CAIE-Checkpoint-Science - Chemistry

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UPDATED TO 2023-2025 SYLLABUS
CAIE CHECKPOINT
SCIENCE
SUMMARIZED NOTES ON THE THEORY SYLLABUS
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CAIE CHECKPOINT SCIENCE
Organics Acids and Mineral Acids

1. Material Changes
The acids produced by plants and animals (exception of
People have known since the time of the Ancient hydrochloric acid) are known as organic acids.
Egyptians and Greeks that some substances taste sour Ethanoic is also an organic acid
and some feel slippery. Mineral acids are not produced by living things and their
Early examples of slippery substances included discovery began with the work of chemists such as
potash found in the ashes of burnt wood. Geber.
Soda is made from the evaporation of some The first mineral acid to be discovered was nitric acid,
solutions. which was used to separate silver and gold.
Lime made from the burning of seashells. When the acid was applied to a mixture of the two
Vinegar is probably the best example of a sour- metals it dissolved the silver but not the gold
tasting liquid. Later, sulfuric acid and then hydrochloric acid was
A great deal of early investigation work in chemistry was discovered.
done in Islamic countries, starting about 1200 years ago.
One of the greatest Muslim chemists at that time was 1.2. The Origin of Alkalis
Jabir Ibn Haiyan, also known as Geber.
He worked on many investigations which resulted The word alkali was developed from al-qaliy, which is an
in him devising new apparatus and discovering Arabic word that means ‘the ashes’
di!erent kinds of acids.
Uses of Alkalis In Our Life
1.1. The Origin of Acid
Sodium hydroxide and potassium hydroxide solution are
Scientists developed the word acid from acidus, which is examples of alkalis that are used in laboratories.
the Latin word for sour. Calcium hydroxide also called slaked lime is used in
An acid is a substance that has a pH lower than 7 many industries to make products such as bleach and
For example, hydrochloric acid, sulphuric acid, citric whitewash.
acid, ethanoic acid (vinegar) A weak solution of calcium hydroxide that used in
Most people think of acids as corrosive liquids that fizz laboratories known as limewater
when they come into the contact with solids and burn It is used to test for carbon dioxide gas. If this gas
when they touch the skin passes through limewater, it turns the limewater
Some acids are not corrosive and are found in our milky
food. A concentrated solution of an alkali is corrosive and can
burn the skin. The same hazard symbol as the one used
Acids with plant origin Acid with animal origin for acids.
Citric acid in orange and lemon Hydrochloric acid in the Even dilute sodium hydroxide solution reacts with fat on
juice mammalian stomach the surface of the skin and changes it into substances
The lactic acid in muscles during found in soap.
Tartaric acid in grapes
vigorous exercise Many household cleaners used on metal, floors, and
Ascorbic acid (vitamin C) in ovens contain alkalis and must be handled with great
Uric acid in urine
citrus fruits and blackcurrants care
Methanoic acid in nettle stings Methanoic in ant sting
The Acid in Vinegar

1.3. Who’s Invented The Indicator?
Ethanoic acid is found in vinegar and produces as wine

becomes sour.
The wine contains ethanol and also has some oxygen
dissolved in it from the air.
The oxygen reacts with the ethanol and converts it to
ethanoic acid
This chemical reaction happens more quickly if the wine
bottle is left uncorked.
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Robert Boyle was an Irish scientist who lived over 300 The pH scale runs from 0-14.
years ago. On this scale, the strongest acid is 0 and the strongest
He studied acids and alkalis and decided to try and find alkali is 14.
an easy way to identify them. A strong acid has a pH of 0-2, a weak acid has a pH of 3-
It all started when he knew that in France workers who 6.
made silk clothes dyed them with the juices of plants and Neutral solutions have a pH of 7. For example, pure
he began testing the plant juices to see if they would water.
solve this problem. A weak alkali has a pH of 8-11 and a strong alkali has a
When acid is added to red cabbage juice, it turns pH of 12-14.
from purple to red. We can use indicators to test the pH of a substance. An
When alkali is added, the juice turns from purple to indicator is a substance that changes color when it is
green. added to acidic or alkaline solutions.
He also found that juices from violets turned purple Each indicator changes color over part over a range of
with acid and greenish-yellow with an alkali. the scale.
There is 20 indicator that scientist use. Here are some of By combining the indicators, a solution is made that
the examples: gives di!erent colors over the whole pH range.
Litmus (liquid or paper) 1.5. What is Neutralisation?

Litmus indicator solution turns red in acidic solutions
When an acid reacts with an alkali, a process called
and blue in alkaline solutions. It turns purple in neutral
neutralization occurs in which salt and water are
solutions.
formed. This reaction can be written as a general word
Litmus solution is purple.
equation:
Litmus paper for testing an acid is blue.
Acid + alkali = salt + water
Litmus paper for testing an alkali is red.
Hydrochloric acid + Sodium hydroxide = Sodium
Red Litmus Blue Litmus chloride + water
Acidic Solution Stays red Turns red Sulfuric acid + potassium hydroxide = potassium
Neutral Solution Stays red Stays blue sulfate + water
Alkaline Solution Turns blue Stays blue
Nitric acid + Sodium hydroxide = Sodium nitrate +
water
Sodium hydrogen carbonate is a white solid. It is not an
Universal Indicator (liquid or paper)
alkali but dissolves in water to produce an alkaline
solution.
The universal indicator has many color changes,
It also takes part in neutralization reactions with acids
from red for strongly acidic solutions to dark purple for
but produces another substance as well as salt and
strongly alkaline solutions. In the middle, neutral pH
water. It produces carbon dioxide:
seven is indicated by green.
Sodium hydrogen carbonate + hydrochloric acid =
Sodium chloride + carbon dioxide + water.
1.4. The pH Scale Sodium hydrogen carbonate is also called sodium
bicarbonate.
Using Neutralisation Reactions
Insect stings
A bee sting is acidic and may be neutralization by soap,

which is an alkali.
A wasp sting is alkaline and maybe neutralized with
vinegar, which is a weak acid.
Curing Indigestion
Sodium bicarbonate is used in some of the tables that Heat is released during the reaction
are made to cure indigestion. The energy gives their energy to its surrounding
Indigestion is caused by the stomach making too many As a result, the temperature is increased
acids as it digests food. Also known as a hot reaction
When a tablet of sodium bicarbonates is swallowed, the If the result of ΔH is negative (-), it’s exothermic
chemical dissolves to make an alkaline solution, which Examples: Burning, oxidation
neutralizes the acid in the stomach and cures 2H2 (g) + O2 (g)=2H2O(i) + energy
indigestion. H2O(g)=H2O(i) + energy
Baking A Cake Endothermic Reaction
Baking powder contains a mixture of solid acid and Heat is absorbed during the reaction
sodium bicarbonate. The reaction gets the energy from its surrounding
We have to provide energy, which can be absorbed
When the baking powder is mixed with water and flour to during the reaction for the chemical process that occurs
make a cake, the acid, and the sodium bicarbonate dissolve If the result of ΔH is positive, it’s endothermic
in the water and take part in a neutralization reaction. Examples: Melting of ice
Energy + 2HgO (s)=2Hg(i) + O2(g)
The carbon dioxide gas forms bubbles in the mixture and
Energy +H2O (s)=H2O (i)
makes it rise to give the cake a light mixture
A Model Volcano 1.7. Reactivity

To do this, you may have added a tablespoon of sodium The chemistry of the metals is studied by analyzing their
bicarbonate, called baking soda, to an empty plastic reactions with water, dilute acid, and oxygen
drink bottle and then built a mound of sand around the Based on these reactions, a reactivity series of metals
bottle so that it looked like a conical volcano. can be produced
Finally, you may have added red dye to half a cup of The series can be used to place a group of metals
vinegar, then poured the vinegar into the bottle. in order of reactivity based on the observations of their
Moments later a red froth would have emerged from reactions with water, acid, and oxygen
the top of the bottle and flowed down the cone sand,
like lava flowing down a volcano. Reactivity Of Metals
Fighting A Fire Metals can be arranged in a reactivity series based on

the reactions of the metals and their
The soda-acid fire extinguisher contains a bottle of compounds. The reactivity series lists elements (mostly
sulfuric acid and a solution of sodium bicarbonate. metals) in order of decreasing reactivity. Understanding
When the plunger is struck or the extinguisher is the reactivity series is fundamental to chemistry; it
turned upside down, the acid mixes with the sodium explains why most reactions happen and what changes
bicarbonate solution, and a neutralization reaction the particles will undergo during the reaction.
takes place. From the most reactive: Potassium, Sodium, Lithium,
The pressure of the carbon dioxide produced in Calcium, Magnesium, Aluminum, Carbon, Zinc, Iron,
the reaction pushes the water out of the Hydrogen, Copper, Silver, Gold
extinguisher and onto the fire.
1.6. Types Of Reaction During The Heat

Change
Exothermic Reaction
Reaction with Reaction with Reaction with
Metal The speed of the reaction
Water Acid Oxygen
Reacts quickly in Reactions take place when particles collide with a certain
Potassium Reacts violently Reacts violently
air amount of energy
Reacts quickly in For a reaction to take place between two reactant
Sodium Reacts quickly Reacts violently
air particles, there are three conditions that are necessary
Reacts less Reacts The two-particle must collide with each other
Calcium Reacts readily
strongly vigorously They must collide in the correct orientation
Reacts The reactive parts of each particle will come into
Magnesium Reacts readily
vigorously contact with each other
Reacts less The reactants must collide with su"cient kinetic
Zinc Reacts
strongly energy to bring about the reaction
Reacts less The rate of reaction depends on two things:
Iron Reacts
strongly
The frequency of collision between particles
Hydrogen Reacts
The energy with which particles collide
Copper Reacts If the particles collide with less energy than the
activation energy, they will not react.
Reactions In The Reactivity Series
Factors A!ect The Rate of Reaction
Displacement reaction: one of the elements has been
pushed out of the compound it was in and replaced by a Temperature
more reactive element (hence, displaced). All metals
higher in the series will displace a metal lower than it The higher the temperature, the faster the reaction
from a compound An increase in temperature causes a rise in the energy
Equation: AB + C= AC + B level of the molecules involved in the reaction, so the
Example: rate of the reaction will increase.
Magnesium + copper(II) oxide → magnesium oxide +
copper Concentration
Copper is less reactive than magnesium, so
magnesium has displaced it to form magnesium The higher the concentration at a dissolved reactant, the
oxide and copper. This reaction is irreversible, as faster the reaction
copper isn’t reactive enough to be able to displace Increasing the concentration of one or more reactants
the magnesium. will increase the reaction rate. This occurs because a
Sodium chloride reacts with fluorine gas higher concentration of a reactant will lead to more
NaCl (s) + F2 (g)=NaF (aq) + Cl2 (g) collisions of that reactant in a specific time period.
1.8. What is the Rate of The Reaction? Particle Size
The surface area increases when the solid is split into

several pieces.
The smaller the pieces, the larger the surface area, the
greater the chance of reaction
Catalyst
A catalyst speeds up a chemical reaction, without being

consumed by the reaction.
It increases the reaction rate by lowering the activation
energy (minimum amount of energy needed for the
particles to react) for a reaction.
1.9. Reaction with Acids

Acids and Reactive Metal
Acids will react with reactive metals, such as magnesium

and zinc, to make salt and hydrogen.
2.2. Metals and Non-metals
Example:
Acid + Metal → Salt + Hydrogen As the number of elements is so large, scientists divide
Hydrochloric acid + zinc → zinc chloride + hydrogen them into two groups: metals and non-metals
2HCl + Zn → ZnCl2 + H2 The elements that are metals can often recognize them
The hydrogen causes bubbling during the by just one of their properties: they have a shiny
reaction surface
In general, the more reactive the metal, the faster the The elements that are non-metals do not shine. They
reaction. This is indicated by more bubbles that show have a dull surface.
up. Two examples of non-metals are:
\ Carbon, which you might see as charcoal in a
barbecue
Acids and Metal Carbonates Sulfur, a yellow substance that is used to make a
wide range of substances from car tires to
When acids react with carbonates, such as calcium medicines.
carbonate (found in chalk, limestone, and marble), salt,
water, and carbon dioxide are made. How To Classify Elements?
Acid + metal carbonate → salt + water + carbon dioxide
Sulfuric acid + iron(II) carbonate → iron(II) sulfate + water The properties that scientists use to classify elements
+ carbon dioxide into metals and non-metals are shown in the table below
H2SO4 + FeCO3 → FeSO4 + H2O + CO2
Property Metal Non-metal
The carbon dioxide causes bubbling during the
Surface Shiny Dull
reaction, which is observed as fizzing. It can be
Physical state at
detected by passing the gas through limewater, Usually solid Solid, liquid, or gas
room temperature
which will go cloudy.
Can be shaped by Solids are usually
Also, the reaction of metal carbonates with acids pressing and soft or brittle (hard
is exothermic. This type of reaction can be used Strength
stretching without but liable to break or
to test unknown solutions to see if they are acidic. breaking easily shatter easily)
Melting point Usually high Usually low
Boiling point Usually high Usually low
2. Properties of Matter and Density Usually high Usually low
Conduction of heat Good Very poor
Materials Conduction of
Good Very poor
electricity
2.1. Introduction Nearly all metals and non-metals have the properties
shown in the table above
Scientists use atoms to explain other things about matter
For intense, one property that all metals have is that
For example, a substance that has just one kind of
they conduct electricity
atom is called an element
There is a non-metal that conduct electricity
The atoms of each element are di!erent from the atoms
Graphite is a form of carbon and is used to make
of all the other elements.
pencils. It is non-metal but it conducts electricity
Many substances are made from molecules, which
However, there are exceptions to the rules described in
are groups of atoms of one, two three, or even more
the table
elements
Some metals do not have a shiny surface, they are
There are 93 elements that occur naturally.
dull
Another 24 elements have been made by scientists in
Magnesium is an example of a metal that has a
laboratories, using specially designed apparatus
dull surface
called particle accelerators
There is a non-metal that has a shiny surface and
Particles are whizzed round inside the accelerator,
looks metallic
and then made to crash into each other to make
Iodine is used with other substances in some
atoms of new elements.
portable water-purifying kits.
2.3. What is Metal Alloys? 2.5. What are Pure Substances?

Not all the metals we use are single elements, some of A sample of matter that has definite chemical and physical
them are a mixture of metals called an alloy. properties.
An alloy may be a solid solution of metal elements or a
mixture of metallic phases. Example: elements, atoms, molecules, compounds.
Alloys are usually produced by melting the mixture of
ingredients. Atoms
Example:
1. Bronze (CuSn) is a mixture of copper (Cu) and Atoms are the building material of matter.
Tin (Sn). An atom consists of a nucleus:
It makes a ringing sound when struck and Protons (the positive atom, +), electrons (the negative
is used to make bells and cymbals. atom, -), and protons (N)
2. Brass (CuPbZn) is an alloy of copper (Cu), lead Electrons in space around the nucleus.
(Pb), and zinc (Zn). Atom is the smallest unit of an element that has all of
It is strong and corrosion-resistant and is the same properties of that element.
used to make the pins in electrical plugs.
Its shiny surface makes brass a suitable Elements
metal for making ornaments.
Element is a pure substance that cannot be separated
3. Steels are very widely used alloys based on
into simpler substances by physical or chemical means.
iron (Fe), chromium (Cr), nickel (Ni),
Can exist as either atoms or molecules.
manganese (Mn), molybdenum (Mo), silicon
They can be found in the periodic table of the elements.
(Si), Vanadium (V), and boron (Br)
Example:
Carbon steels are made by mixing the
Diamond is made of carbon (C)
metal iron (Fe) with a small amount of
Copper is an element (Cu)
non-metal carbon (C).
They are used to make many items,
from spings to car bodies.
Compounds
Stainless steel is an alloy of steel and
Atoms of two or more di#erent elements joined
chromium (Cr).
together by chemical bonds.
It does not rust as easily as other
Made of elements in a specific ratio that is always the
steels.
same
They are used to make knives, forks,
They have their own physical and chemical properties.
spoons, and kitchen sinks.
They can only be separated by chemical means, not
physically.
2.4. The Properties of Materials The smallest particle is called a molecule.
Example:
There are numbers of properties that materials may have. Water (H2O) is a compound made of molecule
Here is a list of these properties with some examples of hydrogen (H) and oxygen (O)
materials that possess them. Sand (SiO2) is a compound made of silicon (Si)
and molecule oxygen (O)
Table sugar (C12H22O11) is a compound made of
molecule carbon (C), molecule hydrogen (H), and
molecule oxygen (O)
Potassium Chloride (KCl) is a metal halide salt
composed of potassium and chlorine.
Sodium Sulfate (Na2SO4) is an organic compound
mainly used for the manufacture of detergents
and in the Kraft process of paper pulping,
Calcium Carbonate (CaCO3) is a common
substance found in rocks as the minerals calcite
and aragonite and is the main component of
eggshells, snail shells, seashells, and pearls.
Molecules
Mixture Compounds
A molecule consisting of two or more atoms of the same Variable composition-
element, or di!erent elements that are chemically Definite composition-
you can vary the
you cannot vary the
bound together Composition amount of each
amount of each
Example: Two nitrogen atoms are joined together substance in the
element in a compound
(N+N=N2) to make one nitrogen molecule. mixture
Molecules are held together by bonds: ionic bonds and The di!erent
The di!erent elements
covalent bonds. Joined together substances are not
are chemically joined
or not chemically joined
together
together
Mixtures
The compound has
Each substance in the
properties di!erent
A mixture contains two or more di!erent substances Properties mixture keeps its own
from the elements it
that are only physically joined together, not properties
contains.
chemically. It can only be
Substances are held together by physical forces, not Each substance is easily
separated into its
Separation separated from the
chemicals. elements using
mixture
There is no chemical change that takes place chemical reaction
Each item retains its properties in the mixture Water (H2O), carbon
They can be separated physically. dioxide (CO2),
Air, seawater, most of
Examples magnesium oxide
There are 2 types of mixture: Homogeneous and the rocks
(MgO), sodium chloride
Heterogeneous (NaCl)
Homogeneous: The substance that is uniformly
mixed
Example: sugar and water 2.6. What is the Periodic Table?
Solutions: Solutions are groups of molecules that
are mixed up in a completely even distribution. The periodic table is an arrangement of all the elements
Solute: the substance to be dissolved known to man in accordance with their increasing atomic
In this case, sugar is the solute number and recurring chemical properties.
Solvent: the one doing the dissolving They are assorted in a tabular arrangement wherein
In this case, water is the solvent a row is a period and a column is a group
Heterogeneous: The substance is not uniformly Elements are arranged from left to right and top to
mixed bottom in the order of their increasing atomic numbers.
Example: Sand in a glass of water or the Thus,
ingredients in salad dressing Elements in the same group will have the same
Suspensions: is a heterogeneous mixture valence electron configuration and hence, similar
consisting of parts that are visible to the naked chemical properties.
eye Whereas, elements in the same period will have an
increasing order of valence electrons. Therefore, as
Mixture vs. Compounds the energy level of the atom increases, the number of
energy sub-levels per energy level increases.
The first 94 elements of the periodic table are naturally
occurring, while the rest from 95 to 118 have only been
synthesized in laboratories or nuclear reactors
The modern periodic table, the one we use now, is a new
and improved version of certain models put forth
by scientists in the 19th and 20th century
Mendeleev Periodic Table
Symbol Be
Dimitri Mendeleev, widely referred to as the father of the Atomic Number 4
periodic table put forth the first iteration of the periodic Atomic Mass 9.01218
table similar to the one we use now
Discovered by Nicholas Louis Vauquelin
Mendeleev’s periodic law is di!erent from the modern
periodic law in one main aspect. Uses of Beryllium:
Mendeleev modeled his periodic table on the basis of
increasing atomic mass, whereas, the modern Used as an alloying agent
periodic law is based on the increasing order of Beryllium fused with copper forms alloys which are used
atomic numbers. in defense and aerospace industries is a typical
\ application of Beryllium.
The 20 Elements Of Periodic Table Element 5: Boron (B)
Element 1: Hydrogen (H) Symbol B

Atomic Number 5
Symbol H Atomic Mass 10.821
Atomic Number 1 Discovered by Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac
Atomic Mass 1.008
Discovered by Henry Cavendish Uses of Boron:
Uses of Hydrogen: Borax is the most important compound of boron, which

is used to insulate fiberglass and sodium perborate
Ammonia synthesis is the most significant use of bleach.
hydrogen Boron compounds are also found in homes in the form
Hydrogen is burnt as a fuel to burn in internal of food preservatives, especially for fish and margarine.
combustion engines
Element 6: Carbon (C)
Element 2: Helium (He)
Symbol C
Symbol He Atomic Number 6
Atomic Number 2 Atomic Mass 12.011
Atomic Mass 4.003 Discovered by Lavoisier
Discovered by Sir William Ramsay
Uses of Carbon:
Uses of Helium:
One of the most amazing properties of carbon is its
Helium is used in the production of germanium crystals ability to make long carbon chains and rings. This
and silicon crystals property of carbon is known as catenation
The primary use of Helium goes in altitudes research and
meteorological balloons Element 7: Nitrogen (N)
Element 3: Lithium (Li) Symbol N

Atomic Number 7
Symbol Li Atomic Mass 14.007
Atomic Number 3 Discovered by Daniel Rutherford
Atomic Mass 6.941
Discovered by Johan Artvedson Uses of Nitrogen:
Uses of Lithium: It is used in the manufacture of ammonia, to produce

nitric acid and subsequently used as a fertilizer.
Bromine and lithium chloride together form Nitrogen makes up 78 percent of the Earth‘s atmosphere
concentrated brine which absorbs the humidity under and is a part of all living tissue.
high temperatures. Brine is used in the manufacturing of
air conditioning systems. Element 8: Oxygen (O)
Alloys of the metal with manganese, cadmium, copper,
and aluminum are used to make aircraft parts. Symbol O
Atomic Number 8
Element 4: Beryllium (Be) Atomic Mass 15.999
Discovered by Joseph Priestly
Uses of Oxygen:
Symbol Al
It is used in the production and manufacturing of glass Atomic Number 13
and stone products, and in mining Atomic Mass 26.98
The primary applications of oxygen include melting, Discovered by Hans Christian Oersted
refining, and manufacture of steel along with other
metals. Uses of Alumunium:
Element 9: Fluorine (F) It is used in the transportation of railways, trucks,

automobiles as castings.
Symbol F It is used in packaging.
Atomic Number 9
Atomic Mass 18.998 Element 14: Silicon (Si)
Discovered by Henri Moissan
Symbol Si
Uses of Fluorine: Atomic Number 14
Atomic Mass 28.0855
Chlorofluorocarbons are used extensively used in air
Discovered by Jons Jacob Berzelius
conditioners and refrigerators.
Fluorides are also added to toothpaste to prevent dental
Uses of Silicon:
cavities.
The element is a major constituent of ceramics and
Element 10: Neon (Ne) bricks.
Silicon is used in the production of fire bricks. \n
Symbol Ne
Atomic Number 10 Element 15: Phosphorus (P)
Atomic Mass 20.180
Discovered by Sir William Ramsay and Morrus Travers Symbol P
Atomic Number 15
Uses of Neon: Atomic Mass 30.974
Discovered by Hening Brandt
Lightning arrestors, high-voltage indicators, television
tubes, and meter tubes. Uses of Phosphorus:
The reddish-orange colored neon lights are used in
making advertising signs One can also find phosphorus in fireworks, fertilizers,
and baking powder.
Element 11: Sodium (Na) Phosphorus also plays a role in the making of steel.
Symbol Na Element 16: Sulfur (S)

Atomic Number 11
Atomic Mass 22.990 Symbol S
Discovered by Humphry Davy Atomic Number 16
Atomic Mass 32.06
Uses of Sodium:
Uses of Sulfur:
It is used in improving the structure of certain alloys;
soaps, purification of molten metals, and sodium vapor Sulfur plays a key role in the body and is necessary for
lamps. the synthesis of some key proteins.
Sulfur is an ingredient approved by the FDA for use in
Element 12: Magnesium (Mg) dandru! products of over-the-counter nature.
Symbol Mg Element 17: Chlorine (Cl)

Atomic Number 12
Atomic Mass 24.305 Symbol Cl
Discovered by Joseph Black Atomic Number 17
Atomic Mass 35.453
Uses of Magnesium:
Uses of Chlorine:
It is used to treat widely skin-related problems and
attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), anxiety, It is used as a disinfectant
mania, recovery after surgery, etc. It is used as an antiseptic
The flashbulbs also contain Magnesium
Element 18: Argon (Ar)
Element 13: Alumunium (Al)
Symbol Ar
Atomic Number 18
Atomic Mass 39.948
Uses of Argon:
The ionization energy of the elements within a period
They are used in metal industries. will be an increase from left to right
It is used in the production of titanium. Due to the valence shell stability.
The ionization energy of the elements within a group will
Element 19: Potassium (K) be decreased from top to bottom
Due to the electron shielding.
Symbol K
Atomic Number 19 Electron A"nity Trends
Atomic Mass 39.098
Discovered by Humphry Davy Electron a#nity increases from left to right within a
period.
Uses of Potassium: Due to the decrease in atomic radius.
Electron a#nity decreases from top to bottom within
It can be used as a medium of heat exchange and are a group.
used in nuclear power plants because of this reason Due to the increase in atomic radius.
Potassium chloride is also used in injections.
Atomic Radius Trends
Element 20: Calcium (Ca)
Symbol Ca Atomic radius decreases from left to right within a
Atomic Number 20 period
Atomic Mass 40.08 Due to the increasing number of protons and
Discovered by Humphry Davy electrons.
Atomic radius increases from top to bottom within a
Uses of Calcium: group
Due to the shielding of electrons.
The element maintains the vital for bones and teeth
The element aids in assisting hormones to release along
Melting Point Trends
with enzymes.
Metal has a high melting point.
Periodic Trends Examples: Aluminum, Iron, Copper, Tin, Gold, Lead,
Titanium, Uranium, and Zinc.
Periodic trends are specific patterns that are present in
Mostly, nonmetal has a low melting point.
the periodic table
Examples: Nitrogen, Oxygen, Sulphur, Chlorine,
The horizontal rows are called periods.
Neon.
The vertical rows are called group
Non-metal carbon has the highest melting point of all
It illustrates di!erent aspects of a certain element,
the elements.
including its size and its electronic properties.
Also, semi-metal boron has a high melting point.
Properties: electronegativity, ionization energy, electron
a#nity, atomic radius, melting point, and metallic
Metallic Characteristic Trends
character.
Metallic characteristics decrease from left to right
Electronegativity Trends
across a period.
The decrease in the radius of the atom allows the
From left to right across a period of elements,
outer electrons to ionize more readily.
electronegativity increases.
Metallic characteristics increase down a group.
If the valence shell of an atom is not full, it requires
The shielding of electrons causes the atomic radius to
less energy to lose an electron than to gain one. So, if
increase.
the valence shell is more than full, it is easier to pull
an electron into the valence shell.
From top to bottom down a group, electronegativity 2.7. What is Atom?
decreases.
The atomic number increases down a group so that Atoms are the smallest part of an element that can exist;
there will be an increased distance between the The word atom derives from the Ancient Greek word
valence electrons and nucleus, or a greater atomic “atomos” (a meaning “not” and Tomos meaning “cut”)
radius. It means that it is incapable of being divided.
Ionization Energy Trends Protons, Neutrons, and Electrons
The properties of atoms depend on the arrangement of Fossils are the preserved remains or traces of animals,
the three sub-atomic particles**:** protons, neutrons, plants, and other organisms from the past. Fossils range
and electrons in age from 10,000 to 3.48 billion years old.
Proton - Has a positive charge ( +1 ). It weighs one atomic The observation that certain fossils were associated with
mass unit and is found in the nucleus. certain rock strata led 19th-century geologists to
Neutron - Has a neutral charge ( 0 ). It weighs one atomic recognize a geological timescale. Like extant organisms,
mass unit and is also found in the nucleus. fossils vary in size from microscopic, like single-celled
Electron - Has a negative charge (-1) and almost no mass bacteria, to gigantic, like dinosaurs and trees.
at all. Found in orbits around the nucleus. Fossils may also consist of the marks left behind by the
organism while it was alive, such as footprints or feces.
Atomic Model These types of fossils are called trace fossils, or
ichnofossils, as opposed to body fossils.
Ernest Rutherford Method Past life may also leave some markers that cannot be
seen but can be detected in the form of biochemical
In 1905, Ernest Rutherford did an experiment to test the signals; these are known as biomarkers
plum pudding model. It all started with directing a beam
of alpha particles at a very thin gold leaf suspended in
3.2. Rocks
a vacuum.
Conclusion:
Most of the alpha particles did pass straight through
From the Big Bang to The Sun
the foil
Scientists believe that the moment the universe came
This shows that atoms is mostly in empty space.
into existence, it was an extremely hot, tiny white spot
A small number of alpha particles were diverted by
with an enormous mass.
large angles (> 4°) as they passed through the foil
It expanded rapidly in an explosion that has been named
It shows that there is a concentration of positive
the Big Bang about 14 billion years ago.
charge in the atom.
As the universe expanded, it cooled down, and the
A very small number of alpha particles came straight
atoms of the first element (hydrogen and helium)
back o! the foil
formed.
It shows that the positive charge and mass are
The first stars and the gases and dust from these first
concentrated in a tiny volume in the atom.
giants and supernovas formed a second set of stars
\
called second-generation stars.
These behaved just like the original stars and
3. The Earth produced more of the same elements.
The gas and dust from them also spread out through
space.
3.1. The Age of Our Earth The next set of the stars (third-generation) is the set
to which our sun belongs.
Earth is estimated to be 4.54 billion years old, plus or
minus about 50 million years. The Structure of The Earth
Scientists have scoured the Earth searching for the
oldest rocks to radiometrically date. In northwestern
Canada, they discovered rocks about 4.03 billion years
old. Then, in Australia, they discovered minerals about
4.3 billion years old.
Researchers know that rocks are continuously recycling,
due to the rock cycle, so they continued to search for
data elsewhere. Since it is thought the bodies in the solar
system may have formed at similar times, scientists
analyzed moon rocks collected during the moon landing
and even meteorites that have crash-landed on Earth.
Both of these materials dated to between 4.4 and 4.5
billion years.
What Fossils Tell Us
The Core Igneous rocks are also called fire rocks

The core is divided into two parts-the inner core and They formed from magma
the outer core: There are two kinds:
The Inner Core: Extrusive igneous rocks (research the earth’s surface)
The inner core is a ball of iron and nickel, Examples: Basalt
which is 2740 km in diameter Used to form protective shielding in nuclear
There are also radioactive elements present power stations to prevent the escape of
(like uranium) harmful material.
They generate heat, which keeps the core at Intrusive igneous rocks (forms within the crust)
about 5000°C Examples: Granite
The metals in the inner core remain solid even Used for decorative stonework
though the temperature is above their normal Both rocks are made from crystals and minerals that
melting point; this happened due to the great stick together. But,
pressure of other materials on the planet Basalt is formed from small crystals because it is
pushing on them and preventing them from exposed to the air while the hot rocks cool down.
turning from solid into liquid. Granite is formed from large crystals because it is
The Outer Core: remaining in the crust. It stays warmer for longer and
The outer core is 2000 km thick and is cools down more slowly.
composed of more iron and nickel. The way that hot rocks cool down:
The two metals in this layer are in liquid form. Rapid cooling
As the world turns, the inner core moves at a Some rocks cool down so rapidly when they
di!erent speed from the outer core, causing emerge into the air that crystals do not have time
the earth’s magnetic field. to form
The Mantle Example: Obsidian, pumice
The mantle is made of rocky material and is 2900 km Volcanoes
thick. The first rocks to be identified as igneous rocks
It is composed mainly of the elements iron, silicon, were those that formed from volcanic eruptions.
oxygen, and magnesium. There are two kinds of volcanoes:
These atoms are joined together to make Andesitic volcanoes: Build up the pressure
substances called compounds. and then erupts in a huge explosion, sending
The main compounds in the mantle are called the rocks and dust high into the atmosphere.
silicates. Basaltic volcanoes: Eruptions from basaltic
The mantle is very hot; this is above the boiling point volcanoes are usually much less violent than
of the rock, but the pressure of the materials above it andesitic volcanoes. Mostly occur under the
keeps the rock solid. sea
The upper mantle neat the crust is cooler and is
under less pressure; this allows the rocky material to 2. Sedimentary Rocks
behave like a very thick liquid.
The Crust There are 3 kinds of sedimentary rocks:
The earth's crust is made from much cooler rocks
than the mantle. Rocks from rocky fragments
Although the rocks at the surface can feel cool or
cold, miners and cavers can feel an increase in Rocky fragments are produced by weathering and form
temperature as they go down into the Earth’s crust. small particles like sand grains.
They have carried down rivers and settle out when the
water current slows down.
3.3. Types Of Rocks The layer particle build-up. The weight of the layers
increases, the particles being squashed together,
There are 3 types of rocks:
Example: Sandstone, conglomerates (made with
pebbles), shale (mixture of clay, mudstones, and
1. Igneous Rocks
siltstones)
Rocks from parts of living things
The shells of ancient living things have formed sediments A mineral is a substance that has formed from one or
that have turned to rock. more elements in the Earth.
Example: Limestone (from the shells of sea creatures), Rocks are formed from di!erent minerals that stick
chalk (from tiny shells of protoctists) together. This is shown well in granite (made from the
minerals feldspar, mica, and quartz)
Rocks from dried-up seas Gold, silver, and copper are examples of the very few
elements that are found on their own.
Seawater contains many chemicals. They have dissolved Most other minerals are compounds, made from the
out of the minerals in the rocks and been washed down atoms of two or more elements that have joined
rivers into the seas and oceans. together.
In the process of evaporating, leaving the minerals The atoms of the elements in a mineral usually join
behind to make the remaining seawater more together to form a crystal structure.
concentrated. Eventually, there is too little water left for Examples: The atoms of silicon and oxygen form a
all the chemicals to remain in the solution, and some of crystal substance called quartz
them joined together and form crystals. Rocks that form Each mineral can be recognized by observing its crystal
in this way are called evaporites. shape, color, luster, hardness, and the color of the
Examples: Rock salt and gypsum streak.
Some rare minerals have a pleasing color, shiny surface,
3. Metamorphic Rocks or sparkle when light passes through them.
Examples: Opal, diamond, and beryl
Metamorphic rocks are formed from igneous and
sedimentary rocks that have been heated or squashed in Ores
the Earth’s crust.
The change in temperature caused the rocks to change During the formation of some rocks, particularly
in their form, or metamorphose. sedimentary rocks, metal elements gather in large
Examples: quantities.
When limestone is heated and squashed, it changes They are usually combined with the atoms of other
into marble. elements.
Shale in the sedimentary rock is made from very tiny Rocks that possess large quantities of metal compounds
particles similar to those in clay and mud. When it are called ores.
changes or metamorphoses into slate, the tiny Bauxite is an ore rich in aluminum and haematite is an
particles or grains line up and make sheets of rocks ore rich in iron.
that can be split again. Ores are mined and then processed, usually using heat,
to release the metal from its compounds in the rock.
When researching about rocks you will often come across
the term ‘rocks and minerals and perhaps you may wonder
what is the di!erence between them. 3.5. What is Soil?
The soil is usually covered by plants that are growing in
3.4. Minerals it.
Soil allows plants to set down their roots and hold their
position in a habitat.
It also stores water and minerals for the plants to use as
they grow.
How Does Soil Form?
The main part of the soil is made from small particles or

fragments of rock. They are made when larger rocks
break up.
This process in which rock breaks up to form
fragments is called weathering.
There are two kinds of weathering: Physical weathering and

chemical weathering:
Physical weathering of rocks above ground Chemical weathering is caused in two ways:
1. Rainwater
Physical weathering is caused in four ways: Change in Rainwater is naturally slightly acid due to carbon
temperature, the e!ect of ice, abrasion, and the e!ect of dioxide from the air dissolving in it. The acid in
plants. rainwater falling on rocks such as granite can break it
\ up into smaller particles.
1. Change in temperature
When the rocks heat up, the minerals in them 2. Hot and wet weather conditions
expand. Hot and wet weather conditions speed up chemical
The minerals expand in di!erent amounts, and they reactions such as those that break down rocks.
push each other. Wet weather conditions such as rainforest regions,
When the rocks cool down, the minerals contract rocks break down more quickly than in places with a
and spaces develop between them. After being cold, dry climate, such as the interior of the Antarctic
heated and cooled many times, the minerals continent.
become loose and fall away.
The Properties Of A Soil
2. The e!ect of ice
When it rains on a porous rock like sandstone, the
water can stay in the rock for some time.
If the weather becomes colder, the water in the rock
may freeze. When the water freezes and forms ice, it
expands.
The ice pushes on the sides of the pores and
makes the rock crumble. Water that gathers in
the cracks of any rocks also expands when it
freezes. This makes it push on the sides of the
crack and can cause pieces of rocks to snap o!.
\
3. Abrasion
This occurs when pieces of rocks rub together when
pebbles are carried in a fast-flowing river.
For example: When they blow in the wind in a
sandstorm, they rub on rock surfaces and wear them
down.
4. The e!ect of plants

Particles of rock blown by the wind settle in cracks in
rocks and form a soil in which plant roots can grow.
If the seed of a tree or bushlands in a crack and
germinates, the root can grow in the soil.
Trees and bushes have strong, woody roots that
grow larger every year, so if they grow in a crack they
push on their sides and break up the rock.
Chemical weathering of rocks above ground
There are four properties of soil that are easy to In some regions in Africa, the rocks are rich in iron
investigate. They are texture, drainage, the amount of minerals and when they form soils the iron minerals
air, and the soil pH make them red.
In tropical regions that have wet and dry seasons, such
1. Soil Texture as in India, weathering of the rocks produces soils rich in
clay. They have cracks in their surface in dry weather but
The soil texture is a description of how the soil feels
after rain, the soil swells out to fill them
when you rub it between your finger and thumb.
Soils have a low pH (acidic) if they form on granite, and
Example: Sandy soil feels gritty, silty soil feels silky,
have a high pH (alkaline) if they form on limestone.
and clay soils feel sticky and cannot be squeezed as
In places with heavy rainfall, the water may wash
well as the other soils.
alkaline substances out of the soil and make it more
acidic.
2. Drainage and water boiling
Most plants are adapted for growing in neutral soil or
The same amount of water is poured onto each soil
slightly acidic soil of pH 6. But some thrive in soils that
sample and the water is allowed to drain for the
are more acidic.
same amount of time. This gives an indication of each
Example: Rhododendrons, blueberries, pines, and
soil’s water holding capacity.
ferns.
There are some plants that grow well in alkaline soil
3. Air in the soil
Example: Oregano, asparagus, beech, lilac, and
The spaces between the soil particles contain air.
sagebrush
This allows the plant roots and the soil organism to
respire. When water drains through the soil it flows
Loam
through the air in the space.
Soil is added to a measuring cylinder until 50 cm3 has
A soil with a large number of sands is simply called
been added. Water is poured on top of the soil until
sandy soil.
the level of the water reaches the 100 cm3 mark on
One with a large amount of silt is silty soil.
the scale.
A soil containing a large amount of clay is clay soil.
The soil is then stirred to help the water enter the
However, if the soil is made from 40% sand, 40% silt, and
air spaces. When there is no more bubble, the
20% clay, it is called a loam. A loam also contains large
water lever should have fallen and its new
amounts of humus and this binds the fragments
position is noted on the scale. The volume of
together to make soil crumbs.
water now in the soil is found by subtracting the
As the crumbs are larger than the rocky fragments,
second water level and the first.
they have larger air spaces between them and this
helps plant roots to respire and to grow down
4. Soil pH
through the soil.
The pH of the soil is a measure of how acidic or
The humus soaks up some of the water like a sponge
alkaline the soil is. It can be found by using universal
and holds it there with dissolved minerals for the
indicators.
plant roots to take up.
A universal indicator is then added and its color is
Loam is the soil that farmers and gardeners aim to
observed to find the pH of the soil.
cultivate.
They do this by adding extra sand, clay silt, and
3.6. Di!erent Type of Soils Around The humus to the soil until each is present in its correct
percentage and the pH is at the correct value for the
World plants they wish to grow.
4. The States of Matter

4.1. What is Everything Made From?
Particle
Scientists have asked this question for thousands of Solid Liquid Gas
of Matter
years and they came up with an answer. Everything is Forces Strong Weaker Weakest
made of matter Close together Well separated
There are three forms of matter: Particle
Tightly packed with no regular with no regular
Structure
Solid-state arrangement arrangement.
Liquid-state Vibrate (jiggle)
Vibrate, move Vibrate, and
Gaseous-state but generally do
Movement about, and slide move freely at
It means that everything is made up of materials that not move from
past each other. high speeds.
place to place.
are solid, liquid, or gas.
4.2. Where Can We Find Matter? 4.5. Physical Changes of Matter
To help you think of the world in terms of three states of States of matter can be changed physically and
matter, start to think about your body part. chemically
Physical changes are reversible reactions as they can go
We have bones that synergized with muscle. They are forward and backward
considered solid matter. An example of a physical change of state is one brought
As blood flow through our arteries, veins, and intestines. about by heating or cooling.
The blood is liquid matter.
When we breathe in and breathe out, there is an Physical Reaction
exchange between oxygen and carbon dioxide in our
lungs. Oxygen and carbon dioxide are gases. Melting
When a solid is heated enough, it loses its shape and

4.3. How to Tell State of Matter? starts to flow. This change is called melting and the solid
turns into a liquid.
You can tell one state of matter from another by examining
The temperature at which this takes place is called the
its properties.
melting point.
Particle of
Solid Liquid Gas When the temperature remains constant or steady,
matter
the melting point of the solid has been reached.
Mass Definite Definite Definite
The particle theory:
Does not Does not
Volume Changed When a solid is heated, the heat provides the
change change
particles with more energy. The energy makes the
Constant
Shape Changed Changed particles vibrate more strongly and push each other a
(rigid)
Water, Oil, Oxygen, Factory little further apart.
Example Gold, Iron If the solid is heated further, the energy makes the
Fuel Smoke
particles vibrate so strongly that they slide over each
other and become a liquid.
4.4. Particle Theory Of Matter Example:
Butter melts in a pan during cooking and chocolate
The particle theory states that matter is made from can melt in our pocket.
particles.
The particles are so tiny that they cannot be seen with Freezing
the naked eye.
Di!erent substances are made from di!erent particles
and the particles have di!erent sizes
The particles are atoms and molecules
It is the changing of a liquid into a solid. When a liquid reaches a certain temperature, it forms a
The temperature at which this takes place is called the gas inside it. The gas makes bubbles, which rise to the
freezing point surface and burst into the air. The process is called
When the temperature remains constant or steady, boiling.
the freezing point of the solid has been reached. The temperature at which it takes place is called the
The particle theory: boiling point.
If a liquid is cooled su#ciently the particles lose so If the boiling liquid is heated more strongly, its
much energy that they can no longer slide over each temperature does not rise but it boils more quickly.
other. The only movement possible is the vibration to The particle theory:
and from about one position in the lattice. When a liquid is heated, all the particles receive more
Example: energy and move more quickly. The fastest-moving
When molten wax runs down the side of the candle it particles escape from the liquid surface will form
freezes and becomes solid before it reaches the bubbles. The bubbles rise to the surface and burst
bottom. open into the air. The fast-moving particles are
released from the liquid to form a gas.
Evaporation Example:
Water boils at 100°C and turns into water vapor.
The process by which a liquid changes into a gas over a
range of temperatures is called evaporation. Condensation
If the temperature of the liquid is higher, it evaporates
faster If a gas is cooled down far enough, it turns into a liquid
If the air above the liquid does not already have a lot of by a process called condensation
vapor in it, the liquid evaporates faster. The particle theory:
The speed at which water evaporates into the air is The particle in a gas possesses a large amount of
measured as part of a weather survey. energy, which they use to move. If the particles are
The particle theory: cooled, they lose some of their energy and slow
The particles in a liquid have di!erent amounts of down. If the gas is cooled su#ciently, the particles
energy. The particles with the most energy will move lose so much energy that they can no longer bounce
the fastest. High-energy liquid particles near the o! each other when they meet. The particles now
surface move so fast that they can break through the slide over each other and form a liquid.
surface and escape into the air, forming a gas. Example:
Example: When water vapor that has evaporated from the sea
A drop of water can turn into a gas (known as water rises high in the air, it cools and condenses on dust
vapor) at a room temperature of about 20°C while particles to form tiny water droplets (rain).
outside a puddle dries up in the warmth from the
Sun. Sublimation
Boiling A few substances can change directly from a solid to a

gas, or from a gas to a solid, without forming a liquid by
sublimation.
Example:
Sulfur is released as a gas by volcanoes and as it
cools it sublimes to form solid sulfur around the
opening of the volcano. This solid sulfur is sometimes
called flowers of sulfur.
What Is The Di!erence Between Evaporation and

Boiling?
Speed: The kinetic theory model explains that gas pressure is

Evaporation is a slower process and boiling is faster caused by the collisions between the particles and their
Temperature required: container
A liquid will evaporate at any temperature above This is called the Outward pressure (usually greater
freezing. than the normal atmospheric pressure outside the
Boiling occurs only when the liquid reaches a certain container)
temperature (boiling point). When the temperature is increased:
Bubbles: The gas particles move faster
Evaporation does not involve the formation of The collisions become harder and more frequent.
bubbles. This means that the pressure is also increases
Location of the change to a gas: When the temperature is decreased:
When you heat water to bring it to boiling, bubbles The gas particles move more slowly
first form on the bottom of the pot. The collisions are less hard and less frequent
Evaporation occurs only at the surface of the water This means that the pressure also decreases
Source of Energy: Decreasing the volume of a gas increases the pressure
Boiling usually requires an external source of energy, of the gas
such as the burner under the pot. The gas particles will have less room to move as the
Evaporation uses the energy already in the liquid. volume the gas occupies has been decreased
A temperature change of the liquid: This means that they will collide more
While water is boiling, its temperature remains frequently with the walls of the container.
constant. Each time they collide with the walls they exert a
force on them.
Factors A!ecting The Rate of Evaporation More collisions mean more force, so the pressure
will increase.
There are 4 factors:
Heat 4.7. What is Di!usion?

Wind
Humidity A passive movement
Water evaporates faster when the air is dry The movement of molecules from a region where they
When the air is dry, there are fewer water are highly concentrated to a region that less
molecules in the air returning to the liquid, so the concentrated.
water evaporates faster Example: Oxygen and carbon dioxide passes red
Surface Area blood cell.
The increased surface area will provide more surface Di!usion forms a homogeneous mixture.
from which water can evaporate
So, a wet towel will dry faster if it’s spread out Factor A!ecting The Rate of Di!usion
rather than left folded or bunched up.
Dissolves
The particle theory explains how things dissolve in the

following way:
There are small gaps between the particles in a liquid
When a substance dissolves in a liquid, its particle
spread out and fill the gaps.
When something dissolves in a liquid to form a
solution.
The liquid is called a solvent
The solid that dissolves in it is called the solute.
4.6. Particle Theory and Gases
Concentration
The greater the di!erence in concentration, the
faster rate of di!usion.
The closer it gets to equilibrium, the slower the rate
of di!usion.
Mass of Molecules
The heavier it gets, the di!usion will be slower
The lighter the molecules, the di!usion will be faster.
Temperature
The high temperature will increase the energy. It will
increase the rate of di!usion.
Low temperature will decrease the energy of the
molecules, it will decrease the rate of di!usion.
Solubility
Liquid materials or non-polar will pass through the
plasma membrane, the rate of di!usion more than
polar substances.
CAIE Checkpoint
Science
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UPDATED TO 2023-2025 SYLLABUS

Organics Acids and Mineral Acids

The Acid in Vinegar

Ethanoic acid is found in vinegar and produces as wine

Litmus (liquid or paper) 1.5. What is Neutralisation?

Using Neutralisation Reactions

A bee sting is acidic and may be neutralization by soap,

Baking A Cake Endothermic Reaction

A Model Volcano 1.7. Reactivity

Fighting A Fire Metals can be arranged in a reactivity series based on

1.6. Types Of Reaction During The Heat

1.8. What is the Rate of The Reaction? Particle Size

The surface area increases when the solid is split into

A catalyst speeds up a chemical reaction, without being

1.9. Reaction with Acids

Acids will react with reactive metals, such as magnesium

2.3. What is Metal Alloys? 2.5. What are Pure Substances?

Mendeleev Periodic Table

The 20 Elements Of Periodic Table Element 5: Boron (B)

Element 1: Hydrogen (H) Symbol B

Uses of Hydrogen: Borax is the most important compound of boron, which

Element 3: Lithium (Li) Symbol N

Uses of Lithium: It is used in the manufacture of ammonia, to produce

Element 9: Fluorine (F) It is used in the transportation of railways, trucks,

Symbol Na Element 16: Sulfur (S)

Symbol Mg Element 17: Chlorine (Cl)

Ionization Energy Trends Protons, Neutrons, and Electrons

What Fossils Tell Us

The Core Igneous rocks are also called fire rocks

Rocks from parts of living things

How Does Soil Form?

The main part of the soil is made from small particles or

There are two kinds of weathering: Physical weathering and

4. The e!ect of plants

Chemical weathering of rocks above ground

4. The States of Matter

4.2. Where Can We Find Matter? 4.5. Physical Changes of Matter

When a solid is heated enough, it loses its shape and

Boiling A few substances can change directly from a solid to a

What Is The Di!erence Between Evaporation and

Speed: The kinetic theory model explains that gas pressure is

Heat 4.7. What is Di!usion?

The particle theory explains how things dissolve in the

4.6. Particle Theory and Gases

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