Lecture 4

Kepler’s Laws
Creating a
Heliocentric Model
of the Solar System
Let’s try to leave here today…
• State Kepler’s 3 laws of planetary motion
• Describe what the semi-major axis of an ellipse
represents

• Define the “Astronomical Unit” (AU)

• Explain how Kepler’s 3rd law enables us to measure
the masses of star, planets, and other objects in the
Universe

• Use Kepler’s 3rd law to calculate the orbital period of

a object given its semi-major axis and vice versa

• The orbital period of an object orbiting the Sun only

depends on that orbit’s semi-major axis; it does not
depend on the object’s mass.

• As the semi-major axis gets bigger, the period also

gets bigger, but by a larger factor.
Mars/Mercury in Retrograde!
 Mars/Mercury in Retrograde!

• An actual email I received from a mailing list by a friend:

• “I might be wrong about mercury retrograde...
There is some sort of portal opening. I know, I know... Mercury Retrograde started yesterday and
people always freak out about it, but based on what’s happening for me - I think it might be
getting a bad rap this time.

• Yesterday (start of MR…) something magical happened to both my partner and I separately -
and the thing they had in common was they were both related to podcasts, manifestation, and
the consistency of our work….”

•
The puzzle of retrograde planetary motion:
• planets move generally west-to-east across the sky
• sometimes they go “retrograde” and loop backwards
Heliocentric vs Geocentric
models of the Solar System

Heliocentric
Geocentric
 Two explanations for retrograde loops of the planets:

Heliocentric Geocentric
The Sun is ‘motionless’. Planets orbit The Earth is motionless. Stars orbit on
around it, with ones closer to the Sun a sphere. Planets orbit on circles
moving faster. Stars are far away. orbiting on circles.
 Two explanations for retrograde loops of the planets:

“Hey, everyone! We could

explain the apparent motion
of the planets if all the
planets orbit the Sun and we
see them from an Earth
that's also moving.”
(not a direct quote)

Aristarchus (320-230 BC)

Heliocentric
The Sun is ‘motionless’. Planets orbit
around it, with ones closer to the Sun
moving faster. Stars are far away.
Two explanations for retrograde loops of the planets:

“This model predicts we

should see the stars
wobbling back and forth on
the sky, as Earth orbits the
Sun.”
(not a direct quote)

Aristarchus (320-230 BC)

Heliocentric
The Sun is ‘motionless’. Planets orbit
around it, with ones closer to the Sun
moving faster. Stars are far away.
As Earth orbits around the Sun, by how much
does the closest star wobble on the sky?

The closest star Proxima Centauri is

4.2 lightyears = 2.6x105 AU away.
(Does it matter whether we measure
from the Sun or from the Earth?)
If the closest star wobbles by 0.8” on the sky over
a year, all the other more distant stars should:

?
A. wobble more
B. wobble the same amount
C. wobble less
If the closest star wobbles by 0.8” on the sky over
a year, all the other more distant stars should:

?
A. wobble more
B. wobble the same amount
C. wobble less
How big of an angle is 0.8”?
A. small

?
B. very small
C. tiny
D. so tiny that no human can see it
with their eyes
E. all of the above
How big of an angle is 0.8”?
A. small

?
B. very small
C. tiny
D. so tiny that no human can see it
with their eyes
E. all of the above
Two explanations for retrograde loops of the planets:

“Hmmm….we don't see Aristarchus (320-230 BC)

stars wobbling on the sky
as Earth orbits around
Heliocentric the Sun. Back to the
The Sun is ‘motionless’. Planets orbit
around it, with ones closer to the Sun
drawing board…”
(not a direct quote) everyone
moving faster. Stars are far away.
Two explanations for retrograde loops of the planets:

“Folks, it doesn’t look

like the Earth is
moving. Here is a
model that explains all
our observations.
Planets ride on circles
that ride on circles
that orbit Earth.”
(not a direct quote)

Geocentric
The Earth is motionless. Stars orbit on
Ptolemy (100-170 AD)
a sphere. Planets orbit on circles
orbiting on circles.
Two explanations for retrograde loops of the planets:

“This model matches

the data we have, and
it uses those circles
and spheres that we
all like so much.”
(not a direct quote)

Geocentric
The Earth is motionless. Stars orbit on
Ptolemy (100-170 AD)
a sphere. Planets orbit on circles
orbiting on circles.
In addition to apparent retrograde motion,
the geocentric model could explain…
A. day and night on Earth
B. seasons
C. lunar phases
D. day and night on Earth and seasons
?
E. all of the above
In addition to apparent retrograde motion,
the geocentric model could explain…
A. day and night on Earth
B. seasons
C. lunar phases
D. day and night on Earth and seasons
?
E. all of the above
The geocentric model
was good enough to
explain the data…
 …but the predictions
of Ptolemy’s model got
Mars worse over time.

They could be made

more accurate by
Earth adding more and more
“epicycles”, but then
calculating planetary
positions became very
complicated!
 “Wait, I got it! What if the
Earth and planets orbit
around the Sun in circles?
It'd be simpler to calculate
than all these epicycles.”
(not a direct quote)

Copernicus (1472-1543 AD)

actual position of Mars in the sky
 All measurements
are uncertain.

These Mars
measurements of
measurements of are uncertain by
Mars in the sky about 1˚.

actual position of Mars in the sky

measurements of
Mars in the sky
 Which model
best explains
these data?

?
l e s s
i rc cl e
ic c i cy
n t r e p
ce t r ic
e l i o e n
h o c
i t h g e
n w i t h
c t i o n w
d i t i o
p re d i c
.
A .p re
B
 s Without precise
rc le l e s
c i c y c data, we can’t tell
t r ic p i
e n i c e these models apart.
i oc n t r
h l
e oc e
t h e Both are fine!
w i h g
o n w i t
i c t i n
e d c t i o
r
p red i
p
 “I made a bunch of
measurements of the planets
that are way more precise
than ever before!”
(not a direct quote)

Tycho Brahe (1546-1601 AD)

 With Tycho's more
precise data, neither
model accurately
explained the
planets’ positions.
 l e s s With Tycho's more
irc c l e
i c c i c y precise data, neither
n t r e p
c e t r ic model accurately
l i
e oc o e n
h explained the
i t h g e
n w i t h planets’ positions.
c t i o n w
d i t i o
re
p red i c
p
 Kepler’s elliptical
s e s
l l ip heliocentric orbits
i c e
e ntr were simple to
l ioc calculate, and they
h e could explain all
i t h
n w the data!
c t i o
d i
p re
 “We can explain all the
motions of the planets with
three simple laws. Maybe
people will name them after
me someday?”
(not a direct quote)

Johannes Kepler (1571-1630 AD)

 Kepler’s 1st Law:
Each planet orbits the Sun in Kepler’s First Law
an ellipse with the Sun at
one focus.
The orbit of every object (planets, comets,
asteroids, etc.) around the Sun is an ellipse
with the Sun at one focus.

closest approach to Sun farthest approach to Sun

average distance to Sun

Johannes Kepler (1571-1630 AD)

Kepler’s First Law
The orbit of every object
(planets, comets, asteroids, etc.)
around the Sun is an ellipse with
the Sun at one focus.
 Astronomical Unit
• 1 astronomical unit (AU) = average distance between Earth
and the Sun (150 million km)
Eccentricity

eccentricity – how much an ellipse

deviates from a perfect circle (e = 0
for circle, e = 1 for a straight line)

The more “squished” the ellipse,

the greater its eccentricity.
Kepler’s First Law
 Kepler’s 2nd Law:
A planet moves faster near the Sun and
slower farther away, sweeping out equal
areas in equal time.

Johannes Kepler (1571-1630 AD)

Kepler’s 2nd Law
Planets move faster
when they are closer
to the Sun and slower
when they are far
away.

Note: The orbit shown

at right is NOT what
Earth’s orbit looks like.
Kepler’s Second Law - Equal areas in Equal Time
 Eccentricity = 0 Eccentricity = 0.2

Orbits of planets with varying eccentricities. The red ray rotates at a constant angular velocity
and with the same orbital time period as the planet, . S: Sun at the primary focus, C: Centre of
ellipse, S': The secondary focus. In each case, the area of all sectors depicted is identical.
By Mkwadee - Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=116376382
 Eccentricity = 0 Eccentricity = 0.8

Orbits of planets with varying eccentricities. The red ray rotates at a constant angular velocity
and with the same orbital time period as the planet, . S: Sun at the primary focus, C: Centre of
ellipse, S': The secondary focus. In each case, the area of all sectors depicted is identical.
By Mkwadee - Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=116376382
 Kepler’s 3rd Law:
More distant planets take longer to orbit the
Sun, so that the (period)2 is proportional to Kepler’s 3rd law
the (semimajor axis)3.

P 2
∝ a 3

( GM )
2 4π 3
P = a
Johannes Kepler (1571-1630 AD)
 Kepler’s 3rd Law
The orbital period P of an object is related to the semi-major axis a of its
orbit and the mass M of whatever it is orbiting by the following expression:

4𝜋 𝑎 2 3 a is the semi-major axis

2
𝑃 = of the object’s orbit
𝐺𝑀
P is the orbital period (the
time it takes for the object
to complete 1 orbit)
M is the mass of whatever
is being orbited
G is Newton’s gravitation constant
= 6.67 x 10-11 m3 kg-1 s-2 (You do not
need to memorize this number.)
 Kepler’s 3rd Law
If the following are ALL true:
• The object is orbiting the Sun;
• The semi-major axis a is measured in astronomical units (AU);
• The period P is measured in years
then
2

( 𝐺𝑀 )
2 4𝜋 3
𝑃 = 𝑎

All of this = 1.

This means we can write Kepler’s 3rd law as just P2 = a3!

 Kepler’s 3rd Law:
More distant planets take longer to orbit the
Sun, so that the (period)2 is proportional to Simplified Kepler’s 3rd law
the (semimajor axis)3.
To use the simplified version of Kepler’s 3rd law the
following assumptions must be true:

1) If we are given the period in years, 2)

2) the distance in AU, and
3) it’s for objects the Sun

✓ ◆2 ⇣ a ⌘3
P
=
1 yr 1 AU
Johannes Kepler (1571-1630 AD)
 Calculations with Kepler’s 3 rd Law
2 3
𝑃 =𝑎
If you are solving for If you are solving for
the orbital period: the semi-major axis:

𝑎 = (𝑃 )
1/3
𝑃 = (𝑎 ) 3 1/2 2
Note: This is the
…which is the
…which is the simplified version of
same as…
same as… Kepler’s 3rd law. If one
or more of the
3/2 assumptions aren’t true,
2/3
𝑃=𝑎 use the full version. 𝑎=𝑃
 Kepler’s 3rd Law:
More distant planets take longer to orbit the
Sun, so that the (period)2 is proportional to Full Kepler’s 3rd law
the (semimajor axis)3.

( GM )
2 4π 3
P = a

Use this version when in doubt

Johannes Kepler (1571-1630 AD)

 Typical Test Question
Earth Moon
Orbital Period Semi-major Axis Orbital Period Semi-major Axis
3.16 x 107 s 149.60 x 109 m 2.36 x 106 s 3.84 x 108 m

The table above shows the orbital period and semi-major axis of Earth’s orbit around
the Sun and the orbital period and semi-major axis of the Moon’s orbit around Earth.
Which of the following best completes this sentence: The data for Earth’s orbit can be
used to calculate the mass of ___ and the data for the Moon’s orbit can be used to
calculate the mass of ___.

A) the Sun; Earth

B) Earth; the Sun
C) the Moon; the Earth
D) the Earth; the Moon
E) the Sun; the Moon
 Typical Test Question

Which of the following best describes what would happen if Mercury

and Jupiter were to switch places in their orbits around the Sun?

A) Jupiter in it’s new orbit would have a shorter orbital period than
before.
B) Mercury in it’s new would have a shorter orbital period than
before.
C) Neither planet would experience a change in its orbital period.
D) We cannot answer this question without knowing the masses of
Mercury and Jupiter.
 Typical Test Question

Imagine you find an asteroid with the orbit shown in the Sun
figure at right. Which of the following statements is
true?

A) The asteroid would take longer than Earth to 2 AU

complete one orbit around the Sun.
B) The asteroid would take the same amount of time
as Earth to complete one orbit around the Sun. asteroid
C) The asteroid would take less time than Earth to
complete one orbit around the Sun. (not to scale)
D) There is not enough information to compare the
orbital periods of the asteroid and Earth.
 Typical Test Question
Imagine you discover a new planet whose orbit around
the Sun has a semi-major axis of 0.5 AU. Which of the
following best describes the orbital period of the new
planet?

A) It is less than 0.5 year.

B) It is exactly 0.5 year.
C) It is between 0.5 year and 2 years.
D) It is exactly 2 years.
E) It is greater than 2 years.
The dwarf planet 2008 ST291 has a semimajor axis a=100 AU and
eccentricity of e=0.57. What’s the farthest it gets from the Sun?

A. 57 AU
B. 100 AU
C. 157 AU
D. 175 AU
?
E. Ack! I don’t know where to begin!
The dwarf planet 2008 ST291 has a semimajor axis a=100 AU and
eccentricity of e=0.57. What’s the farthest it gets from the Sun?

A. 57 AU
B. 100 AU
C. 157 AU
D. 175 AU
?
E. Ack! I don’t know where to begin!
The dwarf planet 2008 ST291 has a semimajor
axis a=100 AU. What is its orbital period?
A. 10 years

?
✓ ◆2 ⇣ a ⌘3
B. 100 years P
=
C. 1000 years 1 yr 1 AU
D. 10 4 years
E. Ack! I don’t know where to begin!
 Typical Test Question
Imagine you discover a new planet whose orbit around
the Sun has a period of 5 years. What is the semi-
major axis of the new planet’s orbit?

A) 2.9 AU
B) 11 AU
C) 25 AU
D) 62.5 AU
E) 125 AU
How did astronomers rule out
the geocentric model?
• The fact that Kepler’s ellipses fit Tycho Brahe’s more
accurate data supported Kepler’s theory.

• The fact that Ptolemy’s epicycles needed more and more

parameters to fit the more precise data raised doubts
about Ptolemy’s theory.

• There was no cast-iron proof for or against either theory.

 Announcements
• Readings are: Chapters 2.4, 3.1-3.3, and 4.6
• There will be a quiz this week!