Logarithm

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CIE IGCSE Additional Maths Your notes
Logarithmic & Exponential Functions

Contents
Exponential Functions
Logarithmic Functions
Laws of Logarithms
Exponential Equations
Transforming Relationships to Linear Form
Page 1 of 33
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Your notes
What is an exponential function?
An exponential functions in a function where the variable is the power
They are of the form y = ax with a > 0
What is an exponential graph?
All graphs of the form y = ax will pass through (0, 1) because a0 = 1
The x-axis is an asymptote
Exponential graphs when a > 1

Where x < 0 the higher value of a is the “lower” graph
Where x > 0 the higher value of a is the “higher” graph
a > 1 is exponential growth
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Your notes
What about when a ≤ 1?

You may like to think about why a = 1 is not considered... If a = 1, y = 1x = 1 for all values of x
0 < a < 1 represents exponential decay
Where x < 0 the higher value of a is the “higher” graph
Where x > 0 the higher value of a is the “lower” graph
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Worked example
Your notes
Page 4 of 33
"e"
What is e, the exponential function? Your notes
The exponential function is y = ex
e is an irrational number
e ≈ 2.718
As with other exponential graphs y = ex
passes through (0, 1)
has the x-axis as an asymptote
What is the big deal with e?

y = ex has the particular property
dy
= ex
dx
i.e. for every real number x, the gradient of y = ex is also equal to ex (see Differentiating e^x and lnx)
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Your notes
The negative exponential graph

y = e-x is a reflection in the y-axis of y = ex
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Your notes
What is exponential growth and decay?
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Your notes
y = Aekx (k > 0) is exponential growth

y = Ae-kx (k > 0) is exponential decay
A is the initial value
k is a (usually positive) constant
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A negative sign is used in the equation making clear whether it is growth or decay
Your notes
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Worked example
Your notes
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Your notes
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Your notes
What are logarithmic functions?
A logarithm is the inverse of raising to a power
If a = b x then log a = x
b
a>0
b is called the base of the logarithm
Try to get used to ‘reading’ logarithm statements to yourself
log ( . . . ) = would be read as “the power that you raise ... to, to get ..., is ”
...
So log (125) = 3 would be read as “the power that you raise 5 to, to get 125, is 3”
5
A logarithm is the inverse of raising to a power so we can use rules to simplify logarithmic functions
Why use logarithms?

Logarithms allow us to solve equations where the exponent is the unknown value
We can solve some of these by inspection
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For example, for the equation 2x = 8 we know that x must be 3

Logarithms allow use to solve more complicated problems
For example, the equation 2x = 10 does not have a clear answer Your notes
Instead, we can use our calculator to find the value of log 10
2
How do I use logarithms?
Recognising the rules of logarithms allows expressions to be simplified
Page 13 of 33
Your notes
Recognition of common powers helps in simple cases

Powers of 2: 20 = 1, 21 = 2, 22 = 4, 23 = 8, 24 =16, …
Powers of 3: 30 = 1, 31 = 3, 32 = 9, 33 = 27, 34 = 81, …
The first few powers of 4, 5 and 10 should also be familiar
For more awkward cases a calculator is needed
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Your notes
Calculators can have, possibly, three different logarithm buttons
This button allows you to type in any number for the base
Natural logarithms (see “e”)
Page 15 of 33
Your notes
Shortcut for base 10 although SHIFT button needed

Before calculators, logarithmic values had to be looked up in printed tables
What notation might I see with logarithms?
10 is a common base
log10 x is abbreviated to log x or lg x
The value e is another common base
loge x is abbreviated to ln x
(log x)2 ≠ log x2
Exam Tip
Before going into the exam, make sure you are completely familiar with your calculator and know
how to use its logarithm functions
Page 16 of 33
ln x
What is ln? Your notes
ln is a function that stands for natural logarithm
It is a logarithm where the base is the constant "e"
ln x ≡ log x
e
It is important to remember that ln is a function and not a number
The natural logarithm ( ln x ) and the exponential function (ex ) are inverses of each other
It is defined for all positive numbers (x > 0 )
ln x cannot be defined for negative numbers or x = 0
What are the properties of ln?
Using the definition of a logarithm you can see
ln 1 = 0
ln e = 1
ln ex = x
ln x is only defined for positive x
How can I solve equations involving e & ln?
The functions ex and ln x are inverses of each other
If ex = a then x = ln a
If ln x = a then x = ea
If ef(x ) = g(x ) then f (x ) = ln g(x )
If ln f (x ) = g(x ) then f (x ) = eg(x )
If your equation involves "e" then try to get all the "e" terms on one side
If "e" terms are multiplied, you can add the powers
ex × ey = ex + y
You can then apply ln to both sides of the equation
If "e" terms are added, try transforming the equation with a substitution
For example: If y = ex then e4 x = y 4
You can then solve the resulting equation (usually a quadratic)
Once you solve for y then solve for x using the substitution formula
If your equation involves "ln", try to combine all "ln" terms together
Use the laws of logarithms to combine terms into a single term
If you have ln f (x ) = ln g(x ) then solve f (x ) = g(x )
If you have ln f (x ) = k then solve f (x ) = ek
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Exam Tip
Your notes
If you're working on the non-calculator exam paper you may need to leave answers as exact values
so using lnx is a good idea
This can be solved with ex which can then be left as an exact value
Worked example
Solve the equation e2 x = 5 , leaving your answer as an exact value.
Take the natural logarithm of both sides.
Use the property that .
Divide both sides by 2.
Do not use your calculator to evaluate this as the question asks for the answer given as an exact value.
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Laws of Logarithms
Your notes
Laws of Logarithms
What are the laws of logarithms?
Laws of logarithms allow you to simplify and manipulate expressions involving logarithms
The laws of logarithms are equivalent to the laws of indices
The laws you need to know are, given a , x , y > 0 :
log xy = log x + log y
a a a
This relates to a x × a = ax +y
y
x
log a = log a x − log a y
y
This relates to a x ÷ a y = a x − y
log a x m = mlog a x
This relates to ( a x ) y = a xy
There are also some particular results these lead to

log a = 1
a
log a a x = x
log x
a a =x
log a 1 = 0
⎛1 ⎞⎟
log a ⎜⎜ ⎟ = − log a x
⎝x ⎠
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Your notes
Beware…
…log (x + y ) ≠ log x + log a y
a a
These results apply to ln x (log x ) too
e
Two particularly useful results are
ln e x = x
e lnx = x
How do I use the laws of logarithms?
Laws of logarithms can be used to …
… simplify expressions
… solve logarithmic equations
… solve exponential equations
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Your notes
Exam Tip
Remember to check whether your solutions are valid
log (x+k) is only defined if x > -k
You will lose marks if you forget to reject invalid solutions
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Worked example
Your notes
a) Write the expression 2 log 4 − log 2 in the form log k , where k ∈ ℤ .
Using the law we can rewrite as .
Using the law :
1
b) Hence, or otherwise, solve 2 log 4 − log 2 = − log .
x
Rewrite the equation using the expression found in part (a).
:
Using the index law ::
Using the law :
Compare the two sides.
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Change of Base
How do I change the base of a logarithm? Your notes
The formula for changing the base of a logarithm is
logbx
loga x =
logb a
The value you choose for b does not matter, however if you do not have a calculator, you can choose b
such that the problem will be possible to solve
Why change the base of a logarithm?

The laws of logarithms can only be used if the logs have the same base
If a problem involves logarithms with different bases, you can change the base of the logarithm
and then apply the laws of logarithms
Changing the base of a logarithm can be particularly useful if you need to evaluate a log problem
without a calculator
Choose the base such that you would know how to solve the problem from the equivalent
exponent
This formula had more use when calculators were less advanced
Some old calculators only had a button for logarithm of base 10
To calculate log 7 on these calculators you would have to enter
5
log10 7
log10 5
The formula can be useful when evaluating a logarithm where the two numbers are powers of a
common number
log28 3
log48 = =
log24 2
The formula can be useful when you are solving equations and two logarithms have different bases
For example, if you have log k and log n within the same equation
3 9
log3n 1
You can rewrite log n as which simplifies to log3n
9 log39 2
log9k
Or you can rewrite log k as which simplifies to 2log k
3 log93 9
The formula also allows you to derive and use a formula for switching the numbers:
Page 23 of 33
1
loga x = Your notes
logx a
Using the fact that log
x
x =1
Exam Tip
It is very rare that you will need to use the change of base formula
Only use it when the bases of the logarithms are different
Worked example
By choosing a suitable value for b, use the change of base law to find the value of log 32 without
8
using a calculator.
Note that 8 and 32 are both powers of 2, where 8 = 23 and 32 = 25.
Therefore we can choose b = 2 in the change of base formula.
If 23 = 8 then log2 8 = 3 and if 25 = 32 then log2 32 = 5.
Page 24 of 33
Exponential Equations
Your notes
Solving Exponential Equations
What are exponential equations?
An exponential equation is an equation where the unknown is a power
In simple cases the solution can be spotted without the use of a calculator
For example,
52x = 125
2x = 3
3
x=
2
In more complicated cases the laws of logarithms should be used to solve exponential equations
The change of base law can be used to solve some exponential equations without a calculator
For example,
27x = 9
x = log27 9
log39
=
log3 27
2
=
3
How do we use logarithms to solve exponential equations?
An exponential equation can be solved by taking logarithms of both sides
The laws of indices may be needed to rewrite the equation first
The laws of logarithms can then be used to solve the equation
ln (loge) is often used
The answer is often written in terms of ln
A question my ask you to give your answer in a particular form
Follow these steps to solve exponential equations
STEP 1: Take logarithms of both sides
STEP 2: Use the laws of logarithms to remove the powers
STEP 3: Rearrange to isolate x
STEP 4: Use logarithms to solve for x
What about hidden quadratics?
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Look for hidden squared terms that could be changed to form a quadratic
In particular look out for terms such as
4x = (22)x = 22x = (2x)2 Your notes
e 2x = (e2)x = (ex)2
Exam Tip
Always check which form the question asks you to give your answer in, this can help you decide
how to solve it
If the question requires an exact value you may need to leave your answer as a logarithm
Page 26 of 33
Worked example
Your notes
Solve the equation 4x − 3(2x + 1) + 9 = 0 . Give your answer correct to three significant figures.
'Spot' the hidden quadratic by noticing that .
Rewrite the first term as a power of 2.
Rewrite the middle terms using the laws of indices: If
USing a substitution can make this easier to solve.
Let
Factorise.
Solve to find u and substitute 2x back in.
Solve the exponential equation 2x = 3 by taking logarithms of both sides.
Bring the power down using the law of logs .
Rearrange and solve.
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Your notes
Page 28 of 33
Transforming Relationships to Linear Form

Your notes
Transforming Relationships in the Form y=ax^n
How do I use logarithms to linearise a graph in the form y = axn?

Logarithms can be used to linearise graphs of power functions
Suppose y = ax n
You can take logarithms of both sides
lny = ln( ax n )
You can split the right hand side into the sum of two logarithms
lny = lna + ln(x n )
You can bring down the power in the final term
lny = lna + n lnx
lny = lna + n lnx is in linear form Y = mX + c
Y = lny
X = lnx
m=n
c = lna
How can I use linearised form to find the unknown constants?
After linearising the function it will be in the form lny = lna + n lnx
n is the gradient of the straight line graph
ln a is the y -intercept of the straight line graph
Once you know the value of the gradient of the straight line graph this is the value of n
You will need to find the value of a by solving the equation lna = c
Exam Tip
You may need to leave your answer in exact form, especially in the non-calculator paper
e.g. to solve ln a = 2 the answer will be a = e2
Page 29 of 33
Worked example
Your notes
The heights, h metres, and the amount of time spent sleeping, t hours, of a group of young giraffes
can be modelled using t = ah b , where a and b are constants.
The graph of ln h against ln t is a straight line passing through the points (1, -0.9) and (4, -4.5).
Find the values of a and b , giving your answers in exact form.
Find the gradient of the straight line between the two coordinates.
Substitute , and into the equation of a straight line (

).
Substitute either coordinate in and rearrange to find .
Compare this to the linearised form of .

Take logarithms of both sides first and rearrange if you can't remember the correct form.
So is the value in front of and .

Solve by taking of both sides.
Page 30 of 33
Transforming Relationships in the Form y=Ab^x

Your notes
How do I use logarithms to linearise a graph in the form y = A(bx)?
Logarithms can be used to linearise graphs of exponential functions
Suppose y = Ab x
You can take logarithms of both sides
log y = log (Ab x )
You can split the right hand side into the sum of two logarithms
log y = log A + log (b x )
You can bring down the power in the final term
log y = log A + x log b
log y = log A + x log b is in linear form Y = mX + c
Y = log y
X=x
m = log b
c = log A
How can I use linearised form to find the unknown constants?
After linearising the function it will be in the form log y = log A + x log b
log b is the gradient of the straight line graph ( m )
log A is the y -intercept of the straight line graph ( c )
You will need to find the value of A by solving the equation log A = c
The value of c will either be given or will need to be found
You will need to find the value of b by solving the equation log b = m
The value of m will either be given or will need to be found
Exam Tip
Unless the question specifies, you can choose whether to use ln, lg or log
Remember you will need to solve the equation at the end
If using lg, solve by taking 10 to the power of each side
If using ln, solve by taking e to the power of each side
Page 31 of 33
Worked example
Your notes
Variables x and y are such that when lg y is plotted against x , a straight line passing through the
points (2, 5) and (5, 8) is obtained.
Show that y = A × b x where A and b are constants to be found.

Find the gradient of the straight line between the two coordinates.
Substitute , and into the equation of a straight line ( ).
Substitute either coordinate in and rearrange to find .
Linearise .
Take logarithms of both sides first and rearrange if you can't remember the correct form.
Take logarithms of both sides.
Split the right-hand side into the sum of two logarithms.
Bring down the power in the final term.
Compare this to the equation of the line.
and
Solve by raising 10 to the power of both sides.
Page 32 of 33
Your notes
Solve by raising 10 to the power of both sides.
Page 33 of 33

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CIE IGCSE Additional Maths Your notes

Logarithmic & Exponential Functions

Exponential graphs when a > 1

What about when a ≤ 1?

What is the big deal with e?

The negative exponential graph

What is exponential growth and decay?

y = Aekx (k > 0) is exponential growth

Why use logarithms?

For example, for the equation 2x = 8 we know that x must be 3

How do I use logarithms?

Recognising the rules of logarithms allows expressions to be simplified

Recognition of common powers helps in simple cases

Calculators can have, possibly, three different logarithm buttons

Natural logarithms (see “e”)

Shortcut for base 10 although SHIFT button needed

What notation might I see with logarithms?

Take the natural logarithm of both sides.

Use the property that .

Divide both sides by 2.

There are also some particular results these lead to

Using the law we can rewrite as .

Using the law :

Using the index law ::

Using the law :

Compare the two sides.

Why change the base of a logarithm?

If 23 = 8 then log2 8 = 3 and if 25 = 32 then log2 32 = 5.

'Spot' the hidden quadratic by noticing that .

Rewrite the first term as a power of 2.

Rewrite the middle terms using the laws of indices: If

USing a substitution can make this easier to solve.

Solve to find u and substitute 2x back in.

Solve the exponential equation 2x = 3 by taking logarithms of both sides.

Bring the power down using the law of logs .

Rearrange and solve.

Transforming Relationships to Linear Form

How do I use logarithms to linearise a graph in the form y = axn?

Find the values of a and b , giving your answers in exact form.

Substitute , and into the equation of a straight line (

Substitute either coordinate in and rearrange to find .

Compare this to the linearised form of .

So is the value in front of and .

Transforming Relationships in the Form y=Ab^x

Show that y = A × b x where A and b are constants to be found.

Substitute , and into the equation of a straight line ( ).

Substitute either coordinate in and rearrange to find .

Split the right-hand side into the sum of two logarithms.

Bring down the power in the final term.

Compare this to the equation of the line.

Solve by raising 10 to the power of both sides.

Solve by raising 10 to the power of both sides.

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