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DISASTER READINESS
AND RISK REDUCTION
LESSON TITLE:
RELATED GEOLOGICAL HAZARDS
a. Rainfall-induced landslides
b. Sinkholes

In this lesson, we will focus primarily on other related

geological hazards such as rainfall-induced landslide and
sinkholes. Let’s explore how understanding these threats make
us better able to avoid or reduce their potential harmful effect.

Geologic hazards are events which occur irregularly in time and space and
cause negative impact on man and the environment. These events involve the
energy transformation of masses of soil, rocks, the lithosphere and water in various
combinations and conditions. Their non-rhythmic occurrence makes their
predictability difficult. An important characteristic of many geologic hazards is their
prime land preference- the characteristic of preferentially occupying areas targeted
by man for his use.

1.1 LANDSLIDE
Have you ever seen a video of landslide? Landslides are powerful geologic
events that happen suddenly and cause devastation in areas with unstable hills,
slopes and cliff sides. In this SLK, we will focus primarily on the types and causes of
landslide and sinkholes.

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Rainfall-
induced landslide
https://www.phivolcs.dost.gov.ph/vault/images/landslide/rain-induced.JPG

A landslide, also known as landslip, is a geological phenomenon that

includes wide range of ground movements, such as rock falls, deep failure of
slopes, and shallow debris flows. Landslide can occur in offshore, coastal and
onshore environments. Although the action of gravity is the primary driving force
for a landslide to occur, there are other contributing factors affecting the original
slope stability.

1.2 Anatomy of Landslide

Three distinct physical

events occur during a
landslide: the initial slope
failure, the subsequent
transport, and the final
deposition of the slide
materials.

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 Landslide model in various
places.

1.3 COMMON TYPES OF LANDSLIDES

Landslides can be classified into different types on the basis of the

type of movement and the type of material involved. In other words, material
in a landslide mass is either rock or soil (or both); this is described as earth if
mainly composed of sand-sized or finer particles and debris if composed of
coarser fragments. The type of movement describes the actual internal
mechanics of how the landslide mass is displaced: fall, topple, slide, or flow.
Thus, landslides are described using two terms that refer respectively to
material and movement. For example, rockfall, debris flow, and so forth.

A.) Rotational Landslides

Unconsolidated materials (such
as soil and debris) move down-
slope in a distinctive rotational
motion, usually occurs on
moderate to steep slopes.
.

B.) Translational Landslides

Down-slope movement of soil
and/or rock on a plane of
weak material can occur on
relatively moderate to steep
slopes, especially in weak
geologic materials.

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 C.) Rock Fall
Rapid, near vertical, movement of
rocks that involves free-falling,
bouncing, and rolling; often occurs
in areas with near vertical
exposures on rock.

D.) Rock toppling occurs

when one or more rock units
rotate about their base and
collapse.

E.) Debris Flow: Down slope

movement of collapsed,
unconsolidated material
typically along a stream
channel.

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 What really causes landslide? Why does it occur?

Landslides occur when there is compromise in the stability of the land

formation, or a trigger. Triggers can be naturally-occurring, human-made or a
combination of the two.

1.4 CAUSES OF LANDSLIDES

A. NATURAL FACTORS
Natural causes of landslides include:
1. Heavy and/or prolonged rain
Gravity is an invisible force that pulls all objects toward the Earth. The effect of gravity
is more prominent on a steep slope or on a hilly area. When rain falls, water enters or
infiltrates into the top soil which makes the soil become heavier and therefore more
vulnerable to the pull of gravity. When soil absorbs all the water that is capable of
holding, it is said to be saturated. Soil is therefore heaviest when saturated. When
large areas of soil become saturated on steep slopes, the pull of gravity causes the
top layers of the soil to slide downhill, therefore resulting in a landslide.
2. Tremors and shakes
An earthquake is a tremor or movement in the Earth’s crust. They are deadly and
unpredictable type of natural disaster and are the leading reason for landslides or
rock falls occurring worldwide. Loose soil, rocks and boulders can easily be dislodged
from hilly areas and allowed to move downhill when the violent shaking of the ground
transpires.
3. Volcanic activity
Landslides can happen at any mountain where the slope of the mountain has become
less stable, but they are commonly associated with volcanic activity because the
volcanic mountain is weakened by the magma and pressure brewing inside. For
example, magma can get injected into volcanic rock and the sides of the volcano as it
rises toward the surface. This can weaken the slopes of the volcano, leading to a
landslide.
B. MAN-MADE FACTORS

Human induced activities that produce landslides:

1. Deforestation
It is the removal or cutting down of trees and other types of vegetation from
the land. The firm roost of the trees also helps to keep the soil in place, even
when it absorbs water, thus diminishing the effects that gravity has on the
soil.
2. Quarrying/Mining
It refers to the cutting away or excavation of hilly or mountainous areas so
that rocks and minerals can be extracted from the land. Mining operations
that use blasting techniques often 5cause other areas that are at the risk of
sliding to slide due to vibrations under the soil.
3. Bad agricultural practices such as slash and burn agriculture
For example, an earthquake may trigger a landslide, which in turn may dam a
valley causing upstream flooding and subsequent dam burst. This will lead to
flooding in lower catchments areas.

1.5 SIGNS OF IMPENDING LANDSLIDE

• New cracks or unusual bulges in the ground, street pavements or

sidewalks.
• Tilted or cracked chimney.
• Doors or windows that stick or jam for the first time.
• Outside walls, walkways, o stairs start pulling away from the house.
• Soil moves away from the foundation.
• Plumbing or gas lines develop leaks.
• Bulging ground at base of slope.
• Leaning fence posts or retaining walls.
• Springs, seeps, or saturated soil in areas that have been typically dry.
• Cracks in the ground.
Tilted trees or utility poles.

2.1 SINKHOLES

Sinkholes are geologic

formations that are formed by
erosion of bedrocks composed of
soft minerals and rock. It can also
be due to the lack of water that
supports thin earth surface and
human activities that change the
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form of the land surface.
Sinkholes might change in size
from 1 to 600 m (3.3 to 2,000 ft)
 How do Geologists classify sinkholes and what
makes each different?

There are three different types of sinkholes and their formation is dependent
on the specific stratigraphy (the different layers of soils and rock below the
surface) of a given region. Here is a brief overview of the most common
types.
2.2 TYPES OF SINKHOLES

COVER COLLAPSE SINKHOLE

Cover-collapse sinkholes may develop abruptly (over a period of hours)
and thus cause catastrophic damages. They occur where the covering
sediments contain a significant amount of clay. Over time, surface drainage,
COVER-SUBSIDENCE
erosion, and deposition SINKHOLES
of sinkhole into a shallower bowl-shaped depression.
These tend to develop gradually where the covering sediments are permeable
and contain sand. In areas where cover material is thicker or sediments contain
more clay, cover-subsidence sinkholes are relatively uncommon and therefore may
not be seen frequently. They are smaller and thus may go undetected for long
periods.

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 DISSOLUTION SINKHOLES

These sinkholes are the result of not being much groundcover, like vegetation,
over the bedrock. It happens when water slips through pre-existing holes in the
bedrock and begins to circulate through the bedrock.

Where do sinkholes occur?

Sinkholes are commonly found in what geologists call Karst Terrain.

Karst terrain are regions where the type of rock below the land surface can
naturally be dissolved by underground water circulating through them. About
20% or our country is underlain by Karst terrain.

2.3 CAUSES OF SINKHOLES

Sinkholes can be natural or man-made.

Natural sinkholes occur due to erosion or underground water. They start

developing long time before it actually appears. The ground beneath our feet is
not as much of a solid structure as we think it is. The ground is made from dirt,
along with many rocks and minerals. There is water continuously seeping in
between the mud, rocks and minerals, as it makes its way down to the ground
water reservoirs. As this happens, the water slowly erodes the rocks and
minerals. Sometimes the flow of water increases to a point when it washes away
the underground structure of the land. And when the structure becomes too
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weak to support the surface of the earth, it collapses and opens up a hole. This
is how sinkholes are formed.
 Humans are also responsible for the formation of sinkholes.
Activities like drilling, mining, construction, broken water or drain pipes,
improperly compacted soil after excavation work or even heavy traffic can result
in small to large sinkholes. Water from broken pipe can penetrate through mud
and rocks and erode the ground underneath and cause sinkholes. Sometimes,
heavy weight on soft soil can result in collapse of ground, resulting in a sinkhole,
sinkholes can also from when the land surface is changed.

2.4 SIGNS OF IMPENDING SINKHOLE

Sinkholes rarely strike without giving some warning in the surrounding

environment or in a nearby home. Here are signs to watch for that may indicate a
problem:
1. Trees or fence posts that tilt or fall
2. New small ponds that appear after the rain
3. Cracks in the ground
4. Rapid appearance of a hole in the ground
5. Dead patches of grass or plants
6. Wilted vegetation in a limited area
7. Well water that is discolored or contaminated with debris
8. New or widening cracks
9. Cracks around door and window frames
10. Earthy odor in home after rain
All homes are subject to some settling. Any of these signs could exist without
the presence of a sinkhole; however, the presence of one or more calls for further
careful observation and an abundance of caution.
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 3.1 MITIGATION STRATEGIES AND PREVENTION OF GELOGICAL
HAZARD

Geologic hazards play a very crucial role when infrastructures are built in
their presence. The unpredictable nature of geologic hazards makes
determining, evaluating and mitigating against them a unique challenge. The
best geologic mitigation strategy is always avoidance. However, when avoiding
hazard is not feasible, mitigation strategies must be developed to coexist with the
hazard.
Below are the mitigation strategies to prevent the detrimental effects of

3.2 LANDSLIDE MITIGATION STRATEGIES

1. Hazard Mapping will locate areas prone to slope failures. This will permit
to identify avoidance of areas for building settlements.
2. Land use practices such as
a. Areas covered by degraded natural vegetation in upper slopes are to
be afforested with suitable species. Existing patches of natural
vegetation (forest and natural grass lands) in good condition, should
b. be
Anypreserved.
developmental activity initiated in the area should be taken up
only after a detailed study of the region and slope protection should
be carried out if necessary.
c. Total avoidance of settlement in the risk zone should be made
mandatory
d. Relocate settlements and infrastructure that fall in the possible path
of the landslide
3. Retaining Walls can be built to stop land from slipping (these walls are
commonly seen along roads in hill stations). It’s constructed to prevent
smaller sized and secondary landslide that often occur along the toe
portion of the larger landslides.
4. Surface Drainage Control Works- The surface drainage control works
are implemented to control the movement of landslides accompanied by
infiltration of rain water and spring flows.
5. Engineered structures with strong foundations can withstand or take the
ground movement forces.
6. Underground installations (pipes, cables, etc.) should be made flexible
to move in order to withstand forces caused by the landslide.
7. Increasing vegetation cover is the cheapest and most effective way of
arresting landslides. This helps to bind the top layer of the soil with layers
below, while preventing excessive run-off and soil erosion.
8. Insurance will assist individuals whose homes are likely to be damaged by
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landslides or by any other hazard.
 3.3 SINKHOLES MITIGATION STRATEGIES

Depending on where you live, sinkholes can be a major issue affecting

homes and public land. There are no foolproof ways to prevent sinkholes, but
you can limit their threat by taking care of your home and land, and being
aware of local concerns.
1. Ensure that houses and roads are not constructed on or near caves
2. Never direct water towards sinkholes
3. Never dump rubbish in sinkholes
4. Reduce soil erosion
5. Promote plant cover- bare ground lead to poor soil structure enabling
activities to be exposed.

Landslides are not uncommon in the Philippines.

Here are some major landslides in the country in the last two decades. Almost all
of these happened in the midst of heavy rain that loosened the soil in landslide-
prone areas.
On August 3, 1999, heavy rain
induced by Typhoon Ising spelled
disaster for residents of Cherry
Hills Subdivision in Antipolo City,
when the ground beneath them
broke apart and slid down the
mountain. Houses went down
along with the landslide, while
those living down the slope were
buried in mud and concrete. A
total of 60 people died.
Cherry-hills-subdivision-landslide-afp-20150803.jpg

A low pressure area brought

nonstop rain to Panaoan Island
at the tip of southern Leyte on
December 19, 2003. That
evening, loose soil, boulders and
debris rolled down towards
houses in Barangay Pinut-an in
11 San Ricardo town, and in Sitio
Lutao and Barangay Punta in
Liloan town. Authorities reported
154 people dead in Panaoan
Guinsaugon-2006-afp-4.jpg

A new sinkhole in Sta. Fe town in

Bantayan Island was found in July last
year that forced families in Sitio
Dapdap, Barangay Langub to
relocate. Initially, the hole is two to
three feet wide but grew wider
according to residents. The sinkhole
was about 40 feet wide and 4 feet
deep.

Sinkhole Sta. Fe I Credit: Paul Esgana/Cebu Daily News

Reports said the sinkhole in Badian

town continues to grow wider.
When it was discovered late last
year, it was only five meters wide
and 10 meters deep. Geologists
said could be attributed to the
prolonged and intense rains and
earthquake.
A sinkhole appear sin barangay Banhigan Badian twon after the storm
Credit: Cebu Daily News

Sinkhole in Kabankalan City, Negros

Occidental. Six people have reportedly
fallen into a 12 deep sinkhole that
suddenly appeared in the middle of a
basketball court in Purok Jalandoni,
Barangay Oringao in Kabankalan City,
Negros Occidental in July 2019. MGB
said the hole may have been created by
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water flowing underground.
..\..\Sinkhole-Kabankalan City-Negros-Occidental.png

Geologic processes like landslides and sinkholes have the

potential to cause great harm and constitute hazards. There
are two major strategies for reducing these impacts:
1) avoiding the hazards, for example, by building structures
and lifelines out of harm’s way or by evacuating a threatened
area, and
2) building structures to withstand the effects of the hazard.
Implementing these strategies in a cost-effective and
acceptable manner requires reliable information about where
and where hazards are likely to occur, and what their
consequences might be.

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