CHEMISTRY

ACID, BASE AND SALTS Acids Formulae Basicity

Hydrochloric HCL 1-Monobasic
1. Acid acid
• An acid is a compound, produce hydrogen ions, Nitric acid 1-Monobasic
H+(aq), in solution, which are responsible for their Carbonic acid 2-Dibasic
acidic properties. Sulphuric acid 2-Dibasic
• According to Bronsted-Lowry theory, an acid is any Phosphorous acid H3PO3 2-Dibasic
species that can donate a proton to another species. Phosphoric acid 3-Tribasic
• Hydrogen ions cannot exist alone, but they exist after
combining with water molecules.so, on dissolving in For the acid containing the carboxylic acid, we do not
water yields hydronium ions (H3O+) as the only count the number of hydrogen atoms but the number of
positive ions. carboxyl group (i.e.) -COOH
• The presence of hydrogen ions make acids strong and
good electrolytes. ACIDS USED IN DAY-TO-DAY LIFE
Strong Acid: Acids are obtained from two different sources. They can
• Examples of strong acids are: hydrochloric be organic or mineral acids. All acids have some common
acid,sulphuric acid, nitric acid etc. characteristic properties.

Weak Acid:
Sources of the acid Name of the acid
Examples are: acetic acid, formic acid, carbonic acid etc.
Vinegar acetic acid
• Acids are generally sour in taste and corrosive.
Citrus fruits citric acid
• Indicators : Test whether a substance is acidic or basic.
Grapes, tamarind, gooseberries. tartaric acid
Eg: Turmeric, litmus, china rose petals (Gudhal), etc.,
are some of the naturally occurring indicators. Sour milk lactic acid
• Litmus is extracted from lichens a plant belonging to Apples malic acid
the division Thallophyta . It has a purple colour in Curd butyric acid
distilled water. When added to an acidic solution, it Tea, tomatoes oxalic acid
turns red and when added to a basic solution, it turns Sting of red ants and bees formic acid
blue. Proteins amino acids
• The solutions which do not change the colour of either Guava, oranges ascorbic acid
red or blue litmus are known as neutral solutions.
These substances are neither acidic nor basic. Note: The process of dissolving an acid or a base in water
• olfactory indicators:There are some substances whose is a highly exothermic one. The acid must always be added
odour changes in acidic or basic media. slowly to water with constant stirring.

Uses of Acids 2. Bases and Alkalis

• (i) Hydrochloric acid present in our stomach helps in • A Base is a substance that gives OH-ions when
the digestion of food. dissolved in water. Bases are usually metal hydroxides
• (ii) Vitamin C or ascorbic acid gives the needed (MOH).
nutrients for body. • According to Bronsted-Lowry theory, a base is a
• (iii) Carbonic acid is used in making carbonated proton acceptor.
beverages and fertilizers. • Bases are soapy substances with a bitter taste .
• (iv) Vinegar a preservative, is a dilute form of acetic • The strength of a base depends on the concentration of
acid. the hydroxyl ions when it is dissolved in water.
• (v) Sulphuric acid is used in the manufacture of • Bases soluble in water are called alkalies. All alkalies
fertilizers, paints, synthetic fibres etc. are bases but all bases are not alkalies.
• (vi) Nitric acid is used in the preparation of aqua regia,
used in the purification of precious metals like gold Strong Base:
and silver. Examples:
• (vii) Boric acid is used to wash eyes. Sodium hydroxide: NaOH (caustic soda),, Potassium
• (viii) Phosphoric acid is used in making fertilizers and hydroxide: KOH(caustic potash), Calcium hydroxide:
detergents. Ca(OH)2.
• Basicity of an acid is defined as the no of ionizable
hydrogen (H+) ions present in one molecule of an acid
Weak Base:  Note - The atmosphere of venus is made up of thick
Examples: Magnesium hydroxide: Mg(OH)2, Ammonium white and yellowish clouds of sulphuric acid.
hydroxide: NH4OH.
STRUCTURE OF ATOM
SALT
Potash alum(potassium aluminum sulfate KAl(SO₄)₂) The atomic theory of matter was first proposed by John
(i) It is used in dyeing industries to fix the dye to the Dalton.Fundamental particles of an atom are Electron,
fabric. Proton and Neutron.
(ii) It is used for cleaning teeth.
1. Proton(p): Discovered by E. Goldstein.
USES OF SALTS IN INDUSTRIES: • Protons are positively charged.
(i) Sodium chloride is used in the manufacture of chlorine, • The absolute charge on the electron to be + 1.6 × 10–19
caustic soda, washing soda and baking soda. C.
(ii) Ammonium salts are used as fertilizers.
(iii) Potassium nitrate is used in the manufacture of gun 2. Electron (e): Discovered by J.J. Thomson when he was
powder and fire works. studying the properties of cathode ray.
(iv) Silver bromide is used in photography. • Irish physicist George Johnstone Stoney named this
(v) Potassium chlorate is used in the match industry. charge 'electron' in 1891.
(vi) Aluminium sulphate is used in preparing alums. • Electrons are negatively charged.
• The absolute charge on the electron to be – 1.6 × 10–19
3. pH SCALE C.
The p in pH stands for ‗potenz‘ in German, meaning • e/me as: = 1.758820 × 1011 C kg–1
power. • The charge of an electron was measured by R. Millikan
 The scale that measures the strength of an acid or a in Oil drop experiment.
base is called the pH scale. This value lies between 0
and 14. 3. Neutrons(n) - J. Chadwick
 Higher the hydronium ion concentration, lower is the • It has no charge and a mass nearly equal to that of a
pH value. proton.
 The pH of a neutral solution is 7. Values less than 7 on • The mass of a neutron is taken as one unit each.
the pH scale represent an acidic solution. As the pH
value increases from 7 to 14, it represents an increase 4. Atomic nucleus – Rutherford
in OH– ion concentration in the solution, that is,  The fast moving alpha (α)-particles (doubly-charged
increase in the strength of alkali. helium ions) were made to fall on a thin gold foil.
 Most food crops grow best at a PH of 7-7.8.If the soil is  The mass of an atom is the sum of the masses of
too acidic then its pH can be raised by adding lime (or protons and neutrons present in the nucleus.
slaked lime) which neutralizes the excess acid in the
soil.Similarly, if the soil is too alkaline then its pH can 5. Valency
be lowered by adding gypsum or some other  The number of electrons gained, lost or shared so as to
substance which can neutralize the excess alkali make the octet of electrons in the outermost shell, is
present in the soil. called valency.
 The medium in our stomach is highly acidic and has  The atoms of elements, having a completely filled
pH around 1.2. Our stomach produces hydrochloric outermost shell show little chemical activity,their
acid which helps in digestion of food. Magnesium valency is zero.
hydroxide (Milk of magnesia), a mild base, is an  An outermost-shell, which had eight electrons is said
antacid which neutralises the excess acid. to possess an octet. Atoms would thus react, so as to
 Tooth decay starts when the pH of the mouth is lower achieve an octet in the outermost shell.
than 5.5.  The chemical behavior of an atom depend upon the
 Acid Rain- When pH of rain water is less than 5.6, it is number of electrons orbiting around the nucleus.
called acid rain.
 Gastric juice - 1.2 6. Atomic Number
 Lemon Juice - 2.2 The atomic number is defined as the total number of
 Pure water - 7.4 protons present in the nucleus of an atom. It is denoted by
 Milk of mgnesia - 10 "Z".
 Sodium hydroxide solution - 14
7. Mass number beta-minus particles - (electron) penetrating
The mass number is defined as the sum of the total beta- plus particles - (positron) penetrating
number of nucleons (protons and neutrons) present in the Gamma rays - most penetrating, high electromagnetic
nucleus of an atom. radiation.

8. Isotopes Half-Life period - The half half-life of an isotope is the time

 Atoms which have the same atomic number but in which one one- half of its unstable nuclei will decay.
different mass numbers.The chemical properties of N = N₀(1/2)n , Where n is number of half-lives
isotopes are similar but their physical properties are
different.But some isotopes have special properties SOME COMMON ELEMENTS & COMPOUNDS
which find them useful in various fields. Some of them
are : 1. Carbon:
 (i) An isotope of uranium is used as a fuel in nuclear The three states of carbon are diamond, amorphous, and
reactors. graphite.
 (ii) An isotope of cobalt is used in the treatment of • Carbon exhibits allotropy and shows maximum
cancer. catenation.
 (iii) An isotope of iodine is used in the treatment of • Carbon occurs both in free state as diamond, coal etc.
goiter and also in the combined form as CO2.
• Diamond is one of the allotropic forms of carbon and
Radioactive isotopes is the purest form of natural carbon. It is the hardest
Arsenic–74 → detect tumors natural substance.
Sodiun–24 → Blood clot • Graphite is also an allotropic form of carbon, which is
Iodine–131 → Activity of thyroid gland very soft and slippery. Graphite are prepared
Cobalt–60 → Treat of cancer artificially by Acheson process.
9. ISOBARS- Atoms of different elements with different • Fullerene (C60) looks like a soccer ball. It contains 20
atomic numbers, which have the same mass number, are six membered and 12 five membered rings of carbon
known as isobars. atoms.
• Graphene is an allotrope of carbon. It is a strong
10. Isotones – atoms having same number of neutrons. substance and used as a conducting material for touch
screen, LCD and LED
11. Isoelectronics – atoms/molecules/ions containing sae
number of electrons. 2. Compounds of Carbon

12. Mass defect - The mass defect is the difference between Carbon monoxide (CO)
the rest mass of a nucleus and the sum of the rest masses  Carbon monoxide (CO) combines with haemoglobin
of its constituent nucleons. to form carboxyhaemoglobin which is not able to
absorb oxygen and as a result of this, suffocation takes
13. Binding Energy place (Asphyxia).
 The binding energy of a nucleus is the energy required  The death of persons in closed rooms with wood, coal
to separate a nucleus into its constituent parts. or coke fires and in closed bathrooms with gas geyser
 For heavier nuclei, energy is released when they break is due to the formation of carbon monoxide.
up (fission).
 For lighter nuclei, energy is released when they fuse Carbon dioxide (CO2)
together (fusion).  0.03-0.05 percent in atmosphere.
 Nuclear particles are held together by a nuclear strong  Solid CO2 is known as dry ice. It is used in
force.A stable nucleus remains forever, but as the ratio refrigerators under the name drikold. It is used in
of N/Z gets larger, the atoms decay. Elements with Z transport of perishable food materials as it provides
> 82 are all unstable. cold as well as the inert atmosphere.
 As the heavier atoms become more unstable, particles
and photons are emitted from the nucleus and it is Carbides
said to be radioactive. All elements with A > 82 are They are the compounds of carbon with metals or
radioactive. electronegative elements.

Examples are: • Destructive distillation of coal gives products like coal

Alpha particles - (2 proton and 2 neutron) least penetrating gas, gas carbon, coal tar and ammonical liquor.
• Lamp Black is also known as Soot. Halogens:
Halogens are highly reactive elements and therefore, they
3. Nitrogen: do not exist in free state but exist only in combined form.
• Nitrogen is a neutral gas and is neither combustible Halogens have highest electron affinity so they act as
nor a supporter of combustion. strong oxidizing agent.
• In air (79% by volume). In combined state, nitrogen is Their oxidizing power decreases from fluorine to iodine.
found as nitrates (Chile salt petre—sodium nitrate
(NaNO3), Indian salt petre—potassium nitrate (KNO3) Chlorine:
Chlorine was first discovered by Scheele (1774)
4. Compounds of Nitrogen Chlorine is used as a germicide, disinfactant, oxidizing
Ammonia agent, bleaching agent in paper and textile industry.
• It is prepared from nitrogen and hydrogen by Haber‘s Chlorine being an acidic gas turns moist blue litmus paper
process. It has pungent odour. to red and then bleaches it.
• Ammonia is used in manufacturing fertilizers and
explosives etc. Iodine (I2)
• Nitrogen fixation involves the fixation of atmospheric Chile saltpeter or caliche contains iodine as sodium iodate
nitrogen into nitrate by lightning and by nitrogen (5-20%).
fixing bacteria called Rhizobia. It turns starch solution blue. Solution of KI/l2 is used in
the treatment of goiter. It is used as an antiseptic as
Oxygen: tincture of iodine.
 Oxygen is an important constituent of atmosphere
(21% by volume). Supporter of combustion. Noble Gases
 Liquid oxygen mixed with freshly divided carbon, is  Helium (He), neon (Ne), argon (Ar), krypton (Kr),
used in place of dynamite in coal mining. xenon (Xe) and radon (Rn) are known as inert gases or
 Ozone(O3) - It protects the life on the earth by not noble gases or rare gases.
allowing UV rays to reach the Earth.The common  These elements have completely filled valence shell.
refrigerants, chlorofluorocarbons deplete this ozone  It atmosphere, argon is most abundant noble gas but
layer. in universe, helium is most abundant gas.
 Its bleaching action is due to its oxidizing action.  Natural gas in the most important source of helium.
 Ozone is also used as a germicide and disinfectant, for  The mixture of helium and oxygen is used for artificial
sterilizing water. breathing of asthama patients.
 85% helium + 15% hydrogen is used for filling in
Phosphorus (P): balloons and airships.
 It is highly reactive non-metal, so it occurs only in  Mixture of helium and oxygen is used for respiration
combined state. by sea divers.
 Phosphorus is an essential constituent of bones, teeth,  Helium is used as pressuring agent in rockets to expel
blood and nerve tissues. Bone ash contains about 80% liquid oxygen and liquid hydrogen.
of phosphorus.  Xe is also known as stranger gas and Xe-Kr is used in
high intensity photographic flash tubes.
Sulphur (S):  Radon is used in the preparation of ointment for the
 It occurs in free state in volcanic region. treatment of cancer.
 Rhombic sulphur is the most stable form at ordinary
temperature and all other forms gradually change into Water (H2O):
this form. • Water is called the ―Universal Solvent‖.
• Hardness of water –
Compounds of Sulphur Temporary hardness - Water is said to be temporarily
 Sulphuric acid is also known as oil of vitriol or king hard when it contains bicarbonates of calcium and
of chemicals. It has a great affinity for water and thus magnesium (or hydrogen carbonates). This type of
it acts as a powerful dehydrating agent. Corrosive hardness can be easily removed by boiling.
action of sulphuric is due to its dehydrating action. Permanent hardness - Water is said to be permanently
 Hypo (Sodium thiosulphate) It is mainly used in hard when it contains sulphates and chlorides of
photography as a fixing agent. It is used to remove calcium and magensium.
undecomposed silver halide on photographic paper or This hardness cannot be removed by boiling.
film.
• Degree of Hardness - It is defined as the number of acid, it is used in effervescent drinks to cure
parts of CaCO3 or equivalent to various calcium or indigestion.
magnesium salts present in 106 parts of water by mass. 4. In soda acid fire extinguishers.
• Heavy water is prepared either by prolonged
electrolysis or by fractional distillation of ordinary WASHING SODA
water. Heavy water (D2O) is colourless, tasteless and  Chemically, washing soda is sodium carbonate
odourless liquid. Fission in uranium-235 is brought by decahydrate, Na2CO3.10H2O.
slow speed neutron. Heavy water is used for this  Washing soda is manufacturing by Solvey‘s process.
purpose in nuclear reactors as moderators.
USES
Hydrochloric Acid (HCL): 1. It is used in the manufacture of caustic soda, glass,
• Hydrochloric acid is prepared by dissolving hydrogen soap powders, borex and in paper industry.
chloride gas in water. 2. For removing permanent hardness of water.
It reacts with metals to form their respective chlorides and 3. As a cleansing agent for domestic purpose.
liberates hydrogen.
Hydrochloric acid is used in the production of dyes, PLASTER OF PARIS
drugs, paints, photographic chemicals and in the  Plaster of paris, also called POP.
preparation of aqua-regia. Aqua regia is a mixture of  Chemically, it is 2CaSO4.H2O or
nitric acid and hydrochloric acid, optimally in a molar CaSO4.1/2H2O (calcium sulphate hemi hydrate)
ratio of 1:3. Aqua regia is a yellow-orange fuming liquid  Gypsum, (CaSO4.H2O) is used as the raw material
because it can dissolve the noble metals gold and platinum
USES
Nitric Acid (HNO3): 4. In making casts for manufacture of toys and statues.
It is manufactured by the Ostwald‘s Process by the 5. In hospitals for making plaster casts to hold
reaction of ammonia and air in presence of platinum as fractured bones in place while they set. It is also used
catalyst. for making casts in dentistry.
• Nitric acid is colourless in pure form. Commercial 6. For making the surface of walls and ceiling smooth.
nitric acid is yellowish due to the presence of 7. For making ‗chalk‘ for writing on blackboard.
dissolved nitrogen dioxide. 8. For making fire proof materials.
• Nitric acid is a strong monobasic acid. It ionizes in
water readily. BLEACHING POWDER
• Nitric acid is a strong oxidizing agent. When it  Bleaching is a process of removing colour from a
undergoes thermal decomposition, it yields nascent cloth to make it whiter.
oxygen.  Chemically, it is calcium oxychloride,CaOCl2.
 It is manufactured by Hasen-Clever Method.
BAKING SODA
 Chemically Baking soda is sodium hydrogen USES
carbonate, NaHCO3. 1. For bleaching of cotton, linen and wood pulp.
 Baking soda is manufactured by Solvey‘s process 2. In making wool unshrinkable.
3. Used as disinfactant and germicide for sterilization of
USES water.
1. Used for cooking of certain foods. 4. For the manufacture of chloroform.
2. For making baking power (a mixture of sodium 5. Used as an oxidizing agent in chemical industry.
hydrogen carbonate and tartaric acid). On heating
during baking, baking soda gives off carbon dioxide. It CHEMISTRY IN EVERYDAY LIFE
is this carbon dioxide which raises the dough. The
sodium carbonate produced on heating the baking Synthetic Materials
soda gives a bitter taste. Therefore, instead of using The materials created by man using the natural materials,
the baking soda alone, baking powder is used. are known as synthetic materials.
The tartaric acid present in it neutralises the sodium
carbonate to avoid its bitter taste. Cement
3. In medicines Being a mild and non-corrosive base,  It was discovered by an English Mason, Joseph Aspdin
baking soda is used in medicines to neutralise the in 1824. He called it Portland cement because he
excessive acid in the stomach and provide relief. thought that it resembled the limestone found in
Mixed with solid edible acids such as citric or tartaric Portland.
 Approximate Composition of Portland cement  Hard glass - It is a mixture of potassium and calcium
Calcium oxide (CaO) 60-70% silicates. It is more resistant to the action of acids for
Silica (Si ) 20-25% making hard glass apparatus.
Alumina ( ) 5-10%  Flint glass - It is mainly a mixture of sodium,
Ferric oxide ( ) 2-3% potassium and lead silicates. It is used in making
 Raw materials are limestone (provides lime), clay bulbs and optical instruments.
(provides alumina and silica), gypsum (reduces the  Pyrex glass (Borosilicate glass) - It is used in making
setting time of cement). pharmaceutical containers, lab apparatus and over
 When water is mixed with cement and left as such for ware.
sometime, it becomes a hard mass. This is know as  Quartz glass (Silica glass) - It is used in the
setting of cement. It is an exothermic process, therefore preparation of chemical apparatus and optical
cement structures have to be cooled upto 7 days by instrument.
sprinkling water.  Crookes glass - It is used for making lenses for
 Mortar is a mixture of cement, sand and water. It is spectacles.
used for plastering walls and binding bricks and  Photochromatic glass - On exposure to bright light,
stones. photochromatic glass darkens temporarily. So, it is
 Concrete is a mixtures of cement, sand, gravel or small very useful as a Sun shield.
pieces of stone and water. It is used for the  Safety glass - The three layers are joined together by
construction of floors. the action of heat and pressure. It does not break easily
 The structure having iron rods embedded in wet under impact and is used in auto vehicle wind shield.
concrete, is known as reinforced concrete.  Optical glass - It is used for making lenses for
microscope, telescope and spectacles.
Glass ( )  Glass fibres - used as insulating material in oven,
 It is a supercooled liquid of silicates. refrigerator etc.
 Raw material used for the formation of glass are  Optical fibres - are extensively used in
sodium carbonate, calcium carbonate and sand. telecommunication surgical operations etc. Optical
 Finely powdered mixture known as batch, is mixed fibres can transmit images round corners.
with cullet (broken glass pieces) and then fused in a  Lead crystal glass - Lead glass has a high refractive
tank furnace at 1673 K. After few hours, molten glass index. So, it is used for making expensive glass ware.
is obtained.  Etching of glass - Glass is attacked by hydrofluoric
 Molten glass is cooled slowly and uniformly. The acid (HF), therefore it is used in the etching of glass.
process of slow and uniform cooling is known as
Annealing CHEMICALS IN AGRICULTURE
 Different addition may produce different coloured Fertilizers
glasses.  Urea is the best fertilizer as it leaves only carbon
dioxide after ammonia, has been assimilated by plants.
Substance used Colour of glass  It has 46.6% mitrogen and it does not alter the pH of
Cuprous oxide Red the soil.
Cupric oxide Peacock blue  Mixture of Ca(CN)2 and C is known as nitrolim.
Potassium Green or Greenish yellow Commerically, calcium nitrate is known as Norvegian
dichromate salt petre.
Ferrous oxide Green  The mixture of nitrogenous, phosphatic and potash
Ferric oxide Brown fertilizers in suitable amounts, is called NPK
Manganese dioxide Light pink, in excess black fertilizers.
Cobalt oxide Blue
Gold chloride Ruby Pesticides
Cadmium Yellow Pesticides are the chemicals which are applied to crops,
Carbon Amber colour e.g. DDT and malathion.

Variety of glass and Uses Difethialone

 Soft glass - It is a mixture of sodium or calcium Vitamin K has been suggested and +successfully used, as
silicates. It is used in making window glass, mirrors antidote for pets or humans accidentally or intentionally
and common glass wares etc. exposed to anticoagulant poisons.
Chemicals in medicines (b)Polyesters - polycondensation products of dicarboxylic
acids and diols. Polyester is another synthetic fibre. Fabric
Analgesics (Pain relievers) made from this fibre does not get wrinkled easily. It
These reduce pain. Aspirin and paracetamol are non- remains crisp and is easy to wash. So, it is quite suitable
narcotic analgesics. Aspirin reduces fever, prevents for making dress material.
platelet coagulation. Eg: Terylene is the best known example of polyesters. It is
Narcotic analgesics are chiefly used for the relief of post prepared by ethylene glycol and terephthalic acid.It can be
operative pain, cardiac pain and pains of terminal cancer drawn into very fine fibres that can be woven like any
and in child birth. other yarn.

Polymerization (c)Phenol - formaldehyde polymer (Bakelite and related

 Polymers are defined as high molecular mass polymers)
macromolecules, which consist of repeating structural Prepared by the condensation reaction of phenol with
units derived from the corresponding monomers. formaldehyde in the presence of either an acid or a base
 Polymers occur in nature also. Cotton, for example, is catalyst.
a polymer called cellulose. Cellulose is made up of a The initial product could be a linear product – Novolac
large number of glucose units. used in paints. Novolac on heating with formaldehyde
undergoes cross linking to form an infusible solid mass
On the basis of intermolecular forces Polymers are called bakelite. It is used for making combs, phonograph
classified as: records, electrical switches and handles of various utensils.
1. Elastomers- rubber, buna-S, buna-N, neoprene etc.
2. Fibres – polyamides (nylon 6, 6), polyesters (Terylene), Eg. Melamine – Melamine formaldehyde polymer is
etc. formed by the condensation polymerisation of melamine
3. Thermoplastic polymers - Such plastic which gets and formaldehyde. Melamine is a versatile material. It
deformed easily on heating and can be bent easily are resists fire and can tolerate heat better than other plastics.
known as thermoplastics. Polythene and PVC, Polythene, It is used for making floor tiles, kitchenware and fabrics
Polystyrene, Polyvinyls, etc. which resist fire. It is used in the manufacture of
4. Thermosetting Polymers - some plastics which when unbreakable crockery.
moulded once, can not be softened by heating. These are
called thermosetting plastics.eg: bakelite, melamine etc. Copolymerisation.
Natural rubber - Natural rubber may be considered as a
Few important polymers are: linear polymer of isoprene (2-methyl-1, 3-butadiene) and is
also called as cis - 1, 4 - polyisoprene.
(a)Polythene
(i)Low density polythene-polymerisation of ethene under Vulcanisation of rubber-This process consists of heating a
high pressure in the presence of traces of dioxygen or a mixture of raw rubber with sulphur and an appropriate
peroxide initiator (catalyst). additive at a temperature range between 373 K to 415 K so
(ii)High density Polythene - polymerisation of ethene in that rubber gets stiffened.
the presence of a catalyst such as triethylaluminium and
titanium tetrachloride (Ziegler-Natta catalyst). Synthetic Rubbers -
(b)Polytetrafluoroethene (Teflon)- Teflon is manufactured (i) Neoprene - by the free radical polymerisation of
by heating tetrafluoroethene with a free radical or chloroprene.
persulphate catalyst at high pressures. Rayon - rayon or artificial silk. Although rayon is obtained
(c)Polyacrylonitrile - polymer of acrylonitrile in presence from a natural source, wood pulp, yet it is a man-made
of a peroxide catalyst. fibre.
Nylon - Nylon is also used for making parachutes and
Condensation Polymerisation ropes for rock climbing. A nylon thread is actually
(a)Polyamides - possess amide linkages stronger than a steel wire.
(i) Nylon 6, 6 - prepared by the condensation
polymerization of hexamethylenediamine with adipic acid CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS
under high pressure and at high temperature Mendeleef‘s Periodic Table (1869)
ii) Nylon 6 - obtained by heating caprolactum with water States that,―the physical and chemical properties of
at a high temperature. elements are the periodic function of their atomic masses.‖
Modern Periodic Law Types of Chemical Reactions.
―The physical and chemical properties of the elements are
periodic function of their atomic numbers.‖ Exothermic and Endothermic Reactions
Reactions in which heat is released along with the
Long Form of Periodic Table formation of products, are called exothermic reactions.
Long form of periodic table or Bohr‘s table is based on Burning of fuel is an example of exothermic reaction.
Bohr-Burry concept of electronic configuration. It contains Reactions in which heat is absorbed, are known as
7 periods (horizontal rows) and 18 groups. endothermic reactions.

Periodic Properties Oxidation and Reduction

The properties which are repeated at regular intervals are  Oxidation is removal of electrons.
known as periodic properties, i.e. periodic properties show  Reduction is the addition of electrons.
a regular order along a group and period. Some important  Oxidation means
periodic properties are (a) addition of oxygen
(b) removal of hydrogen.
Ionisation enthalpy  Reductions means
It is the minimum energy required to remove an electron (a) Removal of oxygen.
from an isolated gaseous atom of an element to form a (b) Addition of hydrogen.
positive ion.  The substance that causes oxidation is called the
oxidizing agent.
Electron gain enthalpy  The substance that causes reduction is called the
It is the energy released by an element when an extra reducing agent.
electron is added to its neutral gaseous atom.
Oxidising agent
Electronegativity 1. Acceptors of electrons.
It is the ability of an atom to attract the shared pair of 2. It is a substance which removes the electron from an
electrons towards it. atom.
3. It brings about oxidation.
Metallic character
It is the tendency of an element to form cation by the loss Reducing agent
of electrons. 1. Donors of electrons.
2. It is a substance which adds electrons to an atom.
CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATION 3. It brings about reduction.

Physical Change REDOX REACTION

 The change that only affect physical properties, but the A reaction which involves oxidation and reduction
chemical compositions remains unchanged, are called occurring simultaneously together are called redox
physical change. reaction. Photosynthesis in plants digestion of food in
 These can be reversed by changing the conditions of animals; dry and wet batteries and corrosion of metals are
temperature and pressure, boiling, cutting of trees, diverse examples of oxidation and reduction reactions.
dissolving common salt in water burning of wax.
Electrolysis
Chemical Change  Electrolysis is carried out in an electrolytic cell.
 The change which affect the composition as well as  A simple electrolytic cell consists of two copper strips
chemical properties of matter and result in the dipping in an aqueous solution of copper sulphate.
formation of a new substance is called a chemical  On applying DC voltage to the two electrodes, copper
change. metal is deposited on cathode and copper is dissolved
 Chemical changes are generally irreversible. Some at anode.
examples of chemical changes are burning of candle  Used In the purification of impure metals.
(gases), photosynthesis, ripening of fruits, electrolysis  In the extraction of metals
of water.  The blocks used in typing industries are prepared by
 A chemical reaction involves bond breaking or bond electrolysis.
formation between any two atoms to produce new  Steel is coated with zinc metal during the process of
substances. galvanization.
Batteries  The rusting of iron can be prevented by painting,
These convert chemical energy into electrical energy. oiling and greasing, galvanizing (by coating iron
Mainly two types of batteries are used, i.e. primary and objects with zinc), chrome plating etc.
secondary.
Catalysis
Primary Batteries  A catalyst is a substance which alter the rate of
In the primary batteries, reaction occurs only once and reaction.
after a period of time battery becomes dead.  The catalyst itself does not alter during the reaction.
 The phenomena in which the rate of reaction is altered
Dry Cell or Leclanche Cell by the presence of a substance (catalyst) is known as
It consists of a zinc container that acts as anode and the catalysis.
cathode is a carbon (graphite) rod surrounded by  Catalysts are specific in their action.
powdered manganese dioxide and carbon.  A catalyst does not change the equilibrium state of a
A moist paste of ammonium chloride ( ) and zinc reversible reaction, only brings it quickly.
chloride ( ) is used as an electrolyte. Dry cell is  The main function of a catalyst in a reaction is to
commonly used in our transistors and clocks. decrease the activation energy.

Mercury Cell Applications of Catalysts in Industrial Processes

It is commonly used in low current devices such as  Haber process for ammonia—Iron is used as a catalyst
hearing aids, watches etc. and molybdenum is used as a promoter of catalyst
The electrolyte is a past of potassium hydroxide (KOH) iron.
and zinc oxide (ZnO).  Contact process for sulphuric acid—Vanadium
pentoxide is used as a catalyst.
Secondary Batteries
 Ostwald process for nitric acid—Platinum gauze is
used as a catalyst.
Lead Storage Battery
 Deacon process for chlorine—Cupric chloride is used
It consists of a lead as anode and a grid of lead packed
as a catalyst.
with lead dioxide ( ) as cathode.
 Synthesis of petrol—Nickel, iron, cobalt and alumina
A 38% solution of sulphuric acid is used as an electrolyte.
is used as a catalyst.
On charging the battery, the reaction is reversed and lead
sulphate gives lead on anode and cathode is converted
Enzyme Catalysis
into lead dioxide respectively.
The increase in the rate of reaction by the enzymes is
known as enzyme catalysis. They are biocatalysts, all are
proteins in nature.
Nickel Cadmium Cell
The rates of enzymatic reactions are very much affected by
It has longer life that the lead storage cell. It consists of a
pH change.
cadmium as anode and nickel dioxide as cathode. The
Some important enzyme catalysis reactions are as follows
electrolyte is a potassium hydroxide (KOH) solution.
 Starch → Maltose
Fuel Cells
Fuel cells convert energy from the combustion of fuels
 Maltose → Glucose
such as hydrogen, carbon monoxide, methane directly into
electrical energy
 Glucose → Ethyl alcohol
A fuel cell with hydrogen and oxygen has been used for
electric power in Apollo Space Programme.  Sucrose → Glucose + Fructose

 Urea → Ammonia + Carbon dioxide

Corrosion
 When iron is exposed to moist air for a long period of
time, its surface acquires a coating of brown flaky MATTER AND ITS NATURE
substance called rust. • Matter can exist in three states-
 Rust is mainly hydrated iron (III) oxide ( ). I. Solid
 In corrosion, a metal is oxidized by the loss of II. Liquid
electrons to oxygen and form oxide. III. Gas.
• The forces of attraction between the particles(inter-
molecular force) are maximum in solids, intermediate
 in liquids and minimum in gases. The spaces in • The particles are called the dispersed phase and the
between the constituent particles and kinetic energy of medium in which they are distributed is called the
the particles are minimum in the case of solids, dispersion medium.
intermediate in liquids and maximum in gases.
• The states of matter are inter-convertible. The state of Metals & Nonmetals
matter can be changed by changing temperature or  Metals are generally good conductors of heat and
pressure. electricity.
• The process of melting, that is, change of solid state  Silver is the best conductor of heat followed by copper.
into liquid state is also known as fusion.  Mercury offers a very high resistance to the passage of
• Evaporation is a surface phenomenon. Particles from electric current.
the surface gain enough energy to overcome the forces  Metals are generally hard but sodium and potassium
of attraction present in the liquid and change into the are so soft that they can be easily cut with a knife.
vapour state. The rate of evaporation depends upon  Metals are malleable and ductile. Gold and silver are
the surface area exposed to the atmosphere, the most malleable and best ductile metals.
temperature, the humidity and the wind speed.  Metals are solids at room temperature except mercury
Evaporation causes cooling. (mp – 39°C) which is liquid, caesium (mp 28.4°C) and
• Burning of coal, wood or leaves is a chemical change. gallium (mp 29.8°C) are liquid above 30°C.
Explosion of a firework is a chemical change. If you  Metals are electropositive in nature, they ionize by the
leave a piece of iron in the open for some time, it loss of electrons and form positive ions.
acquires a film of brownish substance. This substance  Almost all the metal oxides are basic in nature but zinc
is called rust and the process is called rusting. The oxide and aluminium oxide are amphoteric.
process of rusting can be represented by the following  Lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium and caesium
equation: Iron (Fe) + Oxygen (O2, from the air)water are alkali metals. Alkali metals are stored under
(H2O) rust (iron oxide-Fe2O3) For rusting, the presence kerosene or liquid paraffins to protect them from
of both oxygen and water (or water vapour) is action of air.
essential. It is a chemical change.  Metallic sodium is prepared by the electrolysis of
• Prevent iron articles from coming in contact with molten mixture of 40% sodium chloride and 60%
oxygen, or water, or both. One simple way is to apply calcium chloride in a Down‘s cell.
a coat of paint or grease. Another way is to deposit a  Sodium bicarbonate( ), baking soda is used in
layer of a metal like chromium or zinc on iron. This effervescent drinks and fruit salts in fire extinguishers
process of depositing a layer of zinc on iron is called and it is also used in the form of sesquicarbonate. It is
galvanisation. used for wool washing.
• Stainless steel is made by mixing iron with carbon and  Sodium carbonate ( ) washing soda is
metals like chromium, nickel and manganese. It does used in the manufacturing of glass, soap, washing
not rust. powder and for softening hard water.
 Mixture of sodium carbonate and potassium carbonate
Solution
is known as fusion mixture.
• A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more
 Sodium sulphate ( ) is Glauber‘s salt. It
substances. The major component of a solution is
is used as purgative.
called the solvent, and the minor, the solute.
 Sodium thiosulphate ( ) or Hypo It is
Lemonade, soda water etc. are all examples of
used in the photography as a fixing agent.
solutions. We can also have solid solutions (alloys)
 Potassium superoxide ( ) used in space capsules,
and gaseous solutions (air).
submarines and breathing masks as it produces
• The solute particles cannot be separated from the
oxygen and removes carbon dioxide and carbon
mixture by the process of filtration. The solute
monoxide.
particles do not settle down when left undisturbed,
that is, a solution is stable.  Potassium cyanide (KCN) is used in the extraction of
• The concentration of a solution is the amount of solute silver, gold and as a germicide in agriculture. KCN is
present per unit volume or per unit mass of the more poisonous than sodium cyanide.
solution/solvent. A suspension is a heterogeneous  Potassium hydroxide (KOH) is known as caustic
mixture. potash used in the preparation of soft soap. Its
• Colloids are heterogeneous mixtures in which the aqueous solution is known as potash lye.
particle size is too small to be seen with the naked eye,  Potassium carbonate ( ) is potash or pearl ash.
but is big enough to scatter light.
De-icing of Roads after snowfall The important ore of tin is cassiterite ( ) or tin stone.
De-icing in the process of removing ice from a surface by In cold countries, white tin is converted to grey tin
using salts on the surface. Now-a-days, liquid and (powder), the process is known as tin disease or tin
are also used for this purpose. plague. Tin plating is done to prevent the rusting of iron.
Tin amalgam is used in making mirrors. Pentahydrate of
Alkaline Earth Metals and their Compounds stannic chloride ( ), is called butter of tin used
Beryllium, magnesium, calcium, strontium, barium and as mordant in dyeing.
radium are collectively known as alkaline earth metals. Be
( ) is amphoteric in nature. Mg ( ) is called milk of Lead (Pb)
magnesia and used as an antacid. Lead is mainly found in the form of sulphide ore called
galena (PbS). Red lead (minium or sindhur) is used
Calcium oxide (CaO) is also called quick lime. It is used for making protective paint for iron and in match industry.
in the manufacturing of glass, calcium chloride, cement,
bleaching power, calcium carbide, slaked lime, in the Zirconium (Zr)
extraction of iron and as a drying agent for ammonia and It is used for making core of nuclear reactors and for
alcohol. making pumps, valves and heat exchangers.

Calcium hydroxide, slaked lime [ ( )] is used in the Vanadium (V)

manufacturing of caustic soda, sodalime and for softening Vanadium pentoxide ( ) is a very good catalyst for
of hard water. manufacturing of sulphuric acid by contact process.

Calcium sulphate, gypsum ( ) loses a part of Tungsten

its water of crystallization when heated upto 120°C to Tungsten filaments are used in electric bulbs. Calcium
from [ ] which is known as plaster of Paris. tungstate is used in X-ray tube.

Plaster of Paris is a white powder, which sets into hard Iron (Fe)
mass on wetting with water and it is used in making It is extracted from its haematite ore.
statues, toys, etc., in medical applications of setting
fractured bones in right positions and indentistry. Cast iron It is the most impure form of iron and contains
2.5–4% carbon.
Some Important Metals and their Uses
Wrought iron or Malleable iron is the most purest form of
Boron (B) iron and contains minimum amount of carbon (0.12–0.5%)
It is a semimetal (metalloids). In the nature, it occurs in Iron (II) is present in haemoglobin (blood).
combined state as borax.
Boron and boron carbide rods are used to control the Mild steel contain 0.25%–0.5% carbon while hard steels
nuclear reactions. contains 0.5%–1.5% carbon. Soft steels contain carbon upto
Boron carbide ( ) is hardest, known as an artificial 0.25%.
substance after diamond and is known as Norbia.
Orthoboric acid ( ) is used as an antiseptic and eye Stainless steel is an alloy of iron (Fe), chromium (Cr) and
wash under the name boric lotion. nickel (Ni). Ferric chloride ( ) is used as stypic to stop
bleeding from a cut. Ferrous sulphate ( ) is used in
Aluminium (Al) making blue black ink.
It is a third most abundant element of Earth‘s crust. It is
extracted from bauxite ( ). Aluminium powder Copper, Silver and Gold (Cu, Ag and Au)
is used in fireworks, flash light powder, thermite welding. These are called coinage metals. Silver is used as amalgam
Ammonal (a mixture of aluminium powder and for filling teeth and in silvering mirrors. Silver bromide
ammonium nitrate) is used as an explosive. (AgBr) is used in photography. is called lunar
Ruby and sapphire are essentially Ruby is red due caustic used in preparing marking inks and hair dyes.
to the presence of Cr and sapphire is blue due to Fe and Ti. is called blue vitriol or nila thotha and
Emerald is green, it contains Ca/Cr and aluminium is called fool‘s gold.
silicates ( ).
Mercury (Hg)
Tin (Sn) Mercuric sulphide (HgS) is used as a cosmetic in
Ayurvedic medicine as Makardhwaja.
 Franklinite ZnO.
Zinc (Zn) Mercury Cinnabar HgS
It is used in galvanization to prevent rusting of iron. Zinc
Tin Cassiterite
sulphide is used in the preparation of X-ray screens.
Zinc oxide is known as philosopher‘s wool. Zinc sulphate Lead Galena PbS
( ) is white vitriol. Cerrusite
Anglesite
Metallurgy Some Important Alloys and their Uses
The process of extraction of metals from their ores is called Non-Metals
metallurgy. These may be solid, liquid or gas (bromine is the only
liquid non-metal).
Minerals, Ores and Gangue These are soft, non-lustrous, brittle, non-sonorous and
The natural substance in which metals and other non-conductor of heat and electricity. These have low
impurities found in combined state, are called minerals. melting and boiling points. These from oxides with
The minerals from which metal can be extracted oxygen which are generally acidic. Their examples include
conveniently and beneficially, are called ores. Gangue or noble gases, i.e. helium (He), neon (Ne), argon (Ar), krpton
matrix are the impurities associated with the ore. (Kr), xenon (Xe) and some other p-block elements like
chlorine ( ), bromine ( ) and phosphorus (P) etc.
Metal Ores Chemical
composition Alloys are homogeneous mixtures of metals and cannot be
Sodium Rock salt NaCI separated into their components by physical methods.
Chile salt petre Pure metals have poor mechanical properties. Hence, they
Borax are not used in their pure form in industry. Their
Potassium Carnallita properties are modified by adding other elements.
Sylvine KCI
Characteristics of alloys:
Magnesium Carnallite KCI.
Alloys are harder and tougher than the base metal and are
Magnesite
resistant to corrosion.
Asbestos
They are inert to commonly used chemicals and are
Calcium Lima stone
magnetisable and ductile.
Gypsum
Alloy is considered as a mixture because it shows the
Fluorspar
properties of its constituents and can have variable
Aluminium Bauxite
composition.
Cryolite
Feldspar
Amalgams:
Manganese Pyrolusite Mn
Alloys of mercury with other metals like sodium,
Manganite
potassium,gold and zinc...etc are called amalgams.
Manganese MnS
Amalgams stored in iron bottles as iron cannot form
blende
amalgam with mercury.
Iron Haematite
Magnetite Rold Gold is a metal, such as brass, coated with a thin
Iron pyrites layer of gold, usually of above 9 carat purity.
Siderite
Copper Copper glance Brass
Copper pyrites Composition- zinc 30%, copper 70%
Malachite ( )
uses- In making of utensils, pipes and radiator statues etc.
Azurite ( )
Silver Silver glance Yellow Brass
Horn silver AgCI composition - Cu 67%, Zn 33%
Ruby Silver uses - Hardware items
Gold Calverite
Sylvanite Bronze
Zinc Zinc blende ZnS Composition - Copper 90%, Tin 10%
Calamine Zn uses - In making of coins, ornaments, utensils and statues.
Zincite ZnO
Stainless steel uses- soldering joints.
composition - Fe 82%,(Ni + Cr) 18
uses - In making of surgical instruments, watches and CHEMICAL BONDING
utensils etc. Chemical Bonding
Constituents (atoms, molecules or ions) of different
Magnalium elements except noble gases, do not have complete octet so
composition- Al 95% ,Mg 5% they combine with other constituent atoms by chemical
uses - In making light articles and physical balance etc. bonds to achieve complete (stable) octet. The process of
their combination is called chemical bonding. Chemical
Duralumin bonding depends upon the valency of atoms.
composition- Al 95%, Cu 4% ,Mn 0.5%
uses -In making parts of aeroplane and ship etc. Types of Chemical Bond
They are divided in the following types depending upon
Alnico the mode electron transferred or shared electrons or forces
composition - Al 8-12% , Ni 15-26% , Co 5-24% ,Cu 6% of attraction
Remaining: Fe, Tl - Electrovalent or ionic bond - Covalent bond
uses - It is useful in making of magnets. - Coordinate or dative covalent bond - Hydrogen bond
- van der Waals‘ forces
German silver
composition - Cu 60% ,Zn 20%, Ni 20% Electrovalent Bond
uses - It is useful in electroplating and making of utensils. The bond formed by the transfer of electrons from one
atom to another is called electrovalent bond and the
sterling Silver compound is called electrovalent compound or ionic
composition - silver 92.5%, copper 7.5% compound. These bonds are formed between metals and
uses - jewelry, art object non-metals.
These conduct electricity when dissolved in water and also
Gun metal soluble in water. These are insoluble in organic solvents
composition - Cu 88%, Sn 10%,Zn 2% like alcohol etc.
uses - It is useful in making of guns, machine parts and
canons.etc

Solder metal
composition - Pb 50%, Sn 50%
uses - It is mainly useful to join electric wires.

Bell Metal-
composition - copper - 77%, tin - 23%
uses- casting of bells

coin metal -
composition - copper 75%, nickel 25%
uses - U.S coins

wood's metal
composition - Bi 50%, Pb 25%, Sn 12.5%, Cd 12.5%
uses - fuse plugs, automatic sprinklers.

Monel Some Electrovalent Compounds (lonic Compounds)

composition - Ni 67%,and copper, with small amounts of Name Formula lons present
iron, manganese, carbon, and silicon. Aluminium oxide and
uses - It is resistant to corrosion and acids and thus used (Alumina)
for making valves, pumps, shafts, fittings, fasteners, and Ammonium and
heat exchangers. chloride
Plumber's solder Calcium chloride and
composition - Pb 67%, sn 33%
Covalent Bond
The bond is formed by the sharing of electrons between Hydrogen Bond
two atoms of same (or different) elements, is called The electrostatic force of attraction between hydrogen
covalent bond. atom (which is covalently bonded to a highly
Covalent bond may be single, double or triple depends electronegative atom) and any other electronegative atom
upon the number of sharing pairs of electrons. which is present in the same or different molecules, is
Covalent compounds are usually liquids or gases having known as hydrogen bond.
low melting point and boiling point. These do not conduct It is maximum in the solid state and minimum in the
electricity and are insoluble in water but dissolve in gaseous state.
organic solvent. o Intermolecular H-bonding (e.g. HF, water ( )
molecule) It occurs between different molecules of a
Some Covalent Compounds compound and results in increasing solubility in water
Name Formula Element's part and high boiling point.
Alcohol (Ethanol) C, H and O o Intramolecular H-bonding (e.g. o -nitrophenol) It
Ammonia N and H occurs within different parts of a same molecule and
Acetylene (Ethyne) C and H results in decreasing solubility in water and low
boiling point.
Coordinate or Dative Bond o Molecules having O—H, N—H or H—F bond show
The bond is formed by one sided sharing of one pair of abnormal properties due to H-bond formation. For
electrons between two atoms. The necessary condition for example
the formation of coordinate bond is that octet of one atom o Glycerol is viscous and has very high boiling point
should be complete, having atleast one lone pair of due to the presence of intermolecular H-bonding.
electrons and other atom should have a deficiency of o H-bonding also plays an important role in biological
atleast one pair of electrons. system and stability of proteins and nucleic acids.
The atom having complete octet which provides the
electron pair for sharing, is known as donor. The other van der Waals‘ Forces
atom which accept the electron pair, is called the acceptor. The ability of geckos (lizard) which can hang on a glass
surface using only one toe to climb on sheer surfaces had
Bonding between A and B is predominantly been attributed to the van der Waals‘ forces between these
– lonic if there is large difference in electronegativity. surfaces and their foot-pads.
– Covalent if both A and B have approximately same value
of electronegativity. ATMOSPHERIC POLLUTION
– Coordinate if lone pair on A (or B) is donated to electron Atmospheric pollution
deficient B (or A). The substance which causes pollution is known as
pollutant.
Compounds Containing lonic and Covalent Bonds Pollutants are of two types
Name Formula — Primary pollutants persist in the environment in the
Potassium cyanide KCN form, they are produced, e.g. sulphur dioxide ( ),
Sodium hydroxide NaOH nitrogen dioxide ( ) etc.
Calcium carbonate Ca — Secondary pollutants are the products of reaction of
primary pollutants, e.g. peroxyacetye nitrate (PAN), ozone
Compounds Containing Covalent and Coordinate Bonds ( ), aldehyde etc.
Name Formula
Major Gaseous Air Pollutants
Carbon monoxide CO
Major gaseous air pollutants are oxides of sulphur,
Ozone
nitrogen, carbon and hydrocarbons.
Dinitrogen oxide
Dinitrogen trioxide
Sulphur dioxide ( )
Nitric acid It is highly toxic for both animals and plants, bronchitis,
asthma, emphysema. It also causes eye and throat
Compounds Containing Electrovalent, Covalent and irritation and breathlessness.
Coordinate Bonds
Sulphur dioxide reduces the rate of formation of
Name Formula chloroplast and thus, causes chlorosis. is highly
Ammonium chloride corrosive and damage buildings, marbles (Taj Mahal) and
Ammonium bromide textiles.
 is oxidized to which reacts with water to give Byssinosis Due to inhalation of cotton fibre
remains suspended in the air as droplets or dust
come down in the form of acid rain.
Smog
Oxides of nitrogen It is two types:
Among the oxides of nitrogen, nitric oxide (NO), a Classical smog
colourless, odourless gas and nitrogen dioxide ( ), a These occur in cool, humid climate. Sulphur dioxide
brown gas with pungent odour act as tropospheric ( ) and particulate matter from fuel combustion are the
pollutants. main components of classical smog.
is highly toxic for living tissues causes leaf fall. It is a
corrosive oxide and helps in the formation of smog. Photochemical smog
In the presence of oxygen, reacts with water or These occur in warm, dry and sunny climate. It consists
moisture and produces nitric acid ( ) which is an of a mixture of primary pollutants (nitrogen oxides and
important factor for making acid rain. carbon monoxides) and secondary pollutants (ozone,
formaldehyde).
Carbon monoxide (CO) Peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN) and aldehydes present in
From more stable carboxyhaemoglobin complex with smog causes irritation in eyes. PAN has the highest
haemoglobin due to which the delivery of oxygen to the toxicity to plants. It attacks younger leaves and causes
organs and tissues is blocked. bronzing and glazing of their surfaces.

Hydrocarbons Stratospheric Pollution

Out of the hydrocarbons, methane ( ) is the most In stratosphere, ozone layer absorbs the ultraviolet
abundant hydrocarbon pollutant. Higher concentrations of radiation of the Sun which are harmful to living
hydrocarbons given carcinogenic effect, i.e. are cancer organisms.
producing. They cause ageing of plants, breakdown of Depletion of ozone layer causes skin cancer and cataract
plant tissues and shedding of leaves. in human and reduction of planktons in ocean and
depletion of plants.
Consequences of Atmospheric Pollution Depletion of ozone layer is caused by chlorofluoro
Green house gases such as carbon dioxide, methane and carbons which are used in refrigeration, fire
water vapours trap the heat radiated from Earth. This extinguishers and aerosol sprayers.
leads to an increase in Earth‘s temperature. This heating In stratosphere, the depletion of ozone layer leading to
up of Earth and its objects due to the trapping of infrared ozone hole has been mainly observed in the stratosphere
radiation by green house gases in the atmosphere, is called of Antarctica.
green house effect. The formation of this hole occur due to the accumulation
Green house effect is very essential for the existence of life of special clouds in the region called Polar Stratospheric
because in its absence, Earth would be converted into Clouds (PSCs) and inflow of chlorofluoro carbons
extremely cold planet. When concentration of green house (CFCs).
gases increases, green house effect also increases. This is
known as global warming. Water pollution
In some part of India, drinking water is contaminated by
Acid rain the impurities of arsenic, fluoride, uranium, etc.
It is caused by the presence of oxides of nitrogen and In water, some dissolved Oxygen (DO) is also present.
sulphur in the air. These oxides dissolve in rain water and For a healthy aquatic life, the optimum value of DO is 5-6
from nitric acid and sulphuric acid respectively. The rain ppm. If DO is below 5 ppm, the growth of fishes is
carrying acids, is called acid rain. inhibited.

Particulates Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) is the total amount

Diseases caused by particulate of oxygen (in mg) required by microbes to decompose the
Diseases Cause organic matter present in 1L of water sample while
Pneumoconiosis Due to inhalation of coal dust Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) refers to the total
Silicosis Due to inhalation of free silica amount of oxygen (in ppm) consumed by the pollutants
( ) in a water sample.
Black lung disease Found in workers of coal mines ( )
White lung Found in textile workers ( )
disease
 For clean water, BOD is less than 5 ppm while for highly directly proportional relation between the number of
polluted water, it is 17 ppm or more. moles of a gas and its volume.
• Gay-Lussac‘s Law: When different gases react with
PROPERTIES OF GASES each other chemically to produce gaseous substances,
1. Properties of Gases then under the same condition of temperature and
• Gas has no definite volume or shape. pressure, the volume of the reacting gases and product
• The other outstanding characteristic of gases is their gases bear a simple ration among one another.
low densities, compared with those of liquids and
solids. • Avogadro Number: From Avogadro‘s hypothesis, we
• All gases expand equally due to equal temperature know equal volume of all gases contain equal number
difference. of molecules at normal temperature and pressure.
• Diffusion of gases: The phenomenon in which a The number is known as Avogadro Number and is
substance mixes with another because of molecular equal to6.06X1023.
motion, even against gravity- is called diffusion. • The ideal gas equation of state: If the variables P, V, T
• The pressure of a gas: The molecules of a gas, being in and n (the number of moles) have known values, then
continuous motion, frequently strike the inner walls of a gas is said to be in a definite state, meaning that all
their container other physical properties of the gas are also defined.
• Temperature and Temperature Scales: Temperature is The relation between these state variables is known as
defined as the measure of average heat. Temperature an equation of state.
is independent of the number of particles or size and • An ideal gas is an imaginary gas that follows the gas
shape of the object. laws and has 0 volume at 0 K i.e., the gas does not
• Compressibility: Particles of a gas have large exist.
intermolecular spaces among them. By the application
of pressure much of this space can be reduced and the ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
particles be brought closer. Hence the volume of a gas Organic chemistry is defined as the study of hydrocarbons
can be greatly reduced. This is called compressing the and their derivatives. Most atoms are only capable of
gas. forming small molecules. However one or two can form
larger molecules.
Gas Laws Urea was the first organic compound prepared in
• All gases, irrespective of their chemical composition, laboratory. It was prepared by Wohler (1828) from
obey certain laws that govern the relationship between inorganic compound i.e. ammonium cyanate.
the volume, temperature and pressure of the gases. A Acetic acid was the first organic compound synthesized
given mass of a gas, under definite conditions of from the elements by Kolbe.
temperature and pressure, occupies a definite volume. Functional group is responsible for the chemical
When any of the three variables is altered, then the properties of the molecules ex. OH is alcoholic group
other variables get altered. Thus these Gas laws
establish relationships between the three variables of Isomers Compounds having the same molecular formula
volume, pressure and temperature of a gas. but different structures, e.g. C2H6O can have the structure,
• Boyle‘s Law: ―The product of the volume and i.e. CH3OCH3 (dimethyl ether) and C2H5OH (ethanol).
pressure of a given mass of dry gas is constant, at
constant temperature‖. Hydrocarbons
• Charles‘ Law: ―At constant pressure, the volume of a These are the compounds of only carbon and hydrogen.
given mass of gas increases or decreases by 1/273 of Saturated hydrocarbons They contain only single bonds.
its original volume at 32˚F, for each degree centigrade These are also called alkanes or paraffins and have
rise or lowering in temperature.‖ general formula . Methane is the first member of
• Pressure Law: Volume remaining constant, the this group.
pressure of a given mass of gas increases or decreases
by a constant fraction (=1/273) of its pressure at 0˚C Unsaturated hydrocarbons They have general formula
for each degree Celsius rise or fall of temperature. for alkene and for alkynes. These have
• Avogadro‘s Law: This is quite intuitive: the volume of atleast one double (=) or triple (≡) bond and are called
a gas confined by a fixed pressure varies directly with alkenes and alkynes respectively.
the quantity of gas. Equal volumes of gases, measured Aromatic hydrocarbons They have ring structure with
at the same temperature and pressure, contain equal alternate double bonds and (4n + 2) –
(Huckel‘s rule)
numbers of molecules. Avogadro‘s law thus predicts a e.g. benzene.
Important Hydrocarbons and their Uses It was the first chlorinated organic insecticides and
Methane (CH4) It is also known as marsh gas or damp fire. originally prepared in 1873.
Natural gas contains mainly 90% methane along with
ethane, propane, butane etc. Rice agriculture is a big Alcohols
source of atmospheric methane. Methyl alcohol ( )
• It is the cause of occurrence of the explosions in mines.  It is also known as wood spirit or wood naphtha.
• It is used as a fuel gas in making carbon black.  Methyl alcohol is poisonous in nature and when taken
internally it can cause blindness and even death.
Biogas  It is used for denaturing alcohol (methylated spirit is
Produced during decay of biomass in the absence of denatured ethyl alcohol).
oxygen. Methane (75%) is the main constituent of biogas).
Ethane ( ) Ethyl alcohol ( )
Natural gas contains approx. 10% ethane. Its hexachloro It is simply known as alcohol, spirit of wine or grain
derivative is used as an artificial camphor. alcohol.
Butane ( )
It is the main constituent of LPG (liquefied petroleum gas). Glycerol ( )
Ethylene ( )  It is an important trihydric alcohol known as
In World war | (1914-18), it was used for the glycerine.
manufacturing of mustard gas (poisonous gas). It is used  It is sweet in taste and very hygroscopic in nature. It is
as an anesthetic for the preservation and artificial ripening used in the manufacturing of cosmetics and
of green fruits. transparent soaps.
Acetylene (CH ≡ CH) Phenol ( )
It is a monohydric benzene derivative. It is commonly
Benzene ( ) known as carbolic acid or benzenol.
It is the simplest aromatic hydrocarbon. It was discovered
by Faraday in 1825. It is also used as a motor fuel under Methyl isocyanate ( )
the name benzol. Leakage of this gas is responsible for Bhopal gas tragedy.
Coal
Toluene ( )  It is believed that is was formed by (carbonization).
It is used as a commercial solvent in the manufacturing of Different varieties of coal are anthracite (90% carbon),
explosive (TNT), drugs (chloramines-T) and dyestuffs. bituminous (70% carbon), lignite (40% carbon) and
Used in the manufacturing of saccharin and printing inks. peat (10-15% carbon).
toluene is used as antifreeze.  On heating at 1270-1675 K in the absence of air, coal
Naphthalene ( ) decomposes and gives the following products.
It is used for preventing moths in clothes, as an insecticide.  Coke is the solid residue left after the distillation.
 Coal tar It is a mixture of about 700 substances.
Halogen Derivatives of Hydrocarbons  Now-a-days bitumen, a petroleum product, is used in
Chloroform ( ) place of coal tar for metalling the roads.
 It was discovered by Sir James Young Simpson.  The most significant characteristics of Indian coal are
 It is stored in closed dark coloured bottles completely its high ash content, entrained gasifires and low
filled because it is oxidized by air in the presence of sulphur content.
sunlight to an extremely poisonous gas phosgene  The process of separation of various constituents/
( ). fractions of petroleum is known as refining.
 It reacts with conc. and form chloropicrin  Knocking - In a petrol engine, vapours of petrol and
( ). Chloropicrin is an insecticide and also air are first compressed to a small volume and then
used as poisonous gas at the time of war. ignited by a spark. If the quality of petrol is not good,
 The major use of chloroform today is in the production it leads to the pre-ignition of fuel in the cylinder. This
of the Freon refrigerant, R-22. gives rise to a metallic sound known as knocking.
Iodoform ( ) Tetraethyl lead (TEL) and Benzene – Toluene – Xylene
It is used as an antiseptic due to liberation of free iodine. (BTX) are common antiknock compounds.
 Octane number - The antiknocking property of petrol
Carbon tetrachloride ( ) is measured in terms of octane number. Higher the
used as a fire extinguishers under the name pyrene. octane number, better is the quality of fuel. Gasoline
Dichloro diphenyl trichloro ethane (DDT) used in automobiles has an octane number 80 or
 higher while in aeroplane, it has an octane number 100  Outermost region It is blue (non-luminous) due to
or over higher. complete combustion of fuel. It is the hottest part of
Fuels: flame and is used by the Goldsmith to heat the gold.
 Producer gas is a mixture of carbon monoxide and Rocket Fuel:
nitrogen. Water gas in mixture of carbon monoxide  The fuel used in rockets is called rocket propellant.
and hydrogen.  Liquid propellants are alcohol, liquid hydrogen,
 Coal gas is a mixture of hydrogen, methane, carbon liquid ammonia ( ), kerosene oil etc.
monoxide, ethane, acetylene, carbon dioxide, nitrogen  Solid propellants are polybutadiene and acrylic acid
and oxygen. used along with oxidizers such as aluminium per
 Oil gas and petrol gas is a mixture of methane, chlorate, nitrate or chlorate.
ethylene and acetylene etc., and is obtained by
cracking of kerosene.
 LPG (Liquefied Petroleum Gas) the mixtures of
hydrocarbons such as propane, propene, n-butane,
isobutene and various butane with small amount of
ethane.The major sources of LPG are natural gas.
 CNG (Compressed Natural Gas) It is highly
compressed from of natural gas, octane rating of CNG
is 130.
 Gasohol+ It is a mixture of ethyl alcohol (10%) and
petrol (90%).
Flame:
It is the hot part of fire and has three parts.
 Innermost region of flame It is black because of the
presence of unburned carbon particles.
 Middle region It is yellow luminous due to partial
combustion of fuel.
 Question
1. What of the following is a good source ● Although eutrophication is commonly
of Vitamin A? caused by human activities, it can also be
(A) Cabbage a natural process, particularly in lakes.
(B) Carrot Eutrophy occurs in many lakes in
(C) Potato temperate grasslands.
(D) Strawberry 3. When two liquid material do not mix
A. B with each other and do not make solution,
B. D then they are called-
C. A (A) Solvent
D. C (B) Solute
Ans. A (C) Immisible
Sol. (D) Decantation
* Vitamin A is found in Carrot, meat, fish, A. (A)
and dairy products. B. (D)
* Provitamin A is found in plant-based C. (B)
foods such as fruits and vegetables. The D. (C)
most common type of pro-vitamin A is Ans. D
beta-carotene. Sol.
* Vitamin A helps form and maintains * When two liquids do not mix with each
healthy teeth, skeletal and soft tissue, other and do not make solution, then they
mucus membranes, and skin. It is also are called Immiscible.
known as retinol because it produces the * Immiscibility is the property where two
pigments in the retina of the eye. substances do not mix to form a
* Vitamin A is found in two forms: homogeneous mixture. The fluid which
* Retinol: Retinol is an active form of mix in each other are called as Miscible
vitamin A. fluids.
* Carotenoids: Carotenoids are dark- * In immiscible solutions the higher
coloured dyes (pigments). density liquid settles down and the lower
density solution rises up as the case in
2. Richness of mixed compound elements mixing petrol and water.
of nitrogen and phosphorus is known as:
(A) Eutrophication 4. Milk of Magnesia is used as-
(B) Sedimentation (A) Laxative
(C) Hydrogenation (B) Painkiller
(D) Oxidation (C) Sedative
A. (C) (D) Antibiotic
B. (D) A. (A)
C. (B) B. (C)
D. (A) C. (B)
Ans. D D. (D)
Sol. Ans. A
● Eutrophication is excessive richness of Sol.
nutrients in a lake or other body of water, * Milk of magnesia is used as a Laxative,
frequently due to run-off from the land. which works by drawing water into the
● It happens generally due to excessive intestines, it treats constipation. This is
growth of Algae. And it may lead to because it can reduce the amount of
oxygen depletion of the water body. For stomach acid while increasing water in
example – Algae Bloom. the intestines.
● More specifically it is caused by * The chemical name of Milk of Magnesia
discharge of Nitrate or Phosphate is Magnesium Hydroxide.
containing detergents, fertilizers or waste * Milk of magnesia usually relieves
material in aquatic system like lakes. constipation within 6 hours of taking it.
5. Who is knows as “Father of modern protons but the neutron numbers of these
chemistry’? isotopes are 6, 7, and 8 respectively.
(A) Emest Rutherford
(B) Otto Hahn 7. The particles which are having neutral
(C) Dmitri Mendeleev charge and weak in an atom is called as-
(D) Antotne Lavoisier (A) Neutrino
A. (D) (B) Positron
B. (B) (C) Electron
C. (A) (D) Proton
D. (C) A. (B)
Ans. A B. (D)
Sol. C. (C)
* Antoine Lavoisier is considered as the D. (A)
father of modern chemistry. Ans. D
* He is both a historical personality as Sol.
well as a chemist of 18th century of * Neutrino is a subatomic particle that is
France. Lavoisier is most noted for his similar to electron, but it has no charge
discovery of the role oxygen plays in and very small mass which can be
combustion. considered as even zero. Neutrinos are
* He also recognises and named oxygen one of the most abundant particles in the
and hydrogen and was first to establish universe.
that sulphur was an element rather than * Neutrinos has very little interaction with
compound. matter, weak nuclear force is applicable
* He also gave the principle of in case of neutrinos.
conservation of mass in chemical * The positron or positive electron is the
reactions. antiparticle or the antimatter counterpart
of the electron. The positron has an
6. What is the reason of different mass of electric charge of +1, a spin of ½ and has
a isotopes of a atom of a element? the same mass as an electron.
(A) Different number of proton in their
nucleus 8. Dried fruit like raisins when soaked in
(B) Different number of neutron in their water, bulge and get filled with water.
nucleus What is the scientific reason that explains
(C) Different number of electron in their this daily life event?
nucleus (A) Osmosis
(D) Different number of compounded (B) Active Transport
electrons. (C) Diffusion
A. (A) (D) Passive Transport
B. (C) A. (B)
C. (D) B. (C)
D. (B) C. (D)
Ans. D D. (A)
Sol. Ans. D
* Isotopes are different variants of a Sol.
principle element which differs in Number • Dried fruit like raisins when soaked in
on Neutrons and Same number of water, bulge and get filled with water this
Protons. is a result of Osmosis phenomenon.
*It was coined by a Scottish doctor and • Osmosis is a process by which
writer Margaret Todd in 1913 in a molecules of a solvent tend to pass
suggestion to chemist Frederick Soddy. through a semipermeable membrane
* For example, carbon-12, carbon-13, from a less concentrated solution into a
and carbon-14 are isotopes of carbon, more concentrated one.
which means that every atom has 6
• Osmotic pressure is defined as the (A) Lead oxide
external pressure required to be applied (B) Graphite
so that there is no net movement of (C) Cuprous oxide
solvent across the membrane. (D) Iron oxide
A. (D)
9. Which of the following is probe to the B. (A)
Kuiper belt bodies? C. (C)
(A) Voyager 1 D. (B)
(B) Van Allen Probe Ans. A
(C) New Horizon Sol.
(D) Pioneer 11 ● MICR characters are printed on
A. (D) documents in one of the two MICR fonts,
B. (A) using magnetizable (commonly known as
C. (B) magnetic) ink or toner, usually containing
D. (C) iron oxide.
Ans. D ● Magnetic ink character recognition
Sol. code, known in short as MICR code.
• The New Horizon was launched by NASA ● It is a character recognition technology.
as an an interplanetary space probe.
• The spacecraft was launched in 2006 12. Not servicing the vehicles results in
with the primary mission to perform a incomplete combustion of carbonaceous
flyby study of the Pluto system in 2015. matter in automobile engine which
• A secondary mission to fly by and study generates ______.
one or more other Kuiper belt objects. (A) Carbon monoxide
• It is the 5th space probe to successfully (B) Carbon dioxide
achieve the escape velocity to eject form (C) Nitrous oxide
the solar system. (D) Nitrogen dioxide
A. (C)
10. _____ is the transition of a substance B. (B)
directly from the solid to the gas phase C. (A)
without passing through the intermediate D. (D)
liquid phase. Ans. C
(A) Sublimation Sol.
(B) Evaporation ● Incomplete combustion is also a
(C) Condensation reaction between oxygen and fuel but the
(D) Liquidation products are carbon monoxide, water and
A. (D) carbon.
B. (A) ● Incomplete combustion occurs when a
C. (C) combustion reaction occurs without a
D. (B) sufficient supply of oxygen.
Ans. B
Sol. 13. Which one of the following is not
• Sublimation is the transition of a alkaline?
substance directly from the solid to the (A) Sodium
gas phase. (B) Potassium
• Evaporation is a type of vaporization (C) Lithium
that occurs on the surface of a liquid as it (D) Sulphur
changes into the gas phase. A. (D)
• Condensation is the conversion of a B. (A)
vapour or gas to a liquid. C. (B)
D. (C)
11. For printing MICR characters, the ink Ans. A
used contains which of following? Sol.
* Sodium, Potassium and Lithium are universe by mass after hydrogen, helium,
alkaline elements while sulphur isn’t. and oxygen.
* Alkaline is a basic salt or ionic salt of ● Hydrogen is most abundant element in
alkaline earth elements. They are the universe.
basically base dissolved in water. And ● Hydrogen is also a promising source of
have ph greater than 7. "clean" fuel on Earth.
* Alkaline solutions are slippery or soapy ● Oxygen is an important element that is
to the touch and Alkalis are normally needed by most life forms on Earth to
water-soluble. survive.
● It is the third most abundant element in
14. Thermostat is a device in ovens which the universe and the most abundant
helps to maintain a temperature by: element in the human body.
(A) completing the circuit ● Nitrogen is a colorless odorless gas at
(B) breaking the circuit normal temperature.
(C) adding a component to the circuit ● It is normally attached to another
(D) removing a component from the nitrogen atom, making a nitrogen
circuit molecule (N2).
A. (A)
B. (D) 16. Filament in light bulb is made of
C. (C) (A) Platinum
D. (B) (B) Tantalum
Ans. D (C) Tungsten
Sol. (D) Antimony
● Thermostat is a device in ovens which A. (A)
helps to maintain a temperature by B. (B)
breaking the circuit. C. (C)
● A thermostat is a device for controlling D. (D)
heating and cooling systems. Ans. C
● It consists of a circuit controlled by a Sol.
temperature sensitive device and ● Filament of electric bulb is generally
connected to the environmental system. made up of Tungsten.
● These are used in air-conditioning ● Light bulbs are manufactured with
systems and in refrigerators, ovens and tungsten filaments because tungsten has
water heaters. an abnormally high melting temperature.
● The filament in a light bulb is housed in
15. What are the 4 key elements? a sealed, oxygen-free chamber to
(A) Iron, Sulphur, Silicon and Potassium prevent combustion.
(B) Helium, Lithium, Beryllium and Boron ● In a modern light bulb, inert gases,
(C) Plutonium, Uranium, Promethium and typically argon, are filled to reduce the
Neon loss of tungsten filament.
(D) Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen and
Nitrogen 17. C12 H22 O11 is also known as
A. (C) _______
B. (B) (A) Sand
C. (A) (B) Sugar
D. (D) (C) Salt
Ans. D (D) Clay
Sol. A. (D)
● The four key elements of life are: B. (C)
Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen and Nitrogen. C. (A)
● Carbon is the 15th most abundant D. (B)
element in the Earth's crust, and the Ans. D
fourth most abundant element in the Sol.
● C12 H22 O11 is also known as Sugar. (A) Water is a mixture of hydrogen and
● Sugar is basically sweet tasting soluble oxygen
carbohydrates used in food. (B) Water is a compound of nitrogen
● They are categorised as oxygen
Monosaccharide, Disaccharide and (C) Water is a compound of oxygen and
Polysaccharide. hydrogen
● Excessive consumption of sugar has (D) Water is an element
been implicated in the onset of obesity, A. (D)
diabetes, cardiovascular disease, B. (C)
dementia, and tooth decay. C. (B)
D. (A)
18. NaCl is chemical formula of ______. Ans. B
(A) Ammonia Sol.
(B) Water • Water is a colorless and odorless
(C) Salt substance found all over Earth.
(D) Sugar • Water is made up of billions of
A. (D) molecules.
B. (C) • Each molecule is made of one oxygen
C. (A) and two hydrogen atoms held together by
D. (B) strong covalent bonds.
Ans. B
Sol. 21. Four pairs of words are given. Find
* Nacl is formula of common salt. the odd one out.
* In 100 g of NaCl contains 39.34 g Na (A) Mercury : Liquid
and 60.66 g Cl. (B) Gunpowder : Solid
* It is found in Cyrstalline structure. (C) Camphor : Gas
* It is colourless, Odouless solid. (D) Helium : Gas
* It is face central crystalline in structure. A. (D)
B. (C)
19. Which out of the following contains C. (B)
Ethanoic acid? D. (A)
(A) Lemon juice Ans. B
(B) Orange juice Sol.
(C) White vinegar • Camphor is a waxy, flammable,
(D) Tomato ketchup transparent solid with a strong aroma.
A. (A) • Camphor can also be synthetically
B. (B) produced from oil of turpentine.
C. (D) • Mercury is the only metal that is a liquid
D. (C) at normal temperatures and pressure.
Ans. D
Sol. 22. The process of removing hydrogen
● Vinegar consists of acetic acid from water is known as-
(CH3COOH), water and trace amounts of (A) Electrolysis
other chemicals, which may include (B) Osmosis
flavorings. (C) Ozonation
● Ethanoic acid, also called acetic acid, is (D) Oxidation
a chemical with a sharp, acrid smell. A. (A)
● Toamto ketchup, Orange Juice and B. (C)
Lemon Juice contain citric acid. C. (D)
D. (B)
20. Which of the following statement is Ans. A
true? Sol.
● The process of removing hydrogen from (C) A legendary animal
water is known as Electrolysis. (D) An infected wound
● Electrolysis a method of separating A. (A)
elements by pushing an electric current B. (C)
through a compound. It is used in various C. (D)
industrial applications such as removing D. (C)
copper from its ore, removing hydrogen Ans. A
and oxygen from water etc. Sol.
● Graphene is a allotrope of carbon. It is
23. Which among the following is used for single atom layer thick and have high
cooking- tensile strength.
(A) Liquified Natural Gas ● It is approx 95 percentage transparent,
(B) Compressed natural Gas very light comparision to other carbon
(C) Liquified Petroleum Gas allotropes and has diverse applications in
(D) Compressed Petroleum Gas defence, equipment making etc.
A. (A)
B. (C) 26. Which particle has positive charge?
C. (D) (A) Neutron
D. (B)] (B) Proton
Ans. B (C) Electron
Sol. (D) Kryton
● Liquid Petroleum Gas is used for A. (C)
cooking in households. B. (B)
● LPG also referred to as simply propane C. (A)
or butane, are flammable mixtures of D. (D)
hydrocarbon gases used as fuel Ans. B
● A powerful odorant, ethanethiol, is Sol.
added so that leaks can be detected ● Proton is a positive charge element
easily. while electron is a negative charge
element.
24. Which of the following is not a natural ● It was discovered by Eugen Goldst, it
bleaching agent? has mass of 1.67×10−27 kg and have a
(A) Lemon charge of 1.6X10−19.
(B) Capsicum ● It’s mass is 1,836 times the mass of an
(C) Potato electron.
(D) Tomato
A. (B) 27. Which process removes the carbon
B. (D) dioxide from the atmosphere?
C. (A) (A) Photosynthesis
D. (C) (B) Biodegradation
Ans. A (C) Electrolysis
Sol. (D) Galvanization
● Natural bleaching agents are used to A. (C)
remove dark spots and lighten skin. B. (B)
● Capsicum is not a natural bleaching C. (A)
agent. D. (D)
● Lemon, Potato, Tomato, Yogurt, Ans. C
Papaya, Turmeric, Aloe Vera etc are some Sol.
examples of natural bleaching agents. ● By the process of Photosynthesis the
carbon dioxide is removed from the
25. What is graphene? atmosphere.
(A) Allotrope of carbon ● Because in process of Photosynthesis
(B) A popular graphics software the Plants absorb or inhales carbon
dioxide and exhales oxygen in ● The smell of leakage of LPG leak is due
atmosphere. to presence of Ethyl Merceptane, which is
basically a sulphur compound.
28. A example of rhizome is : ● Ethyl Mercaptan is added to the gas,
(A) Carrot which possesses that strong odour of
(B) Sweet Potato rotten cabbages.
(C) Garlic ● Liquefied Petroleum Gas contains
(D) Ginger propane, propylene, butane, and
A. (C) butylene in a number of mixtures. It is
B. (A) completely odourless.
C. (B)
D. (D) 31. Rupee 5 and 10 coins are now made
Ans. D of :
Sol. (A) Ferritic stainless steel
● A rhizome is a type of plant stem (B) Silver and steel
situated either at the soil surface or (C) Copper nickel alloy
underground that contains nodes from (D) Copper and brass
which roots and shoots originate. A. (C)
● Ginger, hops, poison oak, grass species, B. (B)
and bamboo are examples of C. (D)
underground Rhizomes. D. (A)
Ans. A
29. What is Baking Soda? Sol.
(A) Potassium Permanganate ● Rupee 5 and 10 coins are now made of
(B) Sodium Chloride copper nickel alloy.
(C) Sodium Bicarbonate ● New 5 and 10 rs coins weight 6.74 gms
(D) Sodium Carbonate and 7.74 gms respectively.
A. (C) ● The inner ring of 10 rs coin will be made
B. (B) of nickel silver, which will contain 65 per
C. (D) cent copper, 15 per cent zinc and 20 per
D. (A) cent nickel.
Ans. A
Sol. 32. Safety matches does not contain
● Sodium bicarbonate is known as Baking (A) Sulphur
Soda with the formula NaHCO3. (B) Phosphorus
● odium bicarbonate is a white solid that (C) Magnesium
is crystalline but generally exist in powder (D) Potassium
form. A. (D)
● It’s natural mineral form is nahcolite. B. (C)
C. (A)
30. The smell that we get when LPG D. (B)
cylinder leaks is due to the presence of- Ans. B
(A) Nitrogen peroxide Sol.
(B) Carbon monoxide ● The safety matches contain sulphur,
(C) Sulphur compound Potasium chlorate, red phosphorous,
(D) Carbon dioxide binder, filler etc.
A. (A) ● Safety matches are 'safe' because they
B. (D) don't undergo spontaneous combustion
C. (C) and because they don't make people sick.
D. (B) ● A safety match uses friction to generate
Ans. C the heat needed to initiate combustion.
Sol.
33. Blotting paper absorbs ink due to
(A) Coarse nature of paper * Methane is called as Marsh Gas.
(B) Osmosis * It is produced when vegetation
(C) Capillary action decomposes naturally within some
(D) Siphoning geographical marshes, swamps, and
A. (C) bogs.
B. (B) * The main process for the production of
C. (A) methane is anaerobic digestion.
D. (D) * Methane is a chemical compound with
Ans. A the chemical formula CH4.
Sol.
● Blotting paper absorbs ink due to 36. Which of the following is not a
Capillary action. bleaching agent?
● Blotting paper is basically an absorbent (A) Sodium hypochlorite
paper used for soaking up excess ink (B) Calcium hypochlorite
when writing. (C) Hydrogen peroxide
● The capillary action is based on the (D) Hydrogen sulphide
property of surface tension of liquid. A. (B)
● Blotting paper provides capillary action B. (D)
for faster absorption of liquid. C. (A)
34.Atomic weight of an element is D. (C)
compared with the atomic weight of Ans. B
which of the following elements? Sol.
(A) Oxygen ● Sodium hypochlorite, Calcium
(B) Hydrogen hypochlorite and Hydrogen peroxide are
(C) Carbon the main bleaching agent.
(D) Nitrogen ● Hydrogen sulfide is the chemical
A. (D) compound with the formula H ₂S.
B. (B) ● It is a colorless chalcogen hydride gas
C. (A) with the characteristic foul odor of rotten
D. (C) eggs.
Ans. D ● It is very poisonous, corrosive, and
Sol. flammable.
* An atomic mass unit is defined as ● The main use for hydrogen sulfide is in
precisely 1/12 the mass of an atom of the production of sulfuric acid and
carbon-12. elemental sulfur.
* The carbon-12 (C-12) atom has six
protons and six neutrons in its nucleus. 37. The percentage of nitrogen in the air
* Thus atomic mass of an element is is about
relative and carbon-12 atom mass is (A) 74%
taken as the standard for comparing. (B) 76%
(C) 78%
35. Which of the following is known as (D) 80%
Marsh gas? A. (C)
(A) Methane B. (A)
(B) Ethane C. (B)
(C) Propane D. (D)
(D) Butane Ans. A
A. (A) Sol.
B. (C) ● Nitrogen makes up approximately 78
C. (B) percent of the air in the Earth's
D. (D) atmosphere.
Ans. A
Sol.
● Oxygen accounts for 21 percent, and Berzelius's work with atomic weights and
the inert noble gas argon makes up 0.9 his theory of electrochemical dualism led
percent of the air. to his development of a modern system
● The remaining 0.1 percent consists of of chemical formula notation
several trace gases.
● Most of the 0.1 percent is carbon 40. Which one of these is noble element?
dioxide. (A) Iron
● Other traces gases include neon, (B) Silver
helium, methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (C) Bronze
(N2O) and ozone (O3.) (D) Aluminum
A. (C)
38. Evolution Theory was given by: B. (D)
(A) Charles Darwin C. (A)
(B) Charles Dickens D. (B)
(C) Albert Einstein Ans. D
(D) Isac Newton Sol.
A. (B) Silver is a noble metal.
B. (A) These are the metals that are resistant to
C. (C) corrosion and oxidation in moist air.
D. (D) Silver is a chemical element with the
Ans. B symbol Ag.
Sol.
The theory of evolution by natural 41. Which are of these is an example of
selection, first formulated in Darwin's chemical reaction?
book "On the Origin of Species" in 1859, (A) Sublimation
is the process by which organisms change (B) Crystallization
over time as a result of changes in (C) Neutralization
heritable physical or behavioral traits. (D) Distillation
Darwin himself had no knowledge of A. (C)
genetics and therefore, his theory of B. (A)
natural selection as an explanation of C. (B)
evolution was based solely on what he D. (D)
observed and knew at the time. Ans. A
Sol.
39. Who gave the way for Chemical Neutralization is an example of chemical
symbols in modern time used by us? reaction.
(A) Louis Pasteur A neutralization reaction is when an acid
(B) Robert Boyle and a base react to form water and a salt
(C) Berzelius and involves the combination of H+ ions
(D) John Dalton and OH- ions to generate water.
A. (B) The neutralization of a strong acid and
B. (A) strong base has a pH equal to 7
C. (D)
D. (C) 42. What is the unit of life?
Ans. D (A) Cell
Sol. (B) Organ
The Swedish chemist Jons Jacob (C) Tissue
Berzelius was one of the first European (D) Nucleus
scientists to accept John Dalton's atomic A. (D)
theory and to recognize the need for a B. (B)
new system of chemical symbols. He was C. (A)
a dominant figure in chemical science. D. (C)
Ans. C
Sol. 45. Which element is used in
A cell is the smallest unit of life. It is the thermometer ans as element is very toxic
basic structural, functional, and biological in nature?
unit of all known organisms. (A) Carbon
It was discovered by Robert Hooke in (B) Mercury
1665. (C) Arsenic
(D) Cadmium
43. Which agent is good for purification of A. D
drinking water? B. A
(A) Catalytic agent C. C
(B) Reducing agent D. B
(C) Sterilizing agent Ans. D
(D) Oxidizing agent Sol.
A. (B) * Mercury was used in thermometer
B. (D) which is very toxic in nature.
C. (A) * A thermometer is a device that
D. (C) measures temperature.
Ans. B * Mercury is the third element in the
Sol. twelfth column of the periodic table. It is
Advanced oxidation processes are used to classified as a transition metal
remove organic and inorganic materials * Under standard conditions mercury is a
in water and wastewater by oxidation shiny, heavy, silvery liquid. It is the only
through reactions with hydroxyl radicals. metal that is liquid at room temperature.
For eg: Ozone (O3), hydrogen peroxide It will evaporate into the air at room
(H2O2), UV light or chlorine etc are used temperature.
as an oxidizing agent in the purification of
water. 46. Which of the following in nucleus
represent atomic number.
44. What is the name of process, In which (A) Protons
gas directly converts into solid? (B) Neutrons
(A) Sublimation (C) Electrons
(B) Deposition (D) Hydrons
(C) Condensation A. (C)
(D) Evaporation B. (B)
A. A C. (A)
B. C D. (D)
C. D Ans. C
D. B Sol.
Ans. D ● Atomic number is the number of
Sol. protons in the nucleus of an atom, which
* Deposition- process of converting gas is characteristic of a chemical element
into solid. and determines its place in the periodic
* Sublimation- Process of converting solid table.
into gas. Ex – Ice to vapour. ● The atomic number is also known as
* Condensation- Process of converting Proton number. The atomic number
gas into liquid. Ex. Condensation of water uniquely identifies to the charge number
vapour into liquid water. of the nucleus.
* Evaporation- is a type of vaporisation ● The sum of the atomic number Z and
that occurs on surface of liquid as it the number of neutrons, N, gives the
changes into gas phase. mass number A of an atom.
● Atoms with the same atomic number Z
but different neutron numbers N, and
hence different atomic masses, are cut to size, drilled, or polished without
known as isotopes. risk of its internal stresses shattering it.

47. Glacier is formed by 49. Which of the following is known as

(A) Melting snow quicksilver?
(B) Deposited snow (A) Titanium
(C) Hailstorm (B) Mercury
(D) Heavy rainfall (C) Platinum
A. (B) (D) Radium
B. (A) A. (C)
C. (C) B. (A)
D. (D) C. (D)
Ans. A D. (B)
Sol. Ans. D
* Glaciers are made up of fallen snow Sol.
over many years, compresses into large * Mercury is also known as quick silver. It
ice masses. was formally named hydragyrum. It is
* Deposition of snow is the major cause known as quick silver due to it’s silvery
of formation of glaciers. Each year, new appearance.
layers of snow bury and compress the * Mercury is used in thermometers,
previous layers. For most glaciers, this barometers, manometers,
process takes more than a hundred sphygmomanometers, float valves, etc.
years. And it exists as liquid at room
* The accumulation area and ablation temperature. It is the only metal which is
area are two major components of a liquid at room temperature.
glacier and between these two areas a * The red pigment vermilion is obtained
balance is reached, where snowfall equals by grinding natural cinnabar or synthetic
snowmelt, and the glacier is in mercuric sulphide.
equilibrium.
50. Which bacterium is used to convert
48. The Process of quenching of hot glass milk into yoghurt?
is known as- (A) Streptomyfces
(A) Annealing (B) Vibrio
(B) Humidifying (C) Lactobacillus
(C) Condensation (D) Spirilla
(D) Decantation A. (A)
A. (A) B. (C)
B. (C) C. (D)
C. (B) D. (B)
D. (D) Ans. B
Ans. A Sol.
Sol. ● Lactobacillus bacteria is responsible for
* Annealing is a metallurgical process of converting milk into yogurt.
quenching of hot glass. ● In human body they are present in
* To relieve residual internal stresses Digestive System, Urinary System and
introduced during manufacture of glass Genital system.
the process of Annealing of glass is done
in which slow cooling hot glass objects 51. Which of the following in known as
after they have been formed is done. laughing gas?
* To anneal glass, it is necessary to heat (A) N2O
it to its annealing temperature. After (B) CO2
annealing is complete the material can be (C) H2O
(D) So2
A. (D) A. (B)
B. (B) B. (C)
C. (A) C. (D)
D. (C) D. (A)
Ans. C Ans. A
Sol. Sol.
● Nitrous Oxide or N2O is known as the • The rare gasses are a group of six
Laughing Gas. It is a colourless and non gases: helium (He), neon (Ne), argon
flammable gas. It can also act as an (Ar), krypton (Kr), xenon (Xe), and radon
oxidiser. (Rn).
● In Medical applications it is used as an • They are also known as inert gases or
anaesthetic and pain reducing element. noble gases and found in small amounts
● Its colloquial name "laughing gas", in atmosphere that’s why known as rare
coined by Humphry Davy, is due to the gases.
euphoric effects upon inhaling it. It is on • Argon is the most abundant rare gas, it
the World Health Organization's List of makes up about 1% of Earth’s
Essential Medicines. atmosphere.
● It is present in atmosphere in low
quantity and mainly released by 54. Medical drugs work in the human
agricultural anthropogenic causes, it is a body by which of following?
stratosphere scavenger gas. (A) Correcting chemical reactions within
the body responsible for diseases
52. What is the full form of CFC. (B) Diverting chemical reactions within
(A) Chloro Fluoro Carbon the body responsible for diseases.
(B) Chloro Fluoro Carbide (C) Fastening chemical reactions within
(C) Chlorine Flourine Carbondioxide body responsible for disease
(D) Carbo Fluoro Chloride (D) Slowing chemical reactions within
A. (D) body responsible for disease
B. (C) A. (C)
C. (B) B. (A)
D. (A) C. (D)
Ans. D D. (B)
Sol. Ans. B
* The full form of CFC is Chloro Fluoro Sol.
Carbon, which contains Carbon, ● Medical drugs work in human body by
Hydrogen, Chlorine and Fluorine. correcting chemical reactions within the
* They are widely used in refrigerator, body responsible for diseases.
Propellants and solvents. CFC is a major ● Some drugs replace missing substances
contributor of Ozone depletion in or correct low levels of natural body
Stratosphere. chemicals such as some hormones or
* Montreal Protocol is a major vitamins.
international protocol to counter and
control emissions of CFCs at the 55. Benzoic acid is purified by _______.
international level. According to NASA in (A) Distillation
2018, the hole in the ozone layer has (B) Sublimation
begun to recover as a result of CFC bans. (C) Filtration
(D) Extraction
53. The most abundant of the rare gases A. (A)
is _____. B. (C)
(A) Helium C. (D)
(B) Argon D. (B)
(C) Neon Ans. D
(D) Nitrogen Sol.
● Benzoic acid gets converted into gas * Gunpowder was invented in 9th-
without converting into liquid after century China and spread throughout
heating, thus it undergoes sublimation. most parts of Eurasia by the end of the
● Benzoic acid can be purified by 13th century
recrystallization from water because of its
high solubility in hot water and poor 58. Galvanization is a process in which a
solubility in cold water. layer of zinc
● Benzoic acid is a colorless crystalline (A) Bending
solid and a simple aromatic carboxylic (B) Rusting
acid. (C) Corroding
(D) Disintegrating
56. Stainless steel is A. (D)
(A) A compound B. (B)
(B) A mixture C. (C)
(C) An element D. (A)
(D) An alloy Ans. B
A. (B) Sol.
B. (A) ● Galvanization is the process of applying
C. (D) a protective zinc coating to steel or iron,
D. (C) to prevent rusting.
Ans. C ● The most common method is hot-dip
Sol. galvanizing, in which the parts are
* Stainless steel is basically a alloy with submerged in a bath of molten zinc.
aluminium, Chromium and Carbon as
elements. 59. Which of the following changes into
* It is corrosion resistant which also liquid at room temperature
increases with increase in chromium (A) Mercury
content. (B) Bromine
* Stainless Steel has wide applications (C) Chlorine
like in field of Architecture, Locomotion, (D) Gallium
Medicine, Energy sector etc. A. (A)
B. (C)
57. Gunpowder mainly contains C. (B)
(A) Calcium sulphate D. (D)
(B) Potassium nitrate Ans. C
(C) Lead sulphide Sol.
(D) Zinc sulphide ● Bromine changes into liquid at room
A. (D) temperature, while mercury exist in liquid
B. (B) at room temperature.
C. (A) ● Its Symbol is Br and atomic number is
D. (C) 35.
Ans. B ● Carl Jacob Lowing (in 1825) and
Sol. Antoine Jérôme Ballard isolated it in
* Gunpowder is also recognised as black 1826.
powder. ● Bromine is the third halogen, being a
* It is a mixture of Sulphur, Charcoal and non-metal in group 17 of the periodic
Potassium nitrate. The Potassium nitrate table.
is oxidiser while Sulphur and charcoal are
fuel. 60. Radium is extracted from which
* It has wide applications in fields of mineral
Mining, Road construction, Fireworks, (A) Rutile
Rockets etc. (B) Haematite
(C) Limestone
(D) Pitchblende B.(A)
A. (D) C. (B)
B. (C) D. (D)
C. (B) Ans. D
D. (A) Sol.
Ans. A ● Green house gases are those gases
Sol. which absorb and emits radiant energy
* Pitchblend is also known as Uraninite, it within the thermal infrared range.
is a radioactive, uranium-rich mineral and ● Water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane,
ore with a chemical composition that is nitrous oxide and ozone are major green
largely UO2. house gases.
* All uraninite minerals contain a small ● These gases rise the average of earth
amount of radium as a radioactive decay surface and led to diverse environmental,
product of uranium. climatic and human harms.
* Marie Curie used pitchblende as the 63. Which of the following is not a
source material for her isolation of radium colourless and odourless gas?
in 1898. (A) Nitrogen
(B) Chlorine
61. Who was the first scientist to prepare (C) Hydrogen
periodic table for chemical elements (D) Oxygen
(A) Henry Moseley A. (C)
(B) Robert Boyle B. (B)
(C) Dmitri Mendeleev C. (A)
(D) John Newlands D. (D)
A. (D) Ans. B
B. (C) Sol.
C. (B) ● Nitrogen, oxygen and hydrogen are
D. (A) colourless and odourless gasses whereas
Ans. B Chlorine is not.
Sol. ● Chlorine gas can be recognized by its
* Dmitri Mendeleev was the first scientist pungent, irritating odour, which is like the
to prepare periodic table for chemical odour of bleach and colour of Chlorine gas
elements. appears to be yellow-green.
* Dmitri Mendeleev is often referred to as ● Chlorine is commonly used as an
the Father of the Periodic Table. He called antiseptic and is used to make drinking
his table or matrix, "the Periodic System". water safe and to treat swimming pools.
* Mendeleev's table did not include any of
the noble gases, which were discovered 64. In the context of air pollution, PM
later. These were added by Sir William stand for-
Ramsay as Group 0. (A) Pollutant Matter
* Mendeleev organized elements in order (B) Pungent Matter
of increasing atomic mass, in 1914 Henry (C) Particulate Matter
Moseley gained further efficiency and (D) Proliferation Matter
organised the table by Atomic number A. (D)
rather than Atomic weight. B. (A)
C. (B)
62. Which of the following is not the green D. (C)
house gas? Ans. D
(A) Ozone Sol.
(B) Nitrous Oxide ● In context of Pollution PM stands for
(C) Water Vapour Particulate Matter and they are also
(D) Hydrogen known as Suspended Particulate Matter
A. (C) (SPM).
● Particulate matter are basically A. (D)
microscopic solid or liquid matter B. (C)
suspended in the atmosphere of Earth. C. (B)
● Particulate Matter 2.5 and Particulate D. (A)
Matter 10 are two major categories to Ans. D
measure their concentration in Sol.
atmosphere. Nuclear fusion is responsible to generate
solar energy in the sun.
65. The most active ingredient in It converts hydrogen atoms into helium.
bleaching powder is_______. The energy released from nuclear fusion
A. Iodine reactions accounts for the longevity of
B. Calcium hypochlorite stellar heat and light.
C. Nitric acid
D. Ammonium sulphate 67. The leak of LPG cylinder is detected
Ans. B due to smell of which of following?
Sol. Bleaching powder is a mixture of A. Nitrogen peroxide
calcium hypochlorite, Ca(OCl)2 and basic B. Carbon monoxide
calcium chloride, CaCl2, Ca(OH)2.H2O. C. Sulphur compound
• The active ingredient in bleaching D. Carbon dioxide
powder for bleaching action is Ca(OCl)2 Ans. C
containing chlorine. Sol.
Ethyl mercaptan with chemical formula
66. Which process is responsible to C2H6S is added to the LPG to detect any
generate solar energy in the sun? leakage.
(A) Nuclear Fusion It is a colourless low boiling liquid with
(B) Solar Power overpowering garlic-like odour due to the
(C) Thermal Power presence of Sulphur in it.
(D) Gravitational energy