way they have
11 AHM 9/20/2024
 Quantitative Qualitative
Purpose Seeks explanations and Seeks a better understanding
predictions to develop of complex situations.
generalizations.
Research Known variables, established Unknown variables, flexible
process guidelines, predetermined guidelines, emergent
methods, objective methods, subjective

Data Numeric data, representative Textual/image data, small

gathering large sample, standardized sample, loosely structured
instruments observations and interviews

Data Statistical analysis, Search for themes and

analysis objectivity categories, subjective and
potentially biased analysis
Findings Numbers, statistics, Words, narratives, quotes
aggregated data
12 AHM 9/20/2024
 Quantitative Qualitative

Sampling Typically a probability- (Usually) Non-

methods based sample probability based sample
Generalizability Generalizable Non-generalizable

Answers How many? When? Answers Why? How?

Question Where?
Hypotheses Test hypotheses, latter Generate hypothesis
phases Formative, earlier phases
Type of data Data are more efficient, Data are “rich” and time
but may miss contextual consuming
detail
Design Design decided in Design may emerge as
advance study unfolds
Tools Various tools, instruments Researcher is the
employed instrument
13 AHM 9/20/2024
 Purpose of qualitative research
➢ Thus, qualitative study help to study the most

important, silent behaviors and reasons behind

behaviors
➢ Cultural beliefs, norms that cannot be reached by

quantitative study
➢ Factors or influences that underlie a particular
attitude , belief or perceptions
➢ In-depth understanding of people’s experiences,
behaviours, perspectives
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 Mixed methods research??
▪ What research problems fit mixed
 Is it possible, acceptable to combine the

two paradigm ? methods?

A need exists because one data source
➢ Mixed methods research is the type of

research in which a researcher combines may be insufficient

elements of qualitative and quantitative ▪ A need exists to explain initial results-
research approaches for the purposes of ; quantitative results require an
➢ Breadth understanding explanation
➢ Depth of understanding ▪ A need exists to generalize exploratory
➢ Corroboration in a single study findings
Why it is important to combine?
▪ A need exists to enhance a study with a
• No single research method can tap all
second method
dimensions of a complex research problem.

15 AHM 9/20/2024
 Philosophical basis of QR
❖ Two perspectives: Interpretivist and Positivists

❖ Interpretivist: knowledge of reality is a social construction and thus

there is no objective reality which can be discovered by researchers

and replicated by others.

❖ Reality are constructed as a result of social interaction and

researchers are not detached observers.

❖ As such, qualitative research efforts should be concerned with

revealing multiple realities as opposed to searching for one

objective reality.

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❖ AHM
Objective reality will never be captured 9/20/2024
 Philosophical…
❖ Positivist View/Objectivity: Only single reality exists and it is

independent of social construction

• Reality is objectively given and measurable independent of the

researcher and his/her instruments.

• Knowledge is objective and quantifiable

• Adopts scientific methods that generate knowledge by

quantification; they prefer to uncover truth and present it in
numerical means.

• There is a real world (e.g. common in physical sciences)

• Truly, objective reality can be assessed and represented !

17 AHM 9/20/2024
 How Qualitative research used
1. An idea generation tool: for unstudied or understudied
health problem

2. A preliminary step to aid in the development of a

quantitative study: To develop hypothesis for quantitative
study

3. The primary data collection method : for qualitative data.

E,g. Perceptions, preferences, experiences and beliefs

18 AHM 9/20/2024
 How…
4. As a follow – up of the results of a quantitative study

 Clarify unexpected finding

 Understand why some behaviors are practiced

 Describe most important factors affecting

health related phenomena

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 When to use qualitative study ?

➢ When little is known, topic is not fully understood

yet

➢ Seeking in-depth exploration of topic

➢ When depth understanding is needed

➢ When the problem is not well defined/not well

understood

20 AHM 9/20/2024
 Characteristics of Qualitative Research
1. The Natural Setting: QR must physically go to the people, site, institution,
or field
 aims at discovering the meaning ascribed to events, activities or
phenomena as they occur naturally.

 Natural environment is central.

2. The Researcher as Instrument:-

❖ Build trust, rapport, and credibility with subjects

❖ The researcher must be involved in every step of the research process

from initiation of the process to the final report writing stage.

❖ Good qualitative research starts without a priori hypotheses, as

opposed to quantitative
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Characteristics of Qualitative …

❖ Starts with data (inductive).

❖ Researcher must be involved in the research process.

❖ Qualitative researcher should be responsive, flexible, and a good listener.

3. Emergent Approach:-Research question (design) may change or be refined as

researcher learns more about subject under investigation

4. Interpretive Approach:-method for interpreting indirect meaning and a

reflective practice for unmasking hidden meaning beneath apparent meaning

5.A Holistic View:- Looking at a total rather than fragmented reality.

 The whole is more than the sum of individual parts.

 Considers multiple contextual factors and subjective realities.

22 AHM 9/20/2024
 Characteristics of Qualitative…
6. Reflexivity and Subjectivity:-Reflexivity – systematic
reflection on how personal assumptions, background biases, and
values shape a study
7. Use of Deductive and Inductive Reasoning:-Inductive
reasoning (from specific to broad) is more prevalent, but
deductive reasoning (from broad to specific) can be appropriate
8. Strategies of Inquiry: Use multiple strategies
Mixed-method – combination of both QN & Qulita. methods
9. Saturation or redundancy
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 Qualitative research designs
The common qualitative research designs are;
1. Grounded theory
2. Phenomenology
3. Ethnography
4. Case study
5. Historiography
6. Oral Histories
7. Content analysis

24 AHM 9/20/2024
 Grounded theory
▪ Grounded Theory is not a theory, but rather a methodology for

developing theories

▪ Purpose is to build theory from systematically gathered and

analyzed data inductively

▪ A key feature is the simultaneous collection and analysis of data

using a process known as constant comparative analysis

▪ In this process, data are transcribed and examined for content

immediately following data collection.

▪ Ideas which emerge from the analysis are included in data collection

when the researcher next enters the field.

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 Phenomenology
 Phenomenology literally means the study of phenomena

 Phenomena may be events, situations, experiences, life

 To examine human experiences through the descriptions provided by

the people involved (lived experience or Being, existence

 Typically focus on individual experiences of living, or of illness

 Common to have sample size of <10

 In-depth interviews are common methods to gain access to life world,

lived experiences

26 In some
AHM cases it uses audiotapes, photography, video 9/20/2024
 Phenomenology
➢ The core interest is to describe in tick the interpretation of the

experiences with regard to a phenomena (without using prior

assumption about objective reality related to phenomena)-
”Bracketing mind”

 Eg. What are the lived experiences of PLWHA?

➢ Quotes may be emphasized to guarantee a meaning of

experiences hold by each human subject

➢ It also analyzes shared meaning of experience of a

phenomenon for several individuals…to find themes.

27 ➢ It is an inductive process
AHM 9/20/2024
 Phenomenology…
Phenomenology…
Typical topics for qualitative studies incorporating
phenomenology

 Personal (patient) experiences of:

✓ Chronic disease and treatment of chronic disease (dialysis)

✓ Death and dying,

✓ Mental illness, depression, suicide

✓ Disability

✓ Childbirth, breastfeeding, motherhood

✓ Drug addiction, detoxification

 Health worker experiences of caring for people with chronic

diseases, terminal illness etc.

28 AHM 9/20/2024
 Phenomenology…

Characteristics of typical topics

✓ Experience is intense and personal

✓ Person has a lot she/he can say about the experience

✓ Little probing needed to get the person to talk about the

experience
 Procedure for clearing the mind prior to data collection or
analysis in phenomenology is called bracketing
 Every article mentions that the author “bracketed” her/his
knowledge prior to undertaking the analysis
29 AHM 9/20/2024
 Ethnography
✓ is one of the most common qualitative research design that

involves fieldwork conducted by a single investigator who

'lives with and lives like' those who are studied, usually for a
year or more (field research)
Involves fieldwork conducted by a single investigator who 'lives
with and lives like' those who are studied.

✓ A full description of a culture produced through an extensive

period of fieldwork

✓ The study of the socio-cultural contexts, processes, and

meanings within cultural system.

30 AHM 9/20/2024
 Ethnography…
✓ Ethnography study cultural system through;

Etic perspective
Researcher view, professional view

Emic perspective

• Understanding the study host from their own meaning

• Can be only achieved by being in the host community and

through daily life of the host community

• To describe a particular culture - the customs, beliefs, and

behavior based on information collected through fieldwork.

31 AHM 9/20/2024
 Ethnography….

✓ A style of qualitative research characterized by utilizing multiple

data collection methods like participant observation, Depth

inter-views, FGDs, documentary, photographs to generate a rich
understanding of social action

✓ Ethnographic research uses participant observation which

enables ethnographers to “immerse” themselves in a setting,

thereby generating a rich understanding of social action
NB. Ethnographic research can be problematic when researchers are not
sufficiently familiar with the social mores of the people being studied or with
their language.
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 Case Studies
➢ Involves studying an event, activity, program, process or one

(sample size, N=1) or more individuals

➢ Holistic understanding of single unit or bounded system (describes

a bounded system in terms of time, place …)

➢ Heavily contextualized: constructed to richly describe, explain, or
assess or evaluate a situation
 Valuable when the research aims at capturing individuals
differences or unique variations from one setting to another or
from one experience to another
➢ A ‘case’ may be simple or complex

33 ✓ Single
AHM child or Class of children, community, organization, events
9/20/2024
 Case Studies…
Sources of information
✓ Combination of qualitative and quantitative methods:

❖ Observations (Participant plus passive)

❖ Interviews, Physical artifacts,

❖ Documentation or Archival records

✓ Note: Case studies can be entirely quantitative???

 Contexts of a case

➢ Situating the case within its setting (contexts) like,

✓ Physical, Social, Historical, Economic, Cultural etc…

 Often the reason you do a case study is due to the impossibility of separating

34 a case
AHM from its context! 9/20/2024
 Case Studies…
Cases can be:
 A life history, An illness episode, A pregnancy

 A particular event as experienced by many people

 The experience of an organization or programs

 Many other possibilities

 Elements of a case study

✓ The problem

✓ The context

✓ The issues

✓ The “lessons learned”

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 Content Analysis
 A technique for making inferences by systematically and

objectively identifying special characteristics of messages

 Objective analysis of messages (written or oral) is accomplished by

means of explicit rules called criteria of selection which must be

established before the actual analysis of data.

 The criteria of selection used in any given content analysis must be

sufficiently exhaustive to account for each variation of message

content and must be rigidly applied

 So that other researchers looking at the same messages would

obtain
AHM
the same or comparable results.
36 9/20/2024
 Population in qualitative study
 Parent population

“the population from which the sample is to be drawn.”

 Study population usually involves people.

 But, in ethnographic research, it might be documents, visual

images, events, processes or settings.

 Whatever the unit of study, it will be necessary to define the

parent population
There are three key questions that need to be addressed in defining the
population for study:

1. Decide which group or subpopulation is of central interest to the

37 AHM 9/20/2024
subject
 Population in ….
1. Decide if there are subsets of the central population that should be
excluded from the study.

2. . Identify if there are additional groups or subpopulations that

should be included

❖ supplementary parent population

✓ their views and experiences would bring contrasting or

✓ complementary insights to the enquiry.

For example, in a study exploring marriage breakdown
lone couples=study population
religious leaders and lawyers =supplementary parent population

38 AHM 9/20/2024
 Sample size
No hard and fast rule

Guiding principle is data saturation: to the point at which no new

idea is obtained and redundancy is achieved.

Approaches to determine sample size

Previous pilot studies

Similar studies in the literature

Based on the concept of redundancy or saturation

Based on the concept of range, that is, the number of interviews,

observations … that are needed to capture a representative view
39 ofAHM
the phenomenon. 9/20/2024
 Sample size
▪ In general, the sample size in QR depends on:

• The purpose of the study,

• Specific research questions to be addressed,

• Available time and resources, and

• The credibility of the information generated.

▪ The heterogeneous or homogeneous nature of the sample

▪ The data collection methods employed; e.g., FGDs tend to be

more productive and manageable if participants have some

commonality.
40 AHM 9/20/2024
 Sample size
▪ The scope of the research question

▪ The intensive nature of the study; whether multiple samples are

required, or not

▪ The nature or sensitivity of the phenomena:-To gain sufficient

data and deep understanding of perceived sensitive and

controversial phenomena more interviews required

▪ The ability, experience or knowledge of researcher :- researcher

with more experience and strong interviewing skills will require

fewer participants
41 AHM 9/20/2024
General guidelines
❖ Semi-structured interviews

◦ 30-60 participants

❖ 5-8 for a homogenous sample

❖ 12-20 for a maximum variation sample

❖ For group discussion samples around 12 to 14 groups

• At least two FGDs for each defining demographic variable should

be conducted.

❖ NB;- All adjusted for factors noted previously

AHM 9/20/2024
42
 Sampling in qualitative research
Sampling strategy used in qualitative research are based upon non
probability sampling.
In qualitative research, purposive sampling technique is commonly
used in selecting the study participants.
Purposive sampling in contrast to probabilistic sampling, is selecting
study subjects based on their ability to generate rich information.
Do not seek representativeness – seek the individuals with the most
information about the topic
Justification for the decisions on sample is linked to the specific aims and
research questions
Sample design is flexible, and will usually evolve as the study progresses

43 AHM 9/20/2024
 Considerations in sampling

 Purpose of qualitative research

– Produce information-rich data

– Depth rather than breadth
– Insight rather than generalization
• Conceptual rather than numerical
considerations
– Choose information-rich sites and respondents
44 AHM 9/20/2024
 Sampling issues

 The aim of sampling in qualitative research is

– to describe the processes involved in a phenomenon, not its
distribution.
– to identify the cases that will provide a full and sophisticated
understanding of all aspects of the phenomenon.
– to select information-rich cases for studying in depth.
– to generalize about the nature and interpretative processes
involved in the experiences
45 AHM 9/20/2024
 Sampling techniques in QR
1. Snowball or chain sampling: (“chain referrals”) Further

sampling through informants identify others who know a lot

about the issue

2. Extreme or deviant case sampling: learning from highly

unusual manifestations and/ or typical situations. useful to test

emerging theories/concepts.

3. Homogeneous sampling: useful to identify most common

phenomenon/issue; focus on similar types of respondents,

46
simplifies
AHM analysis, facilitates group interviewing (FGD)9/20/2024
 Sampling techniques….
4.Maximum variation sampling (heterogeneous
sampling): documents diverse variations. Useful to
identify patterns that exist among different groups
5. Convenience sampling: selecting readily available
respondents; the weakest sampling scheme due to low
credibility. Saves time, money and effort, lacks
credibility!
6. Opportunistic sampling: on- the- spot decision to take

47
advantage
AHM
of unforeseen opportunities in field. 9/20/2024
 Data Collection methods in QR
Major data collection techniques
1. FGD
2. In-depth interview
3.Behavioral Observation
4. Document Analysis
5. Photographs and Videos

48 AHM 9/20/2024
 1. Focus Group Discussions (FGD)
 Is a qualitative research method used to collects data through

group interaction on a topic determined by the researcher.

 A qualitative data collection technique involving guided

discussions on issue among a group of participants facilitated

by a moderator

Individuals assembled by a researcher

Discussion from experience

Group interaction between the participants

49 AHM 9/20/2024
 FGD…
6-12 people

Homogeneous
Diversity inhibits free discussion

Group composition influence group interaction

Moderator/recorder

1 to 1½ hr

A minimum of 4 groups.

50 AHM 9/20/2024
 When to use Focus groups?
Group interaction. If we want to produce richer
responses as a result of social dynamics or interaction

1. Social norms related to a given topic: To learn how

participants talk to each other about the topic

2. When subject matter is not so sensitive.

3. Cost and timing. can be done more quickly and

generally less expensively

51 AHM 9/20/2024
 What is not an FGD ?
• When not arranged for research purposes

• When not focused on a topic of inquiry

• When is a series of questions is asked

sequentially to each participant without real
discussion between participants

52 AHM 9/20/2024
 The Role of the FGD Moderator
Should be experienced

Ensures the discussion runs smoothly

Ensures the discussion remains focused

Maintains group dynamics

Good verbal and interpersonal skill

Non-judgmental (neither agree nor disagree)

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The Role of the Recorder

Note-taking

May use tape recorder (ensures that the whole

interview is captured, and provides complete data)

Prepares detailed summaries at the end of each

discussion

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 Advantages of FGD
Inexpensive
Flexible
Quick result

Probing possible

Participants provide checks and balances, minimizing false or

extreme views
Generate hypothesis
Brainstorming and interaction
Stimulating new ideas and concepts
55 AHM 9/20/2024
 Disadvantage of FGD

Data not quantitative????

May not be representative???

Not appropriate for discussing private or sensitive

issues

Discussions may be dominated by few individuals

Data analysis difficult

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 Wrong way of FGD

57 AHM 9/20/2024
 Right way of FGD

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 2. In-depth interview
An exchange between one interviewer and one
respondent

One-to-one

Detailed information from an individual

Enable the participants to talk freely about their

lives/experiences

Probing deeper into individual attitudes

Lasts for 30-90 minutes

59
Minimum sample size 10-30
AHM 9/20/2024
 Key Informant Interviews
Key informant – actor in a social group (community
leaders, etc)

Are qualitative in-depth interviews

Insiders with special knowledge and skill

Speak on behalf of others

Links the researcher to the community

Provides detailed data on specific areas

Your trusted advisor

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 IDI…

61 AHM 9/20/2024
 When to use?
When the issue is sensitive or confidential topics

When peer pressure is expected to distort facts

Dispersed respondents

Interviewees can be either “key informants” or

“ordinary people”.

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 In-depth Interviews cont…
Advantages -

➢ Is flexible and responsive to the discussion taking place

➢ explore sensitive issues

➢ Enables gaining in-depth or detailed information.

➢ Greater participation of the informant

64 AHM 9/20/2024
 In-depth Interviews cont…
Disadvantages:-

❖Time consuming

❖ Needs competent interviewer

❖Applications is only feasible in small populations

❖Between interviewer variation i.e. lower reliability

65 AHM 9/20/2024
 3.Behavioral Observation
Systematic watching and careful recording of what
people do and say … in naturally occurring settings.

The goal is to assess the actual behavior in natural

context and to get information that respondents don’t
recall

 Direct observation (Insider)

 Indirect observation (Outsider)

 Can be combined with other qualitative methods

67 AHM 9/20/2024
4. Document Review

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68
 4.Document Analysis
❖ Negotiate access to important documents at the beginning of the

study Can help the researcher to identify what needs to be

pursued further in direct observation and interviews

❖ Use checklist to guide document review

❖ Examination of records

➢ Newsletters, news releases

➢ Records (student)

➢ Minutes from meetings

➢ Philosophy statements

69 ➢AHM
Diaries, letters 9/20/2024
 5. Photographs and Videos

➢ Use to gain insight into how people view and

interpret their world

➢ It's benefits are as an aid to recall, multiple

interpretation, and reaching a wider audience.

E.g. film on homeless to mobilize community

action or public funding.

70 AHM 9/20/2024
71 AHM 9/20/2024
 Trustworthiness/ Soundness in QR
❖ Ensuring the quality of data is the main activity of the

researcher both in qualitative and quantitative research.

❖ This is important, particularly for qualitative research, where

the challenge of understanding and making meaning is put

upon the researcher.

❖ The four criteria for assessing the trustworthiness of

qualitative research findings are: truth value, applicability,

consistency and neutrality.

72 AHM 9/20/2024
 Ensuring trustworthiness…

Qualitative Issue Quantitative

Credibility Truth value Internal validity
• Subjective realties • Lack of bias

Transferability Applicability External validity

• Lessons can be applied to • Generalizability to
other contexts outside the source
population
Dependability Consistency Reliability
• Same method does not • Repeated
produce same result measurements arrive
at the same result
Conformability Neutrality Objectivity
• Neutrality to data, Honest to • Researcher is
findings
AHM
distant and detached
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observer
 Strategies for improving quality
Criteria Issue Solution
Credibility Truth value •Prolonged engagement
•Triangulation
•Peer-debriefing
•Negative case analysis
•Member checks

Transferability Applicability Thick Description/Rich data

Dependability Consistency Audit Trial/peer debriefing
Conformability
74 AHM
Neutrality Audit Trial 9/20/2024
 Qualitative data analysis
Qualitative raw data include:
➢ Written texts:

✓ Field notes and Supporting documents

➢ Audio and/or Visual Data:

✓ Recordings of IDI, FGD or consultations

✓ Photos, Videos

Note: These must be ready for analysis (transcribed!)

 Producing a written version of the interview

 30 minutes interview ≈ 2 ½ hrs to transcribe (1 interview up

to 20 pages)
75 AHM 9/20/2024
 Analysis…
Processes of analysis (after verbatim transcription)

1. Reading / Data immersion-listen-read-think (content!)

❖ Read for content
✓ Have you obtained the desired information?

✓ Identify emergent themes and develop tentative

explanations (memo-ing may be used)

❖ Read noting the quality of the data
➢ Have you obtained superficial or rich/deep responses?

➢ Is there sufficient contextual detail?

76 AHM 9/20/2024
 Qualitative data analysis…
❖ Read identifying patterns in themes

➢ Examine how these are patterned

✓ Do the themes occur in all or some of the data

✓ Are their relationships between themes

✓ Are there contradictory responses

✓ Are there gaps in understanding – for further

exploration

77 AHM 9/20/2024
 Qualitative data analysis…
2. Coding:- is symbol or numbers assigned to part of text
➢ No standard rules of how to code

➢ Record coding decisions (you may use memo)

➢ Styles of coding: Inductive versus deductive coding!

➢ Inductive coding: grounded analysis/iterative process,

✓ codes come directly from the text

➢ Deductive coding: predetermined themes/codes

✓ From literature/advisor/prior knowledge

78 AHM 9/20/2024
 Qualitative data analysis…
3. Displaying data

➢ During after coding, look for possible connections b/n

codes (causal r/s, aspects or parts of subcategories etc)

➢ Build primary themes

➢ Identify sub-themes and explore in greater depth

➢ Capture the variation or richness of each theme

➢ Note differences between individuals and sub-groups

➢ Return to the data and examine evidence that supports each

sub-theme
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 Qualitative data analysis…

4. Developing hypotheses, questioning and verification

➢ Extract meaning from the data

➢ Do the categories developed make sense?

➢ What pieces of information contradict my emerging

ideas?
➢ What pieces of information are missing or

underdeveloped?
➢ What other opinions should be taken into account?

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 Qualitative data analysis…
5. Data reduction: search for communalities
✓ i.e. distill the information to make visible the most essential
concepts and relationships

➢ Get an overall sense of the data

➢ Distinguish primary/main and secondary/sub- themes
➢ Separate essential from non-essential data
➢ Use visual devices – e.g. matrices, diagrams

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 Data reduction…
 Physical reduction:(putting codes of similar names

together just like creating labels in a filing cabinet with

no analytical bite

 Conceptual reduction of data: Thinking through

meaning by coding-memo-ing-recoding for meaning:
content analysis!

 In all cases listen-read-think of your data

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 Qualitative data analysis…

6. Interpretation
✓ Identifying the core meaning of the data, remaining
faithful to the perspectives of the study participants
but with wider social and theoretical relevance

➢ Credibility of attributed meaning

✓ Consistent with data collected

✓ Verified with respondents

✓ Present multiple perspectives (convergent and

divergent views)
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 Summery of presentation
✓ Qualitative research (QR) method involves the use of qualitative data, in order to understand
and explain a social phenomenon.
✓ Qualitative research designs:
1. Grounded theory 3. Ethnography
2. Phenomenology 4. Case study
✓ Sampling in qualitative research
Purposeful sampling, quota sampling, snowball sampling
✓ Sample size: DATA SATURATION: sampling to the point at which no new information is
obtained and redundancy is achieved
✓ Major data collection techniques
1. FGD 3. In-depth interview
2. Behavioral Observation 4. key informant interview
✓ Trustworthiness
 Credibility Dependability
 Transferability Confirmability

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 References
1. Qualitative Methods In Health Research Opportunities and
Considerations In Application and Review,2007
2. 6.http://sped.ed.utah.edu/courses/SPED%206610/Powerpoi
nts/261,6,Characteristics of Qualitative Research
3. Principles of Qualitative Research: Designing a Qualitative
Study John W. Creswell, Ph.D. Vicki L. Plano Clark, M.S.
4. Introduction to research methods(preparatory module for
Addis Ababa University graduate programs),sept.2009
5. WHO 1969. Research in Health education Report of a WHO
scientific group. TRS 432. WHO Geneva
6. . Leiyu shi, health service research methods; university of
Carolina, 1997
7. Research methods: Data analysis Qualitative analysis of data
Recording experiences and meanings,2004
8. Sampling Designs in Qualitative Research: Making the
AHM
Sampling Process More Public, 2007
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 Thank you for your attention !!!

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