Algebra and Functions

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YOUR NOTES
A Level Maths CIE 
1. Algebra & Functions
CONTENTS
1.1 Modulus Functions
1.1.1 Modulus Functions - Sketching Graphs
1.1.2 Modulus Functions - Solving Equations
1.2 Polynomials
1.2.1 Polynomial Division
1.2.2 Factor & Remainder Theorem
1.2.3 Factorisation
1.2.4 Rational Expressions
1.2.5 Top Heavy Rational Expressions
1.3 Partial Fractions
1.3.1 Linear Denominators
1.3.2 Squared Linear Denominators
1.3.3 Quadratic Denominators
1.4 Further Modelling with Functions
1.4.1 Further Modelling with Functions
1.5 General Binomial Expansion
1.5.1 General Binomial Expansion
1.5.2 General Binomial Expansion - Subtleties
1.5.3 General Binomial Expansion - Multiple
1.5.4 Approximating values
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1.1 Modulus Functions YOUR NOTES


1.1.1 Modulus Functions - Sketching Graphs
Modulus Functions - Sketching Graphs
Modulus functions
The modulus function makes any ‘input’ positive
|x| = x if x ≥ 0 |f(x)| = f(x) if f(x) ≥ 0
|x| = -x if x < 0 |f(x)| = -f(x) if f(x) < 0
For example: |5| = 5 and |-5| = 5
Sometimes called absolute value
How do I sketch the graph of the modulus function: y = a |x + p| + q?
The graph will look like a “ꓦ” if a > 0 or a “ꓥ” if a < 0
There will be a vertex at the point (-p, q)
There could be 0, 1 or 2 roots
This depends on the location of the vertex and the orientation of the graph (ꓦ
or ꓥ)
Compare this to the completed square form of a quadratic a(x + p)² + q
How do I sketch the graph of the modulus of a function: y = |f(x)|?

STEP 1 Pencil in the graph of y = f(x)
STEP 2 Reflect anything below the x-axis, in the x-axis, to get y = |f(x)|
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YOUR NOTES
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How do I sketch the graph of a function of a modulus: y = f(|x|)?

STEP 1 Sketch the graph of y = f(x) only for x ≥ 0
STEP 2 Reflect this in the y-axis
What is the difference between y = |f(x)| and y = f(|x|)?

There is a difference between y = |f(x)| and y = f(|x|)
The graph of y = |f(x)| never goes below the x-axis
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It does not have to have any lines of symmetry YOUR NOTES

The graph of y = f(|x|) is always symmetrical about the y-axis 
It can go below the y-axis
For the exam you will only be asked to do this when f(x) is linear
Your graphs will all look like a “ꓦ” or a “ꓥ”
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You can also think of these graphs as transformations of the graph y = |x| YOUR NOTES

 Worked Example
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1.1.2 Modulus Functions - Solving Equations YOUR NOTES


Modulus Functions - Solving Equations
Modulus graphs and equations
Two non-parallel straight-line graphs would intersect once
If modulus involved there could be more than one intersection
Deducing where these intersections are is crucial to solving equations
How do I solve modulus equations?

STEP 1 Sketch the graphs including any modulus (reflected) parts
(see Modulus Functions – Sketching Graphs)
STEP 2 Locate the graph intersections
STEP 3 Solve the appropriate equation(s) or inequality
For | f (x ) | = | g(x ) | the two possible equations are f (x ) = g(x ) and
f (x ) = − g(x )
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 ExamSketching
Tip
the graphs is important as solving algebraically can lead to 
invalid solutions.
For example, x = 1 is a solution to x − 4 = 2x − 5 but it is not a solution
to |x − 4 | = 2x − 5 (substitute x = 1 into both sides and see why it does
not work).
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Worked Example YOUR NOTES

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1.2 Polynomials YOUR NOTES

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1.2.1 Polynomial Division
Polynomial Division
What is a polynomial?
A polynomial is an algebraic expression consisting of a finite number of terms,
with non-negative integer indices only
What is polynomial division?

Polynomial division is a method for splitting polynomials into factor pairs (with or
without an accompanying remainder term)
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YOUR NOTES

At A level you will most frequently use it to factorise polynomials, or when dealing
with improper (ie 'top-heavy') algebraic fractions
How do I divide polynomials?
The method used for polynomial division is just like the long division method
(sometimes called 'bus stop division') used to divide regular numbers:
At A level you will normally be dividing a polynomial dividend of degree 3 or 4 by a

divisor in the form (x ± p)
The answer to a polynomial division question is built up term by term, working
downwards in powers of the variable (usually x)
Start by dividing by the highest power term
Write out this multiplied by the divisor and subtract
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
Continue to divide by each reducing power term and subtracting your answer each
time
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Continue until you are left with zero YOUR NOTES


If the divisor is not a factor of the polynomial then there will be a remainder term
left at the end of the division
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YOUR NOTES
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1.2.2 Factor & Remainder Theorem YOUR NOTES


Factor Theorem
What is the factor theorem?
The factor theorem is a very useful result about polynomials
A polynomial is an algebraic expression consisting of a finite number of terms,
with non-negative integer indices only
At A level you will most frequently use the factor theorem as a way to simplify the
process of factorising polynomials
What do I need to know about the factor theorem?

For a polynomial f(x) the factor theorem states that:
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If f(p) = 0, then (x - p) is a factor of f(x) YOUR NOTES

AND

If (x - p) is a factor of f(x), then f(p) = 0
 ExamIn anTipexam, the values of p you need to find that make f(p) = 0 are
going to be integers close to zero.
Try p = 1 and -1 first, then 2 and -2, then 3 and -3.
It is very unlikely that you'll have to go beyond that.
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Remainder Theorem YOUR NOTES

What is the remainder theorem? 
The factor theorem is actually a special case of the more general remainder
theorem
The remainder theorem states that when the polynomial f(x) is divided by (x - a)
the remainder is f(a)
You may see this written formally as f(x) = (x - a)Q(x) + f(a)
In polynomial division
Q(x) would be the result (at the top) of the division (the quotient)
f(a) would be the remainder (at the bottom)
(x - a) is called the divisor
In the case when f(a) = 0, f(x) = (x - a)Q(x) and hence (x - a) is a factor of f(x)–
the factor theorem!
How do I solve problems involving the remainder theorem?
If it is the remainder that is of particular interest, the remainder theorem saves the
need to carry out polynomial division in full
e.g. The remainder from (x 2 − 2x ) ÷ (x − 3) is 32 − 2 × 3 = 3
This is because if f(x) = x2- 2x and a = 3
If the remainder from a polynomial division is known, the remainder theorem can
be used to find unknown coefficients in polynomials
g. The remainder from (x 2 + px ) ÷ (x − 2) is 8 so the value of p can be found by
solving 22 + p (2) = 8 , leading to p = 2
In harder problems there may be more than one unknown in which case
simultaneous equations would need setting up and solving
The more general version of remainder theorem is if f(x) is divided by (ax - b) then
the remainder is f ⎛⎜⎜ ba ⎞⎟⎟
⎝ ⎠
The shortcut is still to evaluate the polynomial at the value of x that makes the
divisor (ax - b) zero but it is not necessarily an integer
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 
 ExamExam
Tip
questions will use formal mathematical language which can make
factor and remainder theorem questions sound more complicated than
they are.
Ensure you are familiar with the various terms from these revision notes
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1.2.3 Factorisation YOUR NOTES


Polynomial Factorisation
What is polynomial factorisation?
Factorising a polynomial combines the factor theorem with the method of
polynomial division
The goal is to break down a polynomial as far as possible into a product of linear
factors
How do I factorise a polynomial?

At A level you will usually be asked to factorise a cubic – i.e. a polynomial where
the highest power of x is 3
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YOUR NOTES

To factorise a cubic polynomial f(x) follow the following steps:
Step 1. Find a value p that makes f(p) = 0
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Step 2. Use polynomial division to divide f(x) by (x - p) YOUR NOTES


Step 3. Use the result of your division to write

f(x) = (x - p) (ax2 + bx + c)
Step 4. If the quadratic (ax2 + bx + c) is factorisable, factorise it and write f(x) as a

product of three linear factors (if the quadratic is not factorisable, then your result
from Step 3 is the final factorisation)
 ExamTheTip
method outlined above can be logically extended to factorise a
polynomial of any degree.
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1.2.4 Rational Expressions YOUR NOTES


Rational Expressions (Algebraic Fractions)
What are rational expressions?
Rational numbers are numbers that can be written as a fraction (quotient)
Rational comes from ratio – a number is rational if it can be written as a ratio of
two integers – ie a fraction!
A rational expression is an algebraic fraction
The ratio between two algebraic expressions (usually polynomials)
Factor theorem
In order to simplify a rational expression you'll need to remember the factor
theorem
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How to simplify a rational expression (algebraic fraction) YOUR NOTES


Start by factorising polynomials using factor theorem or algebraic division

x 3 − 7x + 6
Simplify
x 2 + 2x − 3
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YOUR NOTES
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cancel any common (linear) factors
recognise a top-heavy (improper) rational expression, simplify if needed
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1.2.5 Top Heavy Rational Expressions YOUR NOTES


Improper Algebraic Fractions
What are top-heavy (improper) rational expressions (or algrbraic
fractions)?
The degree of the numerator is greater than or equal to the degree of the
denominator
How do I simplify top-heavy rational expressions?
Write as a quotient and a remainder

The algebraic equivalent of changing a top-heavy fraction to a mixed number
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YOUR NOTES

 Exam Tip
Remember that simple cases are sometimes the hardest to spot!
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1.3 Partial Fractions YOUR NOTES


1.3.1 Linear Denominators
Linear Denominators
What are partial fractions?
This is the reverse process to adding (or subtracting) fractions

When adding fractions a common denominator is required
In partial fractions the common denominator is split into parts (factors)
Partial fractions are used in binomial expansions (see Multiple GBEs) and
integration (see Integration by Parts)
What are linear denominators?
A linear factor is of the form (ax + b)

A non-linear denominator may be written as the product of linear factors
If the denominator can be factorised
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
How do I find partial fractions?

STEP 1 Factorise the polynomial in the denominator
(Sometimes the numerator can be factorised too)
STEP 2 Split the fraction into a sum with single linear denominators
STEP 3 Multiply by the denominator to get rid of fractions
STEP 4 Substitute values of x to find A, B, etc
(An alternative method is comparing coefficients)
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STEP 5 Write the original as partial fractions YOUR NOTES


Comparing coefficients
The quantity of each term must be equal on both sides
“The number of x2 on the LHS” = “The number of x2 on the RHS”
“The number of …” is called the coefficient of x2
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1.3.2 Squared Linear Denominators YOUR NOTES


Squared Linear Denominators
Partial fractions
In partial fractions the common denominator is split into parts (factors)

This is the reverse process to adding (or subtracting) fractions
In harder questions there is a repeated factor, this is a squared linear factor
What are squared linear denominators?
A linear factor is of the form (ax + b)

It is possible b = 0 so a linear factor could be of the form ax (eg 4x)
A squared linear factor is of the form (ax + b)2
With b = 0 this would be of the form (ax)2 (x2 would be too!)
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YOUR NOTES

How do I find partial fractions with squared linear denominators?

STEP 1 Factorise the denominator (Sometimes the numerator can be factorised
too)
STEP 2 Split the fraction into a sum with a squared linear denominator and any
other single linear denominators
STEP 3 Multiply by the denominator to get rid of fractions
STEP 4 Substitute values of x to find A, B, etc (or use comparing coefficients)
STEP 5 Write the original as partial fractions
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1.3.3 Quadratic Denominators YOUR NOTES


Quadratic Denominators
What is meant by partial fractions with quadratic denominators?
For linear denominators the denominator of the original fraction can be factorised
such that the denominator becomes a product of linear terms of the form ( ax + b )
With squared linear denominators, the same applies, except that some (usually
just one) of the factors on the denominator may be squared, i.e. ( ax + b ) 2
In both the above cases it can be shown that the numerators of each of the partial
fractions will be a constant (A , B, C, etc)
For this course, quadratic denominators refer to fractions that have one linear
factor and one quadratic factor (that cannot be factorised ) on the denominator
the denominator of the quadratic partial fraction will be of the form
( ax 2 + bx + c) ; very often b = 0 leaving it as ( ax 2 + c)
the numerator of the quadratic partial fraction could be of linear form,
(Ax + B)
How do I find partial fractions involving quadratic denominators?

STEP 1 Factorise the denominator as far as possible (if not already done so)
Sometimes the numerator can be factorised too
STEP 2 Split the fraction into a sum with
the linear denominator having an (unknown) constant numerator
the quadratic denominator having an (unknown) linear numerator
STEP 3 Multiply through by the denominator to eliminate fractions
STEP 4 Substitute values into the identity and solve for the unknown
constants
Use the root of the linear factor as a value of x to find one of the unknowns
Use x = 0 to find another one of the unknowns
Use any value of x (keep it small and simple) to find the final unknown
If the linear factor is then you'll need to use any two other values of to form
simultaneous equations
STEP 5 Write the original as partial fractions
In harder problems there may be more than one linear or quadratic factor
In such cases, values of x , whatever order they’re used in, will not always
eliminate all but one of the unknowns
Simultaneous equations will need to be used
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 
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YOUR NOTES

 ExamYouTip
can check your final answer by substituting a value of x in to both
the left and right-hand sides and seeing if they’re equal
Choose a small value of x to keep things simple but not a value
that would make a denominator zero
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1.4 Further Modelling with Functions YOUR NOTES


1.4.1 Further Modelling with Functions
Further Modelling with Functions
How do I solve modelling problems?
There will be no one-size-fits-all step-by-step guide to solving modelling
questions
A combination of skills and problem-solving skills will be needed
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Assumptions, criticisms and refinements in modelling

Modelling is a large part of A level mathematics
Assumptions and refinements to models often need to be considered
Real-life general knowledge and common sense can really help in mathematical
modelling
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 Exam Tip
Read – and re-read – the question carefully. Try to “get involved” in the 
context of the question – however boring it may be!
Imagine what happens to a stone as you throw it from a cliff
What would it be like to manage a toy factory?
Draw a diagram – sketch a graph of the function being used as the model.
If you are completely stuck try “doing something” with the maths. For
example, if there’s a quadratic function – sketch it, factorise it, solve it. Or
if there’s a polynomial – use factor theorem and algebraic division to
factorise it.
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
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1.5 General Binomial Expansion YOUR NOTES


1.5.1 General Binomial Expansion
General Binomial Expansion
What is the general binomial expansion?
The binomial expansion applies for positive integers, n ∈ ℕ
The general binomial expansion applies to other types of powers too
The general binomial expansion applies for all real numbers, n ∈ℝ

Usually fractional and/or negative values of n are used
It is derived from (a + b)n, with a = 1 and b = x
a = 1 is the main reason the expansion can be reduced so much
Unless n ∈ ℕ, the expansion is infinitely long

It is only valid for |x| < 1
This is another way of writing -1 < x < 1
This is often called the validity statement
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The restriction |x| < 1 means the series will converge YOUR NOTES
Higher powers of x can be ignored (as r → ∞, xr → 0) 
Only the first few terms of an expansion are needed
How do I expand brackets with the general binomial expansion?
STEP 1 Write the expression in the form (1 + x)n
STEP 2 Expand and simplify
Use a line for each term to make things easier to read and follow
Use brackets - fractions and negatives get ugly!
STEP 3 If required, check and state the validity statement
How do I use the general binomial expansion when it is (1 + bx)?

STEP 1 Write the expression in the form (1 + bx)n
STEP 2 Replace “x” by “bx” in the expansion
Check carefully to see if b is negative
Use brackets
STEP 4 If required, check and state the validity statement
The validity statement changes
Replace “x” with “bx” so now |bx| < 1
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1.5.2 General Binomial Expansion - Subtleties YOUR NOTES


General Binomial Expansion - Subtleties
The binomial expansion applies for positive integers, n ∈ ℕ
The general binomial expansion applies to other types of powers too
The general binomial expansion applies for all real numbers, n ∈ℝ

Usually fractional and/or negative values of n are used
It is derived from (a + b)n, with a = 1 and b = x
Even when a ≠ 1 the general binomial expansion can still be used
How do I use the general binomial expansion for (a + kx)n?
The general binomial expansion can be applied to expanding (a + kx)n
STEP 1 Rewrite the question into (1 + bx)n form

Roots are fractional powers
Denominators are negative powers
A factor may be needed to make “a = 1”
STEP 2 Replace “x” by “bx” in the expansion
Check carefully to see if b is negative
Use brackets
STEP 4 If required, check and state the validity statement, |bx| < 1
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1.5.3 General Binomial Expansion - Multiple YOUR NOTES


General Binomial Expansion - Multiple
The general binomial expansion, as given in the formula booklet, is
If n ∈ ℕ then the expansion is finite (see Binomial Expansion)

Otherwise the expansion is infinitely long
It is only valid for |x| < 1 (-1 < x < 1)
Only the first few terms of an expansion are usually needed
What is meant by multiple general binomial expansions?
More than one part of an expression can be a binomial expansion
These may sometimes be called compound expressions
The expansion will only be valid for the lowest |x| boundary from all the
expansions used
How do I use general binomial expansions in complicated expressions?
STEP 1 Break the expression down into binomial expansions
STEP 2 Expand each binomial individually, up to a suitable number of terms
Be careful with negatives and fractions
Use brackets as appropriate
STEP 3 Collect the expansions together and simplify
This could be expanding brackets, collecting like terms, etc
Ignore any terms of degree higher than required
STEP 4 Check the validity of each binomial expansion
The overall validity is the intersection (∩)
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
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
How do I work with partial fractions and the general binomial expansion?
Partial fractions allow rational expressions to be written in a form where the
general binomial expansion can then be applied
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
Validity is an important part of the general binomial expansion
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1.5.4 Approximating values YOUR NOTES


Approximating Values
The general binomial expansion, as given in the formula booklet, is
If n ∈ ℕ then the expansion is finite (see Binomial Expansion)

Otherwise the expansion is infinitely long
It is only valid for |x| < 1 (-1 < x < 1)
Only the first few terms of an expansion are usually needed
How do I use a binomial expansion to approximate a value?
Ignoring higher powers of x leads to an approximation

The more terms the closer the approximation is to the true value
For most purposes, squared or cubed terms are accurate enough
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YOUR NOTES

STEP 1 Compare the value you are approximating to (a + bx)n

STEP 2 Solve the appropriate equation to find the value of x
STEP 3 Substitute this value of x into the expansion to find the approximation
 ExamYouTip
can get a good idea if your approximation is correct by working out
the “real” answer using your calculator.
Sometimes it helps to factorise out a number before approximating
710 = 10 7 . 1
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
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1. Algebra & Functions

1.1 Modulus Functions YOUR NOTES

How do I sketch the graph of the modulus of a function: y = |f(x)|?

How do I sketch the graph of a function of a modulus: y = f(|x|)?

What is the difference between y = |f(x)| and y = f(|x|)?

It does not have to have any lines of symmetry YOUR NOTES

1.1.2 Modulus Functions - Solving Equations YOUR NOTES

How do I solve modulus equations?

Worked Example YOUR NOTES

1.2 Polynomials YOUR NOTES

What is polynomial division?

At A level you will normally be dividing a polynomial dividend of degree 3 or 4 by a

Continue until you are left with zero YOUR NOTES

Worked Example YOUR NOTES

1.2.2 Factor & Remainder Theorem YOUR NOTES

What do I need to know about the factor theorem?

If f(p) = 0, then (x - p) is a factor of f(x) YOUR NOTES

Worked Example YOUR NOTES

Remainder Theorem YOUR NOTES

Worked Example YOUR NOTES

1.2.3 Factorisation YOUR NOTES

How do I factorise a polynomial?

To factorise a cubic polynomial f(x) follow the following steps:

Step 1. Find a value p that makes f(p) = 0

Step 2. Use polynomial division to divide f(x) by (x - p) YOUR NOTES

Step 3. Use the result of your division to write

Step 4. If the quadratic (ax2 + bx + c) is factorisable, factorise it and write f(x) as a

Worked Example YOUR NOTES

1.2.4 Rational Expressions YOUR NOTES

How to simplify a rational expression (algebraic fraction) YOUR NOTES

Start by factorising polynomials using factor theorem or algebraic division

cancel any common (linear) factors

recognise a top-heavy (improper) rational expression, simplify if needed

Worked Example YOUR NOTES

1.2.5 Top Heavy Rational Expressions YOUR NOTES

How do I simplify top-heavy rational expressions?

Write as a quotient and a remainder

Worked Example YOUR NOTES

1.3 Partial Fractions YOUR NOTES

This is the reverse process to adding (or subtracting) fractions

What are linear denominators?

A linear factor is of the form (ax + b)

How do I find partial fractions?

STEP 5 Write the original as partial fractions YOUR NOTES

Worked Example YOUR NOTES

1.3.2 Squared Linear Denominators YOUR NOTES

In partial fractions the common denominator is split into parts (factors)

A linear factor is of the form (ax + b)

How do I find partial fractions with squared linear denominators?

Worked Example YOUR NOTES

1.3.3 Quadratic Denominators YOUR NOTES

How do I find partial fractions involving quadratic denominators?

Worked Example YOUR NOTES

1.4 Further Modelling with Functions YOUR NOTES

Assumptions, criticisms and refinements in modelling

Worked Example YOUR NOTES

1.5 General Binomial Expansion YOUR NOTES